Superposition theorem

The current through or the voltage across any element of an electrical network is equal to the
algebraic sum of the currents or voltages produced by each source independently. The theorem
allows us to find current/voltage using one source at a time. Once we have solution for each
source, we can combine the results to obtain the total value. When we consider one source the
other sources are removed. When a voltage source is removed, it is replaced by a short circuit of
zero resistance. Any internal resistance associated with the voltage source should remain in the
circuit. When a current source is removed, it is replaced by an open circuit of infinite resistance.
Any internal resistance associated with the source must remain in the circuit.

Fig. 1 Removal of voltage and current source

Since the effect of each source will be determined independently, the number of networks will be
equal to the number of sources. Currents in the same direction are added and in opposite
direction are subtracted, net current being in the direction of larger sum and magnitude of the
difference. Voltages with same polarity are added and that with opposite polarity are subtracted,
net voltage having the polarity of larger sum and magnitude of the difference.

Exercise
With an example, show that the total power delivered to the load cannot be calculated using the
superposition principle.
Thevenin’s theorem
Any two terminal dc network can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting solely of a
voltage source and a series resistor. The theorem helps the reduction of complex network to a
simpler form for analysis and design.
Flow chart for Thevenin’s theorem
1. Remove the load resistor RL temporarily.
2. Mark the terminals of the remaining 2-terminal network
3. Calculate the Thevenin’s resistance Rth by removing all the sources (voltage source by
short circuit and current source by open circuits).
4. Calculate the Thevenin’s voltage Eth by returning all sources and finding the open circuit
voltage between the marked terminals.

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 5. Draw Thevenin’s equivalent circuit by connecting previously removed circuit (may be Rl)
across the two terminals.

Norton’s theorem
(EL Norton, 1920)

Any two terminal network can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source
and parallel resistor. Every voltage source with a series resistance has a current source
equivalent. The current source equivalent can be determined by the Norton’s theorem.

Program for Norton’s equivalent circuits

Calculate Norton’s resistance by setting all sources to zero. Voltage sources are replaced by short
circuits and current sources are replaced by open circuits. Then the resultant resistance is found
between the marked terminals. The internal resistances of the sources must remain. 𝑅𝑁 = 𝑅𝑡ℎ .

Calculate the Norton current IN by returning all sources to their positions and then finding the
short circuit current between the marked terminals. It is the same current that would be
measured by an ammeter connected between the marked terminals.

Draw the equivalent circuit, with portion of the circuit previously removed replaced between the
terminals of the equivalent circuit.

Maximum power transfer theorem

While designing a circuit, one should ask “what load should be applied to a system to ensure that
the load is receiving maximum power from the system?” For a particular load, what conditions
should be imposed on the source to ensure that it will deliver the maximum power available.

The theorem states that a load will receive maximum power from a network when its resistance
is exactly equal to the Thevenin’s resistance of the network applied to the load.

Corollary

(i) Maximum power transfer occurs when the load voltage and the load current are one
half their maximum values.

(ii) In maximum power transfer condition, the dc operating efficiency is 50%.

Homework

Derive maximum power transfer condition for Norton’s equivalent circuit and calculate the
maximum power.

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Important characteristics of a pn junction diode

What are we going to discuss?

(i) Schematic symbol of a pn-junction diode

(ii) Diode circuit, diode characteristics, knee voltage
(iii) Bulk resistance
(iv) Maximum dc forward current
(v) Power dissipation

Bulk resistance
After the barrier voltage is overcome all that impedes the current is the ohmic resistance of the
pn regions. The sum of the ohmic resistance is the bulk resistance of the diode. The bulk
resistance is given by 𝑅𝐵 = 𝑅𝑝 + 𝑅𝑛 , where Rp and Rn are the ohmic resistance of p and n-
regions, respectively. The bulk resistance of a diode depends on the size of the diode and the
dopant concentrations. Often 𝑅𝐵 ≤ 1.0 ohm.

Maximum dc forward current

This is the maximum dc current that the diode can safely handle in forward bias conditions. This
is usually provided in the diode data sheet with a symbol Imax, I0 or Ifmax, etc. For example, for
1N456 diode, I0=135 mA.

Power dissipation

The power dissipation of a diode is given by 𝑃𝐷 = 𝑉𝐷 𝐼𝐷 . The power rating of a diode is given by
the maximum power that the diode can handle without shortening its life or degrading its
properties. 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 . Typical values are, 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2.0 𝑊, 𝑉𝑚 = 1.0 𝑉, 𝐼𝑚 = 2.0 𝐴.

Metal-semiconductor junction diode

Metal-semiconductor junction diodes can be fabricated by joining (depositing) metals such as

Au, Pt, Al, Sn on the surfaces of semiconductors such as Si and GaAs. The metal semiconductor
diode is also known as the Schottky diode. A Schottky diode has less forward voltage drop. It is
used in high speed switching applications. The barrier formed at the M/S interface is known as
the Schottky barrier.

Advantages of Schottky diode over pn junction diode

(i) Schottky diodes can switch on and off much faster than the pn-junction diode.
(ii) It produces less unwanted noise compared to pn-junction diode.

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 (iii) A Schottky diode has less forward voltage drop. A Si pn-junction diode has forward
voltage drop of 0.7 V, whereas, a Schottky diode has a forward voltage drop of 0.2-
0.3 V only. In this way, a Schottky diode consumes less power. The forward voltage
drop of Ge diode is same as that of a Schottky diode, but, the switching speed of Ge
diode is very low compared to Schottky diode.
(iv) Because of fast switching property Schottky diodes are used in high frequency
switching circuits. The time taken to switch from OFF to ON is known as reverse
recovery time. In order to switch from the OFF to ON state, the charge stored in the
depletion region should be removed/discharged at first. The pn-diode doesn’t switch
off immediately because it takes time to remove charges from both sides of the
depletion region. The depletion width in Schottky diode is small. So, the charges can
be removed very fast.
(v) Since the current is carried by electron only, it is a unipolar device (the pn-diode is a
bipolar device because the current is carried by both electrons and the holes). The
current density is higher due to very small depletion width. The depletion region is
single sided, it is in the semiconductor side only because the electron density is very
high in the metal side compared to that in the semiconductor side.
𝑛𝑚 𝑥𝑚 = 𝑛𝑠𝑐 𝑥𝑠𝑐 , 𝑏𝑢𝑡, 𝑛𝑚 ≫ 𝑛𝑠𝑐 , ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑥𝑚 ≪ 𝑥𝑠𝑐

Disadvantages of Schottky diode

(i) The reverse breakdown voltage is small compared to that of the pn-junction diode.
(ii) The reverse saturation current is large compared to that of the pn-junction diode.

Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

Doping level and physical sizes: The emitter is heavily doped (1016-1019 cm-3). The base is
lightly doped (1013-1014 cm-3) and the doping level of collector is intermediate. Collector is
physically largest followed by emitter and the base is the thinnest part of the transistor in order to
minimize the recombination.

Currents: Since the emitter is the source of transistor current, it has the largest current IE. Since
most of the current goes to the collector, collector current IC is also large. The base current is
often small, less than 1% of IE or IC.

𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝐶 , 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐼𝐵 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙, 𝐼𝐸 ≈ 𝐼𝐶

Two parameters related to transistor currents;

𝐼
Alpha, 𝛼𝐷𝐶 = 𝐼𝐶
𝐸
Typically, 𝛼𝐷𝐶 = 0.99 − 0.95

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 𝐼
Beta, 𝛽𝐷𝐶 = 𝐼 𝐶 = 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐵

For low power transistor, current gain is 100-300 and for high power transistor it is 20-100.

Collector curves of a BJT

The plot of collector current IC as a function of collector-emitter voltage VCE with base current as
a parameter is known as the collector curve (characteristic). The collector characteristic of a BJT
has three regions: (i) Saturation region, (ii) Active regions and (iii) Breakdown region. The
transistor may operate in another region (mode) known as cutoff mode which is preferred for
switching applications.

(i) Saturation region: The early rising part of the curve where VCE is small (a few tenth of
a volt) is called the saturation region of the collector curve. In this region the collector
has insufficient positive voltage to collect the free electrons from the emitter.

(ii) Active region: The horizontal region in the middle (typically for VCE=1-40 V) is
known as the active region which represents the normal operation of the transistor. In
this region the emitter diode is forward biased and the collector diode is reverse
biased. Collector gathers all the electrons from the emitter. Therefore, change in VCE
has no effect on the collector current. Active region is most important because
amplification of signal is possible in active region.

(iii) Breakdown region: When the VCE is high (more than 40 V typically for Si-npn
transistor), the transistor breaks down and normal transistor action is lost. This region
is known as the breakdown region and a normal transistor is not intended to operate
in this region. The transistor is damaged if operated in breakdown region.

(iv) Cutoff region: In this case the base current is very small and the collector current is
almost zero throughout the active region. This is important for application of a
transistor as a switch.

Transistor power dissipation

The power dissipation for a transistor is given by, 𝑃𝐷 = 𝑉𝐶𝐸 𝐼𝐶 . The power dissipation causes the
junction temperature to rise. Higher the power dissipation, higher is the junction temperature.
The transistor will burn out if the junction temperature is 150-200 °C.

Power rating of a transistor

The maximum power dissipation that certain transistor can handle without being damaged at a
particular temperature is known as the power rating of that transistor. For a transistor at room
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temperature (25 °C), the power rating is a few 100 mW. It is denoted as PD, max, for example, PD,
max for 2N3904 silicon diode is 625 mW at 25 °C.

Power ratings at TA and TC:

Here TA and TC are the ambient and casing temperature respectively. The power ratings are
different for a given TA or TC. This means, for example, the power rating for 2N3904 silicon
transistor are 625 mW and 1.5 W for TA=25 °C and TC=25 °C, respectively. If the casing
temperature is 25 °C or can be maintained at 25 °C by fan cooling or using heat sinks then the
power rating is 1.5 W. This is because the transistor always get heated by collector current and
its casing temperature is higher than the ambient temperature. The small signal transistor 2N3904
have a power rating 1.5 W provided its casing temperature can be reduced to 25 °C by fan
cooling or by using heat sinks.

Safety factor

The above factor shows the allowed range of operation for a transistor as specified by
manufacturer. A safety factor 2 for 2N3904 means the transistor is allowed to operate below 312
mW.

Derating factor
The derating factor tells us how much we have to reduce the power rating of a device for every
one degree increase in ambient temperature. For 2N3904 transistor, the derating factor is 5
mW/°C. This means the power rating should be decreased by 5 mW for every one degree
increase in the ambient temperature above 25 °C. The power rating for 2N3904 is 625 mW at
ambient temperature TA= 25 °C. The power ratings are 620 mW, 615 mW and 610 mW at 26 °C,
27 °C and 28 °C, respectively.

Examples
1. A 2N3904 transistor is operating with VCE=10 V, IC=20 mA. What is the power
dissipation and how safe is this power dissipation if the ambient temperature is 25 °C?
Given, PD, max = 625 mW at 25 °C.

Here, power dissipation, 𝑃D = 200 𝑚𝑊. Hence, the transistor is in safe condition.

2. What is the power rating for a 2N3904 transistor when the ambient temperature is 100
°C, given the derating factor is 5 mW/°C?

We know that 2N3904 has a power rating of 625 mW at 25 °C. Reduction in power
rating required, Δ𝑝 = 5(100 − 25) = 375 𝑚𝑊.
Hence, power rating at 100 °C is 625 mW-375 mW= 250 mW.