INTRODUCTION

A paradigm is a set of practices, beliefs, values, techniques, and shared

assumptions that define a scientific discipline at a particular time. It provides a
framework within which scientists operate, guiding what questions are
considered valid, how experiments are conducted, and how results are interpreted.
The term was popularized by Thomas S. Kuhn, an American historian of science,
in his influential book "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions" (1962).
Kuhn described a paradigm as the "entire constellation of beliefs, values,
techniques, and so on shared by the members of a given community."

Thomas Kuhn's conception of science and paradigm shifts is a fundamental

contribution to the philosophy of science and the understanding of scientific
progression. What you've described is a comprehensive explanation of Kuhn's
paradigm model, which essentially says that the evolution of scientific knowledge
isn't linear but rather consists of intermittent periods of conceptual consensus
(normal science) punctuated by scientific revolutions.
During the pre-paradigm phase, there is no consensus on any one approach;
instead, several competing viewpoints exist. Once a paradigm is established
through the professionalization phase, scientists engage in normal science, which
is research firmly based upon one or more past scientific achievements that are
recognized by a specific scientific community as supplying the foundation for its
further practice.
In the paradigm phase, most work is done to flesh out and embellish the dominant
understanding, articulating the paradigm further within the context of a defined
set of puzzles that it can solve. During this phase, the community dismisses
anomalies or observations that don't fit the paradigm.
However, over time, these anomalies accumulate and lead to a crisis phase—
revolution. In the crisis phase, scientists begin to question the adequacy of the
existing paradigm because of its inability to explain the growing number of
anomalies convincingly. This may lead to the formation of new theoretical
attempts to explain the data, and eventually, one successful new theory—or
paradigm—displaces the old one, leading to a paradigm shift.
Kuhn's model suggests that these revolutions are not just about changes in
scientific theories but also changes in the rules of the game, the standards by
which scientific truth is evaluated, and even the language and metaphors through
which scientists understand their subject.
Importantly, Kuhn's theory implies that there is no simple progressive
accumulation of knowledge leading to an ultimate truth. Instead, the scientific
endeavour is subject to the historical turns and twists that accompany any human
activity, and the reigning paradigm heavily influences how scientific data is
interpreted and what is considered a valid scientific question.
Kuhn's work has had a significant influence on our understanding of the history
and philosophy of science, reframing the scholarly discourse on how science
changes and progresses and explaining why scientific disciplines often resist
fundamental changes or new ideas until the weight of evidence forces a shift in
the dominant perspective.

PARADIGM OF GEOGRAPHY
The development of geographical thought has not been a smooth, continuous
journey. Periods of intellectual progress have often been interrupted by times of
stability or decline. Using Thomas Kuhn's model as a framework, we can
understand the evolution of geographical thought through various stages, each
marked by shifts in paradigms. Six main Paradigm Phases, each followed by a
Crisis Phase, can be identified throughout the history of geography up to modern
times. Notably, these paradigm shifts have occurred more rapidly in recent
periods compared to earlier times.
 PARADIGMATIC SHIFT IN GEOGRAPHIC DEVELOPMENT
Pre-Paradigm Phase: Scholarly Observations of the Eastern and the Western
Civilizations (Ancient Period)
Professionalization Phase: Concentration of Geographical Research in the west
(Ancient Period)
PP-1: Paradigm Phase-1: Period of Greeks and Romans (up to 500 A.D.)
CP-1: Crisis Phase-1: Dark Age in Europe (500-1100 A.D.)
PP-2: Paradigm Phase-2: Rise of Arab School of Thought (800-1450 A.D.)
CP-2: Crisis Phase-2: Age of Discovery (1450-1650)
PP-3: Paradigm Phase-3: Dominance of German School of Thought (1650-
1859)
CP-3: Crisis Phase-3: Emergence of Dualistic Tendencies in Geography (late
19th Century)
PP-4: Paradigm Phase-4: Rise of Determinism (late 19th century-1920s)
CP-4: Crisis Phase-4: Criticism to Determinism and Paradigmatic Shift to
Human from Physical (Early 20th Century)
PP-5: Paradigm Phase-5: Dominance of French School of Thought and Rise of
Possibilism (1930s-W.W. II)
CP-5: Crisis Phase-5: Quantitative Revolution (1940-1970)
PP-6: Paradigm Phase-6: Rise of Behavioural and Humanistic Approaches
(1970-2000)
CP-6: Crisis Phase-6: Methodological Revolution (Computer Based) in the 21st
century

• Pre-Paradigm Phase: Scholarly Observations of the

Eastern and the Western Civilizations (Ancient
Period)
The study of ancient Eastern and Western civilizations during the pre-paradigm
phase involves understanding the foundational intellectual and philosophical
developments that predate the establishment of formal scientific paradigms. This
phase, often referred to in the context of Thomas Kuhn’s theory of scientific
revolutions, is characterized by a diversity of thought and the lack of a dominant
framework guiding inquiry and interpretation.
Eastern Civilizations
In the Eastern context, ancient civilizations such as those in India and China
developed rich traditions of philosophical and scientific thought. Indian
civilization produced significant texts in philosophy, astronomy, and
mathematics, such as the Vedas and the works of scholars like Aryabhata. Chinese
civilization contributed through Confucianism, Taoism, and advancements in
astronomy, medicine, and engineering. Both civilizations emphasized holistic and
integrative approaches to understanding the universe, often intertwining
metaphysical and empirical observations.
Western Civilizations
Western ancient civilizations, particularly those in Greece and Rome, are
renowned for their contributions to philosophy, science, and political thought.
Greek philosophers like Plato and Aristotle laid the groundwork for Western
intellectual traditions, emphasizing rationality and empirical observation. The
Roman period furthered these ideas, integrating Greek knowledge into a broader
context and applying it to engineering, law, and governance.

• Professionalization Phase: Concentration of

Geographical Research in the west (Ancient Period)
The geographical knowledge during this period was primarily centered around
the regions of Western Asia, Egypt, and Europe, with contributions from various
cultural groups such as the Sumerians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Phoenicians,
Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans.
Greek and Roman Contributions: Homer, the Greek scholar, is often credited
with the beginning of geographical writings, but the earliest known maps date
back to the Pre-Greek civilizations, particularly the Sumerians, around 2700 B.C.
The scholars of Babylon had also made significant advancements in astronomical
observations, collecting vast amounts of data on the motions of stars and planets.
They conceptualized that the positions of celestial bodies had a profound impact
on human society.
Overall, the concentration of geographical research in the Western regions during
the Ancient Period was a result of the interactions and developments among early
civilizations in Western Asia, Egypt, and Europe. These regions served as centers
of innovation and knowledge production, shaping our understanding of the world
for centuries to come.

PP-1: Paradigm Phase-1: Period of Greeks and Romans (up to

500 A.D.)
During the Paradigm Phase-1, spanning up to 500 A.D., the focus of geographical
research shifted towards the contributions of the Greeks and Romans. This period
was characterized by significant advancements in geographical knowledge and
exploration, driven by the intellectual pursuits of scholars and the expansion of
empires. Here are the key points:
• Greek Geographical Contributions:
• Greek scholars such as Herodotus, often referred to as the "Father of
History," made substantial contributions to geography through their
writings and observations.
• Eratosthenes, a Greek mathematician and geographer, calculated the
Earth's circumference with remarkable accuracy.
• Strabo's "Geography" provided a comprehensive overview of the
known world at that time.
• Roman Geographical Contributions:
• Roman conquests and administrative needs led to the mapping and
documentation of vast territories, facilitating trade and governance.
• Ptolemy's "Geography" synthesized geographical knowledge of the
ancient world and introduced the use of latitude and longitude for
mapping.
• Exploration and Expansion:
• Greek and Roman explorers ventured into distant lands, expanding
geographical knowledge through firsthand observations and
cartographic endeavours.
• Roman roads and trade routes facilitated communication and
exchange of geographical information across their vast empire.
• Cartography and Mapmaking:
• The Greeks and Romans refined techniques of mapmaking,
producing detailed maps of their territories and beyond.
 • Ptolemy's world maps, although imperfect by modern standards, laid
the groundwork for later cartographic developments.

CP-1: Crisis Phase-1: Dark Age in Europe (500-1100 A.D.)

There was a decline in geographical knowledge and exploration. People's focus
shifted towards religious thinking, and the once wide-ranging Greek and
Phoenician explorations were largely forgotten, except among Arabic scholars. In
Christian monasteries, observations were made, but there wasn't much interest in
forming new interpretations.
This period, known as the Dark Ages, saw little progress in geography. Scientific
learning slowed down, and there was a regression in intellectual pursuits. The
approach to science, including geography, became heavily influenced by religion,
with the world being interpreted to fit Biblical references.
Map-making suffered during this time. Earlier accurate maps made by Greeks
and Romans were lost, replaced by fanciful and unscientific maps. The most
popular type of map during this period was the 'T-in-O' map, which was more
decorative than accurate. These maps ignored concepts like the Earth's spherical
shape and accurate distances between places.
While Europe was going through the Dark Ages, the Arab School of Thought was
flourishing, making significant advancements in various fields, including
geography.

PP-2: Paradigm Phase-2: Rise of Arab School of Thought

(800-1450 A.D.)
It is an intriguing period in history, marked by significant advancements in
various fields such as science, mathematics, philosophy, medicine, and literature.
During this era, the Arab world experienced a flourishing intellectual renaissance,
building upon the knowledge inherited from ancient civilizations like Greece,
Persia, and India.
One of the most remarkable aspects of this period was the translation movement,
where Arab scholars translated numerous works from Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, and
other languages into Arabic. These translated texts laid the foundation for further
developments and innovations within the Arab intellectual tradition.
In the realm of mathematics, figures like Al-Khwarizmi made groundbreaking
contributions, especially in algebra and algorithm development. Al-Kindi, often
regarded as the first Arab philosopher, contributed significantly to various
branches of philosophy, including metaphysics, ethics, and logic.
In medicine, figures like Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Ibn al-Nafis made substantial
advancements in understanding human anatomy, pharmacology, and medical
ethics. Their works, such as "The Canon of Medicine" by Ibn Sina, became
influential texts not only in the Arab world but also in Europe during the Middle
Ages.
Moreover, this period witnessed a flourishing of literature, with celebrated poets
like Al-Mutanabbi and philosophers like Ibn Rushd (Averroes) leaving a lasting
impact on Arabic literature and thought.
Overall, Paradigm Phase-2 represents a pivotal era where the Arab world played
a central role in preserving, translating, and advancing knowledge, contributing
significantly to the intellectual landscape of human civilization.

CP-2: Crisis Phase-2: Age of Discovery (1450-1650)

It was heavily influenced by the insights of Arab scholars, igniting a great era of
exploration in the late 15th century, which expanded the world's geographic
knowledge. The era was characterized by the discovery of new lands,
advancements in cartography leading to more accurate maps, and the introduction
of various scientific and technological innovations.
This period witnessed the formation of geographical societies to finance
expeditions and promote research in the field. With improvements in navigation
techniques and the use of the magnetic compass, exploration became increasingly
popular, leading to the emergence of great explorers who charted previously
unknown territories. Geography benefited immensely from the accumulation of
vast amounts of new information about the world.
Revisions and enhancements to ancient maps, such as those by Ptolemy, led to
the creation of more complete and accurate world maps and globes. The
introduction of Mercator's projection in 1569 further improved map-making
techniques.
Moreover, the Age of Discovery coincided with significant developments in other
fields, including the establishment of the heliocentric model of the universe by
Copernicus, astronomical observations, the formulation of Newton's laws of
gravitation, and the invention of the printing press, which sparked a scientific
revolution. This period not only transformed geographical knowledge but also
revolutionized thinking and ideas across various disciplines.
These advancements laid the groundwork for a transition from the medieval to
the modern era, marked by the emergence of the first modern schools of thought
in geography, notably the German and French schools. The Renaissance period
signalled the end of a stagnant phase in geographic development, leading to a
resurgence of scholarly research in the discipline.

PP-3: Paradigm Phase-3: Dominance of German School of

Thought (1650-1859)
Marks a significant period in the history of geography where German geographers
played a central role in shaping the discipline. This era witnessed the rise of
systematic and scientific approaches to the study of geography, laying the
groundwork for modern physical geography.
Key features of this paradigm phase include:
1. Systematic Study: German geographers emphasized systematic study and
classification of geographical features, seeking to organize and categorize
the diversity of landscapes and environments across the globe. This
approach aimed to establish rigorous methods for understanding the Earth's
surface and its processes.
2. Advancements in Cartography: German cartographers made significant
advancements in map-making techniques, contributing to the production
of more accurate and detailed maps. These improved maps were crucial for
navigation, exploration, and the dissemination of geographical knowledge.
3. Development of Physical Geography: The German School of Thought
focused heavily on physical geography, including the study of landforms,
climate, soils, and natural resources. Geographers such as Alexander von
Humboldt and Carl Ritter made pioneering contributions to fields like
climatology, geomorphology, and biogeography.
4. Influence of Romanticism: Romantic ideals, characterized by a deep
appreciation for nature and the sublime, influenced German geographers
during this period. This romantic perspective led to a holistic understanding
of landscapes, emphasizing their aesthetic qualities and cultural
significance alongside their scientific attributes.
5. Integration of Interdisciplinary Approaches: German geographers
integrated insights from other disciplines, such as geology, biology, and
anthropology, into their study of geography. This interdisciplinary
 approach enriched geographical scholarship and helped bridge the gap
between physical and human geography.
6. Legacy of Academic Institutions: The dominance of the German School
of Thought was reinforced by the establishment of prestigious academic
institutions, such as the University of Berlin and the University of
Göttingen, which attracted scholars from across Europe and facilitated
scholarly exchange and collaboration.

CP-3: Crisis Phase-3: Emergence of Dualistic Tendencies in

Geography (late 19th Century)
During this phase, geographic thought became divided between physical and
human geography, reflecting a dualistic approach to the discipline. This division
led to debates about the relative importance of environmental determinism versus
human agency in shaping landscapes.

PP-4: Paradigm Phase-4: Rise of Determinism (late 19th

century-1920s)
was characterized by the ascendancy of deterministic theories in geography,
particularly environmental determinism. During this period, scholars sought to
explain human behavior and societal development primarily through the
influence of physical environments.
Key aspects of this paradigm phase include:
1. Environmental Determinism: Environmental determinism posited that
human cultures and societies were largely shaped by their physical
surroundings. Proponents of this theory argued that environmental factors
such as climate, topography, and natural resources exerted a deterministic
influence on human behavior, technology, and societal progress.
2. Geographical Influences on Society: Geographers and social scientists of
this era focused on identifying correlations between environmental
conditions and various aspects of human life, such as settlement patterns,
economic activities, and cultural practices. They believed that certain
environmental conditions were conducive to the development of specific
societal traits and institutions.
3. Scientific Rationalization: The rise of determinism in geography was
driven by a desire for scientific rationalization and empirical validation.
Scholars sought to apply rigorous scientific methods, including systematic
 observation, data collection, and statistical analysis, to study the
relationships between physical environments and human societies.
4. Impact on Policy and Practice: Deterministic theories influenced policies
and practices in areas such as urban planning, resource management, and
colonial administration. Governments and institutions often relied on
geographical determinism to justify imperial expansion, land use policies,
and social engineering projects.
5. Transition to New Paradigms: By the 1920s, the dominance of
determinism in geography began to wane as scholars increasingly
recognized the limitations of deterministic explanations and embraced
more nuanced and interdisciplinary approaches. This transition laid the
groundwork for the emergence of alternative paradigms, such as
possibilism and cultural ecology, which sought to integrate environmental
influences with human agency and cultural dynamics.

CP-4: Crisis Phase-4: Criticism to Determinism and

Paradigmatic Shift to Human from Physical (Early 20th
Century)
In response to criticisms of determinism and the limitations of purely physical
explanations, a paradigmatic shift occurred towards humanistic and cultural
approaches in geography. This marked a move away from deterministic thinking
towards acknowledging the role of human agency and cultural factors in shaping
landscapes.

PP-5: Paradigm Phase-5: Dominance of French School of

Thought and Rise of Possibilism (1930s-W.W. II)
During this period, the French School of Thought gained prominence in
geography, particularly through the development of possibilism. This approach
marked a significant shift from the deterministic views that had previously
dominated the field.
Key aspects of this paradigm phase include:
1. Possibilism: Developed by French geographer Paul Vidal de la Blache,
possibilism argued that while the environment sets certain constraints,
humans have the agency and creativity to choose from a variety of possible
ways to interact with and adapt to their surroundings. This contrasted
sharply with environmental determinism, emphasizing human agency and
cultural factors.
 2. Focus on Human-Environment Interaction: Possibilism placed greater
emphasis on the reciprocal relationship between humans and their
environment. It highlighted how human actions could modify and
transform the environment, and how cultural and societal factors
influenced these interactions.
3. Cultural and Regional Geography: The French School emphasized the
importance of studying regions and their unique cultural landscapes.
Geographers like Vidal de la Blache promoted detailed regional studies that
considered the historical, cultural, and environmental contexts of different
areas.
4. Holistic Approach: French geographers adopted a more holistic approach
to geography, integrating physical geography with human geography. They
sought to understand the complexities of human-environment interactions
by considering a wide range of factors, including social, economic, and
political influences.
5. Academic and Institutional Influence: The French School's influence
extended through academic institutions and publications. French
geographers established influential journals and research centers that
promoted possibilist ideas and methodologies.
6. Impact on Geographical Thought: Possibilism paved the way for more
flexible and interdisciplinary approaches in geography. It encouraged
geographers to move beyond rigid deterministic frameworks and consider
a broader range of factors in their analyses.
7. Legacy: The ideas developed during this period laid the foundation for
subsequent geographical research and theories. Possibilism's emphasis on
human agency and cultural factors influenced later developments in
cultural geography, humanistic geography, and other subfields.

CP-5: Crisis Phase-5: Quantitative Revolution (1940-1970)

During this phase, geography saw the rise of behavioural and humanistic
approaches, which focused on understanding human behaviour, perception, and
cultural landscapes. These approaches emphasized qualitative research methods
and the importance of subjective experiences.
PP-6: Paradigm Phase-6: Rise of Behavioural and
Humanistic Approaches (1970-2000)
The Rise of Behavioural and Humanistic Approaches
Behavioural Approach
1. Behaviourism’s Dominance (Early 20th Century to 1960s):
• Key Figures: John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner.
• Core Concepts: Behaviourism focused on observable behaviours
and dismissed internal mental states as irrelevant or beyond
scientific study. The emphasis was on stimulus-response
relationships and the principles of learning, particularly through
conditioning.
2. Shift in the 1970s:
• By the 1970s, the limitations of strict behaviourism were becoming
evident, particularly its inability to account for complex human
behaviours and cognitive processes. Critics argued that
behaviourism neglected important aspects of human experience,
such as emotions, thoughts, and free will.
Humanistic Approach
1. Emergence and Growth (1950s-1970s):
• Key Figures: Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow.
• Core Concepts: Humanistic psychology emerged as a "third force"
in psychology, distinct from psychoanalysis and behaviorism. It
emphasized human potential, self-actualization, and the importance
of subjective experience. Humanistic psychologists argued for a
more holistic understanding of the person, including their
experiences, feelings, and aspirations.
2. Carl Rogers:
• Client-Centered Therapy: Rogers introduced client-centered
therapy, emphasizing empathy, unconditional positive regard, and
the therapeutic relationship as central to personal growth and
healing.
 3. Abraham Maslow:
• Hierarchy of Needs: Maslow developed the hierarchy of needs,
culminating in self-actualization. This model suggested that humans
are motivated by a series of hierarchical needs, from basic
physiological needs to higher-level psychological needs.

CP-6: Crisis Phase-6: Methodological Revolution

(Computer Based) in the 21st century
In the 21st century, geography has undergone a significant methodological
revolution due to the widespread introduction of computer technology. This
revolution is comparable to the Quantitative Revolution of the 1950s. Modern
geography, now seen as the "science of spatial distribution," encompasses
practical applications and is not just an academic subject. It focuses on the
significance of locations and spatial relationships of various phenomena, studying
interconnected systems of diverse origins.
Geographers analyze locations, distances, directions, spreads, and spatial
successions, addressing issues like accessibility, innovation, diffusion, and
density. Their work involves spatial analysis and theoretical modeling, heavily
relying on mathematics. With advancements in computers, remote sensing, and
Geographic Information Systems (GIS), data collection and interpretation have
seen revolutionary improvements. These technologies have opened new
opportunities for geographers, making it a field poised for future growth.

CONCLUSION
In conclusion, Thomas Kuhn's concept of paradigm shifts offers a profound
framework for understanding the evolution of geographical thought. Kuhn posits
that scientific progress is not a linear accumulation of knowledge but rather a
series of revolutionary changes that transform the fundamental frameworks
within which scholars operate. Applied to geography, paradigm shifts highlight
how major developments, such as the transition from environmental determinism
to human-environment interactions, or the emergence of critical geography,
redefine the discipline's core principles and methodologies. These shifts not only
alter the questions geographers ask but also expand the scope and impact of their
research, fostering a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the
world's complex spatial dynamics. By recognizing the transformative power of
paradigm shifts, we can better appreciate the dynamic and evolving nature of
geographical inquiry.