Department of computer SCIENCE, DKU -2014

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER
After going through this chapter you will be able to define:
 Concept of computer
 Applications of computers
 Characteristics of computer
 Classification of computers
1.1. What is computer?
Let us begin with the word ‘compute’. It means ‘to calculate’. We all are familiar with
calculations in our day to day life. We apply mathematical operations manually, like addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division. But, these types of manual calculation take much longer
time and less accuracy. So human being explored with the idea to develop a machine which can
perform this type of arithmetic calculation with faster and full accuracy. Both factors brought us
to the innovation of a new device called ‘computer’. Therefore the word ‘computer’ came from
‘calculate’.
Computer is an electronic device which processes information based upon the instructions
provided, and generates the desired output. The term is used to describe a collection of devices
that function together as a system that can:
 Accept data: the computer can accept data from the external environment as an input.
 Processed data: it can process the given data depending on the instructions to give the
desired output.
 Stored data: it can store the processed data for the future use.
 Retrieve the stored data when required.
 Print the result in desired format.
In general the computer can work on any kind of data like: text, numeric, alpha-numeric,
images, pictures, sound, video clippings etc. you will know more about these functions as you go
through the later chapters.
1.2. Applications of computers
Why we use Computers?
The following are some of the capability of Computers, which are reasons to use Computers.
 Store and process large amount of information with high speed and accuracy;

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 Transmit information across continents via communication channels;

 Simulate events;
 Perform complex mathematical computations and make comparisons;
 Monitor ongoing industrial operations;
 Perform repetitive processes with great ease, speed, and reliability;
Therefore, computers are applicable for any functions or process that requires these abilities.
The main areas of computer applications can be listed as follows:
Commercial or business applications
Computers are needed to perform business operations that require handling large amounts of
data. Several computer applications are available to assist business in working with large
volumes of data.
Examples are:
 Text processing  Inventory control
 Accounting and Finance  Database management
management  Statistical analysis
Scientific – engineering and research applications
 Using computers for scientific research, complex mathematical calculations, design
work, and analysis and control of physical systems.
Examples are:
 Space technology
 Meteorological observatory systems
 Astronomical investigations
 Design of machines and
 Control of manufacturing process
Shopping from Home
Individual may now shop by computer in the comfort of their home.
Household Control
A growing number of the newer houses hold devices are computers controlled. For example:
Security systems, refrigerators, microwave ovens, washers, stereos, and televisions. This

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computer controlled home security system monitors movements, broken glass, unlawful entry
without a security code, and so on, and alerts the local police department.
Weather and Environment
Computer equipment may show temperature ranges, precipitation levels and wind flow and can
used in weather forecasting. Computer can also help in overcoming environmental hazards.
Transportation
Computers have affected almost every kind of transportation. Many aircraft can fly under the
control of the computer; in this situation, the captain simply serves as a manger by telling the
computer what to do. In Cars, computers have provided functional controls such as spark and
fuel control.
Medical and Health Care
Computers have long been used by hospitals for routine record keeping. Today, however, many
people owe their lives to the computer. Computers are used in hospitals as sensors (device that
detect changes in blood pressure, heart rate, temperature), testing (scan the body and provide 3-D
figure), patient treatment.
Routine and Dangerous Tasks
Computers are used in routine tasks. And they can perform task in environments to dangerous for
human workers.
Consultant (Expert system)
An Expert system is a computer program, which can solve problems from a specific knowledge
base. These systems don't replace expert humans because the knowledge base of expert system is
given from the skilled specialist.
1.3. Characteristics of computer
All computers have certain common characteristics irrespective of their type and size.
Computers are capable of doing complex activities and operations. The following are the major
characteristics of computers which have made them so powerful and useful are:
a. Word length: Word length is the number of bits that the computer can process at a time in
parallel. Commonly used word lengths are 8 bits, 16 bits, 32 bits or 64 bits. Word length is
the measure of the computing power of computer. Therefore a computer that has longer
word length is more powerful.

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b. Speed: As you know computer can work very fast. It takes only few seconds for
calculations that we take hours to complete. Therefore, we determine the speed of computer
in terms of milliseconds(10-3) , microsecond(10-6) ,nanosecond(10-9) , picoseconds(10-12),
i.e. one thousandth, one millionth , one billionth ,and one trillionth of a second
respectively.
c. Accuracy: Suppose someone calculates faster but commits a lot of errors in computing.
Such result is useless. The degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every
calculation is performed with the same accuracy. The accuracy level is determined on the
basis of design of computer. The errors in computer are due to human and inaccurate data.
Then, it either gives the correct answer or do not answer at all. If faulty instructions are
provided for processing the data, obviously faulty answers will be given. This is also called
GIGO, i.e. Garbage in Garbage Out.
d. Versatility/flexibility: It means the ability to perform completely different type of work.
You may use your computer to prepare payroll slips. Next moment you may use it for
inventory management or to prepare electric bills.
e. Diligence: A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It can
work for hours without creating any error. If millions of calculations are to be performed, a
computer will perform every calculation with the same accuracy. Due to this capability it
overpowers human
f. Storage capacity: Today's computers can store huge amount of data. Once recorded a
piece of information is never forgotten (unless some problem takes problem) and any
information can be retrieved almost instantaneously. To give you an idea of storage
capacity, a single CD ROM can contain the entire Encyclopedia Britannica, and more.
The Computer has an in-built memory where it can store a large amount of data. You can also
store data in secondary storage devices such as floppies, flash disk, which can be kept outside
your computer and can be carried to other computers.
1.4. Classification of computers
Computers also differ based on their data processing capabilities, computational power,
memory, cost, purpose, method of operation and size. Because of these factors, computers are
classifies into the following categories.
A. Classification based on purpose

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According to their purpose or it provides, a computer can be classified in two. Special and
general purpose computers
1. Special purpose computer
Special purpose computers are designed with a specific task in mind, and are not used for any
other purpose. They are pre-programmed with instructions to perform a specific role.
For example, air traffic control systems, airline reservation, satellite tracking and many
household appliances such as TVs and video cassette recorders will make use of such tailor made
computers.
2. General purpose computer
General-purpose computers can be used to meet the needs of many different applications. They
are programmable, in that they allow the user to specify different sets of instructions to program
them for different tasks e.g. desktop computers we use in lab class.
B. Classification based on method of operation
Based on the way they process data, computers are classified in to three; Such as analog,
digital and hybrid computers.
a. Analog computers
Analog computers operate by measuring. They deal with continues variable. They can’t
calculate directly with numbers, rather, they operate by measuring physical magnitude such as
pressure, temperature, voltage, current and etc. e.g. Thermometer, voltmeter, speedometer.
Generally, they are computers designed for special purpose.
b. Digital computers
Unlike the analog computers, digital computers operate by counting rather than measuring.
Deal with discrete variables (0s and 1s). They operate directly upon numbers (digits) that
represent numbers, letters, or other special symbols. They have very high accuracy and speed
than analog ones.
Examples:
 Desk & pocket computers  The general purpose computers
c. Hybrid computers
It is a device formed from the best futures of analog and digital computers. It processes the
information by collecting input data with analog method, converts it into digital quantities,
process the digital values and provide the output in analog form.

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Example:
Patient monitoring system in hospital

C. Classification based on functionality

Depending on the functionality (their computational power, memory access time, processing
capabilities, and physical size), computers can be classify into four: Microcomputer,
minicomputer, mainframe and supercomputer.
i. Micro computer
 It is the most frequently available computers (pc).
 Use microprocessor as its central processing unit.
 Are also called personal computers(PC), home computers etc
 Differ in size and function
 Micro computers are classified into three. These are palmtops, laptops and desktops.
 Palmtop computers-are the smallest computers that can be held on one hand and have
size of pocket calculator
 It is movable
 Used for limited function, i.e. calculation
 Laptop- Is a smaller version of micros, about the size of briefcase designed for
portability;
 Have high capacity and processing speed as desktops.
 It is movable
 Desktops- The most widely used types of computers.

Desktop laptop handheld/palmtop

Desktop PCs and laptops are similar in power, but laptops are designed to be as small and
portable as possible. Therefore they are slightly more expensive than desktops and have lower

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quality screens. Handheld PCs are designed to be small enough to hold in your hand. This is only
made possible by reducing their computing power.
ii. Mini computers
 Are mid level computers and are build to perform complex computations.
 Are larger and more powerful than most micro computers (PCs).
 Are smaller and less powerful than mainframe computers.
 Used for large number of business and scientific applications.
 Play a major role in CAD (computer aided design).
iii. Mainframe computers
 Are high-level computers designed for most intensive computational tasks;
 Are often shared by multiple users connected to the computer by terminals;
 Are larger, more powerful and have processor with faster instruction processing
speed than micros and mini computers.
iv. Super computers
 Are extremely powerful computers designed for high speed processing;
 Are characterized as being the fastest, most expensive computers.
 It designed for huge company. E.g. National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA): an independent agency of the United States government
responsible for aviation and spaceflight.
As we go down this group the characteristics like speed, power etc increases.
Limitation of computers
Although computers can be applied in different areas, there are activities that computers can’t
perform. Some of them are:

a. Computers can’t decide how to be programmed. It is always humans that are responsible
for programming the computers.
b. Computers do not provide their own inputs unless people provide it with the inputs.
c. Interpretation of data and implementation of decisions is always left for humans. That is a
computer does not interpret the information it produces based on the information
obtained unless it is programmed.

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CHAPTER TWO:
DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTERS
2.1. History of Computer
History of computer could be traced back to the effort of man to count large numbers. This
process of counting large numbers generated various systems of numeration like Babylonian
system of numeration, Greek system of numeration, Roman system of numeration and Indian
system of numeration. Out of these the Indian system of numeration has been accepted
universally. It was the basis of modern decimal system of numeration (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and
9). Later you will know how the computer solves all calculations based on decimal system. But
you will be surprised to know that the computer does not understand the decimal system and uses
binary system of numeration for processing.
2.2. Evolution of computer
Calculating Machines
It took over generations for early man to build mechanical devices for counting large
numbers. The first calculating device called ABACUS was developed by the Egyptian and
Chinese people. The word ABACUS means calculating board. It consisted of sticks in
horizontal positions on which were inserted sets of pebbles. It has a number of horizontal bars
each having ten beads. Horizontal bars represent units, tens, hundreds, etc.
Napier’s bones
English mathematician John Napier built a mechanical device for the purpose of
multiplication in 1617 AD. The device was known as Napier’s bones.
Slide Rule
English mathematician Edmund Gunter developed the slide rule. This machine could perform
operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. It was widely used in Europe
in 16th century.
Pascal's Adding and Subdirectory Machine

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You might have heard the name of Blaise Pascal. He developed a machine at the age of 19 that
could add and subtract. The machine consisted of wheels, gears and cylinders.
Leibniz’s Multiplication and Dividing Machine
The German philosopher and mathematician Gottfried Leibniz built around 1673 a mechanical
device that could both multiply and divide.
Babbage’s Analytical Engine
It was in the year 1823 that a famous English man Charles Babbage built a mechanical machine
to do complex mathematical calculations. It was called difference engine. Later he developed a
general-purpose calculating machine called analytical engine. You should know that Charles
Babbage is called the father of modern computer.
Babbage’s assistant, Augusta Ada King, she designed instruction routines to be fed into the
computer, making her the first female computer programmer.
Mechanical and Electrical Calculator
In the beginning of 19th century the mechanical calculator was developed to perform all sorts of
mathematical calculations. Up to the 1960s it was widely used. Later the rotating part of
mechanical calculator was replaced by electric motor. So it was called the electrical calculator.
Modern Electronic Calculator
The electronic calculator used in 1960 s was run with electron tubes, which was quite bulky.
Later it was replaced with transistors and as a result the size of calculators became too small.
The modern electronic calculator can compute all kinds of mathematical computations and
mathematical functions. It can also be used to store some data permanently. Some calculators
have in-built programs to perform some complicated calculations.
2.3. Generation of Computer
You know that the evolution of computer started from 16th century and resulted in the form that
we see today. The present day computer, however, has also undergone rapid change during the
last fifty years. This period, during which the evolution of computer took place, can be divided
into five distinct phases known as Generations of Computers. Each phase is distinguished from
others on the type of switching circuit elements, secondary storage device, memory access time,
I/O device, operating system and programming language.
2.3.1. First Generation Computers (1940-1956)
 Used vacuum tubes or thermionic valve as a circuitry.

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 Have small internal memory based on magnetic drums or relays.

 Input device is based on punched card or paper tape.
 Output is displayed on printouts.
 Use machine or low level language.
 Access time measured in milliseconds (thousands of a second 10-3).
 Consists’ about 1,000 circuits per cubic foot.
 Require extreme air conditioning system.
 Designed for both alphabetic and numeric uses. Slow in computations. These computers
were large in size and writing programs on them was difficult. Some of the computers of
this generation were:
ENIAC: It was the first electronic computer built in 1946 at University of Pennsylvania,
USA by John Eckert and John Mauchly. It was named Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Calculator (ENIAC). The ENIAC was 3050 feet long, weighed 30 tons, contained 18,000
vacuum tubes, 70,000 registers, 10,000 capacitors and required 150,000 watts of electricity.
Today your favorite computer is many times as powerful as ENIAC, still size is very small.
EDVAC: It stands for Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer and was developed
in 1950. The concept of storing data and instructions inside the computer was introduced here.
This allowed much faster operation since the computer had rapid access to both data and
instructions. The other advantage of storing instruction was that computer could do logical
decision internally.
Other Computers of First Generation
EDSAC: It stands for Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer and was developed by
M.V. Wilkes at Cambridge University in 1949.
UNIVAC-1: Eckert and Mauchly produced it in 1951 by Universal Accounting Computer setup.
Limitations of First Generation Computer
Followings are the major drawbacks of First generation computers.
 The operating speed was quite slow.
 Power consumption was very high.
 It required large space for installation.
 The programming capability was quite low.
2.3.2. Second Generation Computers(1956-1963)
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 Use transistors as a main circuitry rather than vacuum tubes.

 Use magnetic core or tape as storage device.
 Output was displayed on printout.
 Use assembly language
 Batch operating systems are used that permitted rapid processing of magnetic tape files.
 Consists of about 100,000 circuits per foot.
 Access time measured in microseconds (10-6).
 Smaller and faster than first generation computer
 Manufacturing cost was also very low. Thus the size of the computer got reduced
considerably.
In this, second generation that the concept of Central Processing Unit (CPU), memory,
programming language and input and output units were developed. The programming languages
such as COBOL, FORTRAN were developed during this period. Some of the computers of the
Second Generation were
1. IBM 1620: Its size was smaller as compared to First Generation computers and mostly
used for scientific purpose.
2. IBM 1401: Its size was small to medium and used for business applications.
3. CDC 3600: Its size was large and is used for scientific purposes.
2.3.3. Third Generation Computers(1964-1970)
 Use integrated circuit (IC) instead of transistors
 Use IC based (magnetic disk) as storage device.
 10 million circuits per square foot.
 New input/output devices, like the key board and visual display unit/VDU/monitor were
developed
 Access time in 100 nanoseconds (100*10-9)
 Cheaper and made commercial production easier.
 Software become more important with sophisticated operating systems, improved
programming languages,
 The size of the computer got further reduced. Some of the computers developed during this
period were IBM-360, ICL-1900, IBM-370, and VAX-750. Higher level language such as

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BASIC (Beginners All purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) was developed during this
period.
2.3.4. Fourth Generation Computers(1970s to present)
 It is extension of the 3rd generation computers.
 Introduce very large scale integrated circuit or VLSI technology.
 Widely known for the use of microprocessors
 Circuit density approached 100,000 components per chip and above.
 Access time approached nanoseconds.
 Programming task were simplified
 Virtual operating systems were introduced for multiple use
 Are versatile in nature and are also able to form a network.
 The present day computers that you see today are the fourth generation. Due to the
development of microprocessor it is possible to place computer’s central processing unit
(CPU) on single chip. These computers are called microcomputer. Further improvement of
mass storage and input/output (I/O) devices. The personal computer (PC) that you see in
your school is a Fourth Generation Computer. E.g. IBM system 3090, IBM RISC 6000, HP
9000, IBM PC (1980), Pentium I, Pentium II. etc.
2.3.5. Fifth Generation Computer(future computer)
 Characterized by the use of artificial intelligence and natural language.
 Aimed at narrowing the gap between people and computer.
 To achieve human like qualities of intelligence including the ability to reason.
Table 2.1 major differences between generations
1st generation 2nd generation 3rd generation 4th generation
Circuit element Vacuum tube Transistor IC LSIC/VLSIC
Secondary Storage D Punched card Magnetic Tape Magnetic disk Mass storage device

Programming Machine or low level Assembly language High level e.g. High level
Language BASIC
Operating system Operator control Batch system sophisticated Time sharing
operating systems
Memory Access time milliseconds (10-3) microseconds (10-6) 100 nanoseconds 1 nanoseconds
Approx. date 1940-56 1956-63 1964-70 From 1970 above
Power consumption Very high High Low Low

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Characteristics Single purpose, large, Single purpose, General purpose, Very versatile,
expensive, unreliable, smaller, cheaper, smaller, cheaper, cheap, powerful,
hard to use easier to use easier to use small, easy to use
Examples ENIAC, UNIVAC, IBM 1620, IBM IBM-360, ICL- IBM PC (1980)
UDVAC 1401, CDC 3600 1900, IBM-370,
and VAX-750.

Chapter Three: Information and Data processing

3.1. What is Information?
Up to now, the world has evolved through three societies: The agricultural society,
the Industrial society and The Information society. Now a day (at the information
society), remembering the world without information technology is not possible. The
emergence of globalization necessitates the use of information technology in our daily
lives. The Silicon chips technology has revolutionized the way activities are performed
and it also narrowed the world into village.
Information technology has become something that we can’t avoid using. It is now
becoming the agent of change. There are rapid and considerable advancements in the
area of information and communication technologies. Use of information technology
simplifies the way things are done in offices or organizations, facilitates communication
in different and distant areas. Hence, everyone needs to have the knowledge of applying
information technology in our daily activities.
Data versus information
 Data is defined as raw facts about something represented by characteristics such as
letters, numbers and other symbols. Data takes variety of forms including numeric, text,
voice and images.
 Information is a collection of meaningful facts and figures that can be used as basis for
guidance and decision making. Therefore data is a row fact of information and
information is the processed data. Data is meaningless by itself, but it gives meaningful
information after processed.
 Information is the processed data that man can understand & get knowledge out of it.
 Information can be either digital information or analog information. Analog
information can take any value, whereas digital information can only take a limited

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number of different values. For example, as shown in Figure 1 there are digital watches
and analog watches. On the digital watch each number (or digit) can only take one out
of ten different values (the numbers between 0 and 9). On the analogue watch the hands
can be in any position, so there is no restriction on the number of values it can display.
This distinction is important when we are talking about computers because they store
and process digital information only.

Digital information can be further categorized depending on how many different values are
permitted. For example, the numbers on the digital watch can take 10 different values, so they
are displaying decimal digital information. Computers can only store and process binary digital
information. Binary digital information can take one of only 2 values of 0s or 1s.
As computers are capable of storing large amounts of information, it is useful to have
a means of measuring information. The smallest amount of binary digital information
we can have is a single value (i.e. either a 0 or a 1). This is called a bit, or binary digit. In
computers bits are stored in groups of 8, which are referred to as a byte. However,
because computers store and process very large amounts of information, it is usually
measured in kilobytes, megabytes, or even gigabytes. Table 1 shows what these terms
mean.

1 byte = 8 bits

1 kilobyte (kB) = 1024 bytes

1 megabyte (MB) = 1024 kilobytes

1 gigabyte (GB) = 1024 Megabytes

Table 1 – Measurement of information

3.2. Sources of information

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Information is not something that we get readily available. So information can be

obtained from different sources. In general the various sources of information are
classified into two categories.
i. Documentary sources
ii.Non- Documentary sources
1. Documentary Sources
- These are documented or recorded sources of information in different forms.
- Based on the order in which they are available to public use. Documentary
sources information can be further categorized into three groups. These are:
i. Primary documentary source
ii. Secondary documentary source
iii. Tertiary documentary source
That is the primary sources appear first followed by secondary & finally by tertiary
i. Primary Documentary Sources
 These are the first published records of original research.
 It may also be a description of new application or new interpretation of an old idea.
 In other words it is a document represents unfiltered & original idea.
 The primary documentary sources are important sources of information they are
unorganized and rather difficult to use directly as they are.
 These sources can be published in a variety of forms.
 Some examples of primary source of information are:
 Periodicals: means prepared in fixed time every day, every week, month and so
on. E.g. journals and bulletins.
 Research report: are reports produced regarding research and development
projects.
 Notes taken by a medical personals or physicians and medical laboratory results.
 Original art works
 Set of data such as census statistics
 Interviews, surveys and field works
 Technical reports

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 Diaries, journals, speeches, letters, memos, autobiographies, memoirs,

photographs and original records etc.
ii. Secondary Documentary Sources
 These are the compiled forms of primary documentary sources.
 These are modified, selected and reorganized form of primary sources.
 Unlike the primary documentary sources, the secondary sources of information
contain filtered, organized, & digested knowledge rather than new knowledge.
 It is also very easy to make available & get secondary source than primary sources.
 They are always produced after primary sources.
Examples:
 History
 Works of criticism and interpretation
 Review articles and literatures
 Commentaries
 Bibliographies (may also be tertiary)
 Dictionaries and encyclopedias (may also be primary)
 Textbooks, reference books, chronologies, indexes etc.
iii. Tertiary Documentary Sources
 Tertiary documentary sources are contain the refined or distilled & collected forms of
primary & secondary sources of information
 Tertiary sources are organized with the aim of assisting the searcher of information in
the use of primary & secondary sources.
Example:
 Directories, catalogues, revised textbooks, guidelines, manuals.
 Indexing and abstracting tools used to locate primary and secondary source
(may also be secondary), etc.
2. Non- Documentary Sources
- Sources, those are not properly recorded or documented for public use.
- This is not intentionally organized to serve a wide range of actual users.
- These sources provide information those do not the primary & secondary sources.
Generally it can be grouped into two. Formal and Informal
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1. Formal non-documentary sources

 Include professional societies, industries, research organizations, government
departments and universities etc.
 The user formally consults the formal non-documentary sources to get the
required information.
2. Informal non- documentary sources
 Includes conversation with friends, visitors, attendance for professional meetings
etc.
- If you encounter some problem while you are working on your personal computer you had
better get consult from your friend than reading reference books.
3.3. Data Processing
Data is any collection of raw facts. Data processing is the manipulation of data into
more useful form. Data processing includes not only numerical calculation but also
operations such as the classification of data & transmission of data from one place to
another.
3.3.1. Methods of data processing
The type of data processing method is dependent on the volume of task to be
accomplished.
There are two ways of data processing.
a. Manual data processing
 This method of data processing is manipulating of data manually. This manual
method is time consuming and less accurate. And also suffers duplicating of work,
limited productivity of employees, lack of control and dishonesty.
 This method is used, if the volume of data is low or there is a relatively long time
frame allowed for reporting and if accuracy of result is not critical or if budget is
restriction prohibit the investment in equipment.
 The main tools of manual data processing are brain, pen, paper etc.
b. Electronic (Computer) data processing
 The way of s data processing, that manipulates data more useful form in
computerized ways. This method performs by using electrical machines or computers.
 Some of basic advantages of this method are:

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- Accuracy: giving correct result, if we inter correct inputs and

- Speed: taking a few seconds to perform data processing.
 Generally there are two ways of computer data processing. There are:
File processing and database processing
i. File processing: this type of data processing is the way of processing and storing
data in separate files. In this type of data processing: not easy data redundancy and
consistency, difficult to access data, no data integrity and there is no security. e.g.
Ms. Word processing
ii. Database processing: this way of data processing processes related data together by
using database management system (DBMS). In DB processing: There is data
redundancy and consistency, access data can be done easily, provide data isolation,
have data integrity, Concurrent access and security. E.g. of DBMSs are: Ms. Access,
structural query language (SQL) and oracle.
3.3.2. Data Processing Cycle
The data processing cycle represents the chain of processing events in most data
processing applications. It consists of
 Data recording: the original data is first must be recorded in a form readable by the
system.
 Transmission: then the data transmitted to a computer that performs the data processing
functions.
 Reporting: after processing the data, the computer reports summary results to the
program’s operator.
 Storing: after reported the result of the data processing the computer stores the original
and modified data.
 Retrieval: after storing the data the final step of data processing cycle is retrieval that
means accessing the stored data.
In general data processing can be classified in to three parts.
 Input: to process the data first enter the correct data in the computer in readable
format
 Processing: after entered the correct data in to the computer in the form of input,
process to get the desired information.

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 Output: this is the final part of data processing provides the required information in
readily useable format.
The three steps taken in this order are known as data processing cycle.

Input Processing Output

Figure 3.1 Data Processing cycle

3.3.3. Data Processing Criteria
For information to be valuable it must meet at least the following three criteria:
- Accuracy: - The input must be accurate and the individual steps of data processing should
be accurate then we get accurate output.
- Timeliness: -The timeliness of the information means meaningful information must be
delivered to the user within the given interval.
- Meaningfulness: - The information produced by the data processing must be appropriate,
clear, precise & relevant.
3.4. Data Representing and Numbering System
3.4.1. Computer Data Representation
As you have discussed in first chapter Computers are electronic device that can process and
store data. Since computer is electronic device it work in the form of volt that is 0v or +5v. These
two states can represent OFF/ON or FALSE/TRUE.
HIGH/+5v LOW/0v
ON represented by 1 OFF represented by 0
TRUE. FALSE
3.4.2. Numbering System
Why we study numbering system?
To know how to computers understand and process data we have to study about numbering
system. What is Numbering System?
Numbering System (NS) is the way of representing numbers in different forms. There are
different numbering systems. Some of these Binary NS, Octal NS, Decimal NS and
Hexadecimal NS are the most widely used Numbering Systems.

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 Binary Number system

This is the way of data representing into two states 0s and 1s. That is called binary NS. Binary
means two
This binary NS has two symbols/digits 0s and 1s. Also called base two written in the form of
(x)2.
 Octal Number Systems
Octal number system is the way data representing in the base eight systems using the 8
symbols/digits 0-7. It is used to provide a short hand way to deal with the long strings of 1s and
0s created in binary.
 Decimal Numbering System
These NS is familiar NS in our day to day activities. Decimal NS is base 10 NS and it has ten
symbols/digits that is 0-9. It is called Decimal Numbering System or base 10.
 Hexadecimal Numbering System
The hexadecimal is a base16 system. It contains the digits 0 through 9 and the capital letters A
through F. The hexadecimal system is often used in programming as a short cut to the binary
number system like that of the octal number system. The difference between decimal and
hexadecimal is the numbers that are above 10. In hexadecimal numbering system the numbers
above ten represents by capital letter (A-F).
A= 10 C=12 E=14
B =11 D= 13 F=15
 Conversion one NS into others
To convert any NS into decimal NS and vice versa we follow the following steps.
If we have (an, an-1, an-2…a1, a0) y NS and convert into decimal (an*ym-1+an-1*ym-2+…+a1*y1+a0*y0)
where ‘Y’ and ‘m’ represents the base of the number and number of digits respectively. To
convert decimal NS
(an, an-1, an-2…a1, a0) 10 to any NS divide the decimal number by the given base then put the
reminder and divide the quotient and put the reminder again until the quotient 0. Then write the
reminder from last to end.
 Binary to decimal conversion and vice versa
Any combination of 0s and 1s is a binary number system. To convert a binary number to a
decimal numbers system, we follow expanding method.

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Example: (11011)2 = 1x24+1x23+0x22+1x21+1x20

= 16+8+0+2+1
= (27)10
 Decimal to Binary conversion
A positive integer can be easily converted to equivalent binary form by the repeated division by
2. Start by dividing the given decimal integer by 2.
Example: Find the binary equivalent of 25 Q=quotient and R=reminder.
Q R
25/ 2 12 1
12/2 6 0
6/2 3 0
3/2 1 1
1/2 0 1
Therefore, the equivalent binary digit is: 110012
The conversion of decimal fractions to other number system is performed by: multiplying the
fraction by the base and saving at each multiplication the integral digit resulting from the
multiplication. This process is continued until the fraction becomes zero. The integral digits form
the new binary fraction reading from top to bottom.
Example: Convert 0.75 to binary.
Fraction Integer
0.75 x 2 = 1. 50 1
0.50 x 2 = 1. 00 1
Therefore the equivalent binary is (0.11)2
 Conversion Octal, Hexadecimal to decimal and vice versa.
To convert these NS use the above steps except changing the base
Example 1: convert (23) 8 into decimal Example 2: convert (D2) 16 to decimal
Solution: 2*81+3*80 Solution: D*161+2*160
2*8+3*1 D(13)*16+2*1
=16+3= 19 =208+2=210
The equivalent decimal is: 18 Equivalent decimal is: 210
Example 3: convert 155 to octal Example 4: convert 325 to hexadecimal

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Q R Q R
155/ 8 19 3 325/16 20 5
19/8 2 3 20/16 1 4
2/8 0 2 1/16 0 1
The equivalent octal is: (233)8 The equivalent hexadecimal is: (145)16

 Conversion among Binary, Octal and Hexadecimal.

To covert a binary number to octal, begin from right and block off groups of three binary
digits if the number is before point and from left to right if the number is after point. Replace
each group of three binary digits with its equivalent octal digit. The digits will range from 0 to7.
To convert from octal to binary, replace each octal digit with the equivalent three binary
digits. Use the same process for fractions starting at the point. Add more 0s to complete the last
set of three.
The conversion to and from hexadecimal is identical, except that process of four binary digits
are used and the hexadecimal values range from 0 to F.
Example: Convert the binary 11110111.011 to octal and hexadecimal.
Binary 011 110 111. 011
3 6 7 3 = (367.3)8
Binary 1111 0111. 0110
F 7 6 = (F7.6)16
Or in another way first convert into decimal then convert to the desired NS. But it is time
consuming.

Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecim

0 0 0 0
al
1 1 1 1
2 10 2 2
3 11 3 3
4 100 4 4
5 101 5 5
6 110 6 6

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7 111 7 7
8 1000 10 8
9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F
Equivalent among the four Numbering systems

3.5. Encoding systems

Computer systems understand only binary number systems. Because of this, each letter or
number that we enter through the keyboard should be converted to the binary number system to
be understood and processed by the computer. For this purpose there are two standard encoding
systems for representing data.
1. ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange): It uses seven - bits to
represent a character. It is used in almost all microcomputers and many minicomputers.
2. EBCDIC (Extended Binary-Coded Decimal Interchange): is an 8 bit-coding scheme used
on many minicomputers and almost all mainframes. Eight bits allow 2 8 or 256 possible code
combination.
A character that is represented using either ASCII or EBCDIC will fit within 8 bits. EBCDIC is
an 8-bit code. ASCII is a 7- bit, but by adding an extra, meaningless bit, it will fit an 8- bit space.
Most computers could use either coding scheme. The choice really depends on the scheme for
which the software is written. Since both schemes represent the same group of characters, there
is other software available to translate one code to the other so that ASCII computers can
communicate with EBCDIC computers and vices versa.

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Chapter Four: Introduction to Computer System

Computer is a data processing machine which consists of several integrated components that
works together as a single unit to achieve some objective. The computer system refers to the
computer itself and all other components interconnected to it. A computer system components
are classifies into hardware and software which cooperates to provide full system functions of
the computer.

The Computer Hardware

The Hardware is the physical (visible and tangible) part of the Computer that you can see
and touch. It includes electronic devices, which have the potential for performing the task of
solving problems. It is the general term for the physical machines or devices that carry out
the activities of capturing, processing, storing and communicating data and information. The
computer hardware is divided into the following categories:
1. Input Devices 3. Output Devices
2. Central Processing Unit 4. Storage Devices& others
CPU

Control Unit
Input Devices
Output Devices
Memory (register)

 Keyboard ALU  Monitor

 Mouse  Printer
 Scanner  Speaker
Secondary Storage
 Microphones  Disk drives
 Disk drives  plotter

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Fig. 1 Basic Units of a computer System

 Input Devices
Input devices are devices through which data or information is entered into the computer. It is
used to convert human readable form to machine-readable form. There are different input
devices like: Keyboard, mouse, Image Scanner, Disk drives, microphone, touch screen, light pen,
magnetic ink character recognition (MICR), bar code reader, camera systems, etc.
 Keyboard: The keyboard is an input device used to enter information into your PC.

The keys on the keyboard can be divided into 5 sections.

o Alphanumeric (Character Keys): These keys work just like a conventional type writer
which consists of letters (A-Z), numbers (0-9), Enter key, Spacebar, Backspace, Shift,
Caps lock, etc.
o Function Keys: labeled from F1 to F12.
o Numeric Keys: Let you enter numerical data more easily when you are working on
numbers. To use this section of the keyboard, make sure that the Num Lock key is ON.
o Navigation (Cursor movement Keys): These keys are used to navigate through your
document. The keys are: Arrow keys, Home, End, Page up, Page down, etc.
o Computer (Special) keys: They perform different tasks when used alone or in
conjunction with other keys. Some of these keys are: Alt, Ctrl, Print Screen, Scroll Lock,
Pause, Delete, and Insert.
 Mouse: The mouse is a pointing device that is used to move the insertion pointer around
the screen. It has two buttons left (primary) button and right button. Through which you
can operate different operations. Such operations are:
 point: indicate the item
 click: press and release the primary key
 right click: press and release on right key
 double-click: press twice on left key
 drag: press the left key and move

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 Scanner: which is an input device used to input data into a computer. It converts the
data from hard copy to soft copy. Once the data is transferred to the computer, through
the scanner, it can be modified, or combined with other information.
 Disk drives: Are data read/write devices used to input data into the computer. E.g.
floppy drive, CD-R, CD-RW and DVD drive.
 Microphones: It captures sounds and translates into digital signals for the computer.
 Touch screen: it is touch sensitive transparent panel covering the screen.
 Light pen: that utilizes the light sensitive detector to select objects on a display screen.
 Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR): allows the computer to recognize
characters printed using magnetic ink. Example of this device is card reader in the bank.
 Bar code reader: is a photoelectric scanner that read the bar codes, or vertical zebra
striped marks, printed on product containers.
 camera systems: used to input images and sounds in to the computer e.g. digital camera
 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
It is the most costly and main component of the computer. It may be a single chip or a series of
chips that performs arithmetic and logical operations and controls the operation of the other
elements of the system. CPU follows the instruction of the software to manipulate data into
information. It executes program instructions and performs the computer’s processing activities.
The CPU is called brain of computer and also called the microprocessor.
The CPU mostly performs the two major functions.
1. Performing arithmetic and logical operations and
2. Controlling every activity of the computer like:
a. Controlling internal and external devices
b. Controlling memory usage for storing data and instructions.
c. Controlling sequence of instructions
Purpose of CPU

 Fetch instruction: The CPU read instruction from the memory

 Interpret instruction: the instruction must be decoded to determine what action is required
 Fetch data: the execution of an instruction may require reading of data from memory or an
I/O module.

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 Process data: the execution of an instruction may require performing some arithmetic or
logical operation on data.
 Write data: The result of an execution may require writing data to memory or an I/O module.
The CPU has three major components which connected by cables called bus to communicate
each other:
Control Memory
unit (register
)
ALU Figure 4.1. The components of CPU

The Control Unit: Controls every activity of the computer. The control unit ensures that
according to the stored instructions, the right operation is done on the right data at the right
time.
 All computer activities are carried out according to instructions that the control unit
receives.
 Fetches and store data and instruction from memory to register and vice versa.
 Receives an instruction, decodes/interprets and passes it to the ALU for execute.
 Determines the next instruction to execute.
 Tells the rest of the computer system how to carry out the program’s instructions.
 Directs the movement of electronic signals between:
 Main memory and the ALU
 Main memory and the I/O devices
The Arithmetic or Logic Unit (ALU): Contains the electronic circuitry that performs the
arithmetic operations and logical operations, that underline all computing capabilities and
controls the speed of those operations.
 Arithmetic unit performs actual computing and calculations based on fundamental
mathematical operations: like (+, -, *, /)
 Logical unit: - based on the instruction provided to it, perform logical comparison
between data items. The comparison determines whether the information is greater than,
less than or equal to the other information by using Logical operations like (>, <, <=, >=,
=).
The memory (register): The CPU needs a small internal memory called registers used to

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store intermediary results from the operation of ALU.

- To temporarily store some data
- To remember the location of the last instruction
- To store instruction and data temporarily while execution
in other words,
- This storage has very fast access time low storing capacity.

 Output Devices
The output devices enable the user to see the information on the computer. It converts the
results of a process, which is only in machine understandable to a human understandable form.
Included in the output devices are:
a. Visual Display Unit (VDU) or Monitor: Sometimes also called screen, displays the output
of the processing activity for the user on a television-like screen. VDU can be either Liquid
Crystal Display (LCD) or Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). Video displays differ in:
 Size:
 Resolution:
 Colors:
 Monochrome: means one color, generally white on black background or
vice versa.
 Color Monitors: Many monitors display color-combining shades of red,
green, and blue (RGB).
b. Printer: Printers are most widely used output devices. It produces hard copy materials that
are paper output. Different types of printers are in use today. In general, there are two
major categories of printers. Namely:
 Impact Printers
 Non-Impact printers.
 Impact Printers: in impact printing, the paper and the character being printed
come in contact with one another. That is, striking an inked ribbon with pins
forms characters. Examples of Impact Printers are: Dot Matrix, Line and

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Character printers.
 Non-Impact Printers: are printers that do not bring the paper and the print
material into physical contact. The characters of the print material are
produced on the paper through a heat, chemical, or spraying process. Laser
and Ink-Jet Printers are the most frequently used kinds of Non-Impact
printers.
c. Disk drives: since they are also used to record a result of a process on magnetic disks, they
are also considered as output device.
d. Modem: links two or more computers by translating digital signals into analog signals so
that data can be transmitted via telecommunications. Modem can be either internal or
external modem. Internal modem is a hardware fitted into an expansion slot in the system
unit. External modem sits outside your system and connects to serial port.
e. Plotters: specialized output device designed to produce high quality graphics in a variety
of colors. It used for creating large hard copy items, such as maps, architectural drawings,
3D illustrations items typically too large for regular printers
f. Speaker: this is a device specially used to provide audio output.
 Storage Devices
Storage device is used to store data or information internally or externally. Storage device can
classify into primary (main memory) and secondary storage device.
Primary (main memory): It is a means of storage that is found within the computer itself
and that is why it is called internal memory or primary memory.
 Have low capacity
 High speed and
Primary memory includes RAM and ROM.
RAM: is a random access memory (can be accessed randomly without regard to any other
memory location. It is working area of the computer.
 It is volatile it holds data as long as there is current flow.
 It allows read/write
 Holds data temporarily.
 Expensive
ROM: Stands for read only memory. Once programmed, it can only be read from it.

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 It is nonvolatile: unlike RAM, the contents cannot be changed or lost when

electric current is turned off. It stores data permanently.
 It is read only memory: we cannot write or change the contents of ROM.
Secondary storage device: it also called Secondary memories or Mass Storage devices. It
used for mass storage of programs and data files. Because of the primary storage doesn’t
store user’s data permanently, their high price and limited capacity, the need to have other
type of storage to hold large amount of data for a longer period of time in a less expensive
and yet accessible manner is evident.
 Have the capability to store large amount of data for a longer period of time.
 It is reading a writing device.
 Inexpensive compared to primary storage.
There are two types of secondary storage: Magnetic Storage and Optical storage.
a. Magnetic Storage: Is storage devices made up of Iron Oxide particles mixed with a
binding agent. They use magnetic technology to read and write data and information
from and to the surface of storage area. The most common types of secondary storage
are: Magnetic tape and Magnetic disk
I. Magnetic Tape: is the earliest form of secondary storage. Data can be stored on
and retrieved from tape sequentially. Magnetic tape is not so widely used for file
processing, but still plays an important part in the file back up for security
purposes.
II. Magnetic disk: are flexible plastic or metal (rigid aluminum) disks of easily
magnet able materials. There are two types of magnetic disks on which we can
store and retrieve randomly.
 Hard disk: is a high capacity magnetic disk, which is fixed in the main unit of the
computer. Hard disks cannot be removed from their disk-drive cabinets, which
contain the electronics to read and write data on to the magnetic disk surfaces. It
enables very fast accessibility of data and can store much more amount of data (40
MB to GB) in capacity.
 Floppy disk: is also called diskette. It is removable and has less capacity
compared to the hard disk. The content of a floppy disk can be erased and re-used
a number of times.

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Two characteristics describe floppy disks: Size and Capacity. Size refers to the physical
dimension of the disk and Capacity refers to the amount of information the disk can hold.
b. Optical Storage: It uses the principle of light (laser beam), rather than magnetism to
store information. Optical disks have huge capacity. They are two types of common
optical disk:
1. CD (compact disk)
 CD_R (CD recordable)
 CD_RW (CD rewritable)
 CD_ROM (CD read only memory)
2. DVD (digital versatile disk)
 DVD-ROM  DVD+RW
 DVD+R  DVD-RAM

 Other computer components

 Mother board: is also known as system board (main board) that is the heart of the
computer. It is a large green circuit board that holds: RAM, ROM, CPU and so on.
 Expansion Slots: are also called expansion buses which allow the user to add additional
capabilities like network interface card, TV card, Sound card, internal modem, etc.
 Power Supply: It delivers electrical power to the computer system. The computer
components work with +5V, and + 12V. The power supply steps down the voltage to the
required value and changes AC to DC.
 Ribbon buses (Cables): are used to connect the different components, and transfer data.
 Ports: A port is the interface through which the microprocessor in the system unit can
communicate with an option such as a monitor or a printer. There are two common
types of ports:
 Serial Ports: Allow data to send and receive serially (a bit at a time) over a
single wire.
 Parallel ports: Data come in parallel over eight parallel wires.
 CMOS Battery (Complementary Metal oxide Semiconductor): It holds (retains) the
configuration or information of the computer.

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The Computer Software

The hardware alone cannot perform any particular calculation or data manipulation without
being instructed exactly what to do and how to do it. That is, software is a series of instructions
that tell the hardware what to do and how to do it. Software (Program) makes the interface
between the user and the electronic components of the computer. It facilitates communication
between a human being and a machine (the computer). Computer software is divided into two
broad categories:
A. Systems Software
B. Application Software

Application software Systems Software Hardware

User

A. Systems Software
Systems software consists of all the programs, languages and documentations supplied by the
manufacturer. These programs allow the user to communicate with the computer and write or
develop its own programs. This software makes the machine easier to use, and makes an efficient
use of the resources of the hardware possible. Systems software provides the interface between
the hardware and the users. Interface is the means by which a person interacts with a computer.
Systems software includes: operating system, system support software, and systems development
software.
 Operating System: is a master control program, permanently stored on the primary
memory that interprets user commands requesting various kinds of services such as
display, print, copy a data file, list all files in a directory, execute a particular program.
 It manages the hardware for the most efficient use of computer resources
 Provide an interface between a user and an application program and the hardware.
Examples of an operating system are: MS-DOS, MS-Windows, and UNIX.
 System Support software:
 It provides system utilities and other operating services.
 It is a border line between application software and system software.
 Operating services consist of programs that provide performance statistics for the
operational staff and security monitors to protect the data and the system.

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 System Development Software: includes the computer or programming language

translators that are used to convert written programs to machine language for execution.
Programming Language
Programming language is the means of communication between a human being and a
computer. The levels of programming language are discussed in terms of generation of
languages. Accordingly, there are four levels of computer programming languages:
a. Machine Language: is the first generation of programming language that was available in
the earliest days of computer.
 It is the only programming language that the computer can understand.
 Machine language is the lowest level language which works in the form of 0s & 1s.
b. Assembly Language: Is the second-generation language. Use mnemonics in place of 1s
and 0s to represent the operation codes. Mnemonics is an alphabetical abbreviation used as
a memory aid. It uses assembler to translate assembly language to machine language.
c. High-level Languages: Is the third generation language. The instructions are called
statements. Statements closely resemble human languages. The translator of this language
Compilers and Interpreters used as a translator of high-level to machine language. E.g.
FORTRAN, COBOL, BASIC, Pascal, C++, Visual C++, etc.
d. Fourth Generation Languages: allow users to create programs with much less effort than
is required by high-level languages. They are more English-like than high-level languages.
Examples are database query languages, report generators, and application generators.
B. Applications Software
It consists of programs or instructions to perform specific task or job or information processing
activities. There is a number of application software. Some of such application software is:
- Word Processing: Allow creating documents like letters, reports, handouts, office memos,
magazines, newspapers, etc. Examples MS-Word, Word Star, and Word Perfect.
- Spreadsheets: is a table of rows and columns to perform calculations and other related
activities on a numerical data. Examples are MS-Excel, Lotus 1-2-3, and Quattro Pro.
- Database Management system (DBMS): are used to systematically handle, organize, or
store data and latter get the stored data in a much flexible way. Examples: MS-Access
Fox Pro.

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- Desktop Publishing Programs: are used to create (publish) professional newsletters and
reports using the PC that sits on your desktop. Examples: Page Maker, Ventura.
- Computer Aided Design (CAD): is used by engineers and designers to draw an object.
Example: Auto CAD
- Computer Games: Example Chess, Solitaire, Dave, etc.

Chapter Five: Computer Networks and Internet

Introduction to Networking
What Is a Network?
 A system in which a number of independent computers are linked together to share data
and peripherals.
 A computer network refers to the system of two or more interconnected computers by a
media that allows them to share data, device, peripherals, and remote computer databases.
 Sharing is the purpose of computer networking. The ability to share information
efficiently is what gives computer networking its power and its appeal.
 A computer that is not connected to other computers is called a standalone system.
Why Computer Networks are needed?
With the availability and power of today's personal computers, you might ask why networks are
needed. Networks increase efficiency and reduce costs. Computer networks achieve these goals
in three primary ways:
 Sharing information (or data)
 Sharing hardware and software
 Centralizing administration and support
More specifically, computers that are part of a network can share:
 Documents (memos, spreadsheets,  E-mail messages.
invoices, and so on).  Word-processing software.

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 Project-tracking software.  Fax machines.

 Illustrations, photographs, videos,  Modems.
and audio files.  CD-ROM drives and other
 Live audio and video broadcasts. removable drives.
 Printers.  Hard drives.
Sharing Information (or Data)
The ability to share information quickly and inexpensively has proven to be one of the most
popular uses of networking technology.
By making information available for sharing, networks can reduce the need for paper
communication, increase efficiency, and make nearly any type of data available simultaneously
to every user who needs it.
Sharing Hardware and Software
Computer networks can be used to share printers, plotters, and other peripherals. Networks can
be used to share and standardize applications, such as word processors, spreadsheets, inventory
databases, and so on, to ensure that everyone on the network is using the same applications and
the same versions of those applications.
Centralizing Administration and Support
Networking computers can simplify and support tasks as well. It is far more efficient for
technical personnel to support one version of one operating system or application and to set up
all computers in the same manner than to support many individual and unique systems and
setups. And also used to centralized control.
Network components and functions
 Servers—Computers that provide shared resources to network users.
 Clients—Computers that access shared network resources provided by a server.
 Media—the wires/air that make the connections.
 Resources—any service or device, such as files, printers, or other items, made available
for use by members of the network.
Types of Networks: LANs and WANs
Depending on their geographical coverage, size and function of computer networks are mostly
classified into one of two groups.
1. A local area network (LAN):

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 It is the smallest form of a network and the basic building block of any computer network.
 It is limited by geography that covers within a mile-perhaps one office, one building, or a
college campus.
 A LAN can range from simple (two computers connected by a cable) to complex
(hundreds of connected computers and peripherals throughout a major corporation).
2. A wide area network (WAN):
 On the other hand, has no geographical limitation.
 It can connect computers and other devices on opposite sides of the world.
 A WAN is made up of a number of interconnected LANs. Perhaps the ultimate WAN is the
Internet.
Network Configuration
 Networks are classified into two principal groups based on how they share information:
peer-to-peer networks and server-based networks.
Peer-to-Peer Networks
In a peer-to-peer network, there are no dedicated servers, and there is no hierarchy among the
computers. All the computers are equal and therefore are known as peers. Each computer
functions as both a client and a server, and there is no administrator responsible for the entire
network. The user at each computer determines what data on that computer is shared on the
network. Computers in the network are connected by a simple, easily visible cabling system.
Peer-to-peer networks are good choices for environments where:
 There are 10 users or fewer.
 Users share resources, such as files and printers, but no specialized servers exist.
 Security is not an issue/less security.
 Limited growth within the foreseeable future.
Server-Based Networks
 In server-based network works an environment with more than 10 users.
 In a server-based network, one or more computers act as servers and provide the
resources to the network. The other computers are the clients and use the resources
provided by the server.
 Centrally located for network control; requires at least one knowledgeable administrator
 Extensive and consistent resource and user security

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 Limited only by server and network hardware

Network Topology
The term network topology refers to the arrangement or physical layout of computers, cables,
and other components on the network.
A network's physical topology is the wire itself. A network's logical topology is the way it carries
signals on the wire. Logical topology refers the flow of information. That means it determine
how computers communicate on the network.
Topology mostly classify into four basic topologies. They are:
 Bus  Ring
 Star  Mesh
1. Bus topology:
The bus topology is often referred to as a "linear bus" because the computers are connected in a
single straight line called a trunk (also called a backbone or segment) that connects all of the
computers in the network in a single line. Computers on a bus topology network communicate by
addressing data to a particular computer and sending out that data on the cable as electronic
signals. Collision will occur, When two computer send data simultaneously.
Sending the Signal Network data in the form of electronic signals is sent to all the computers
on the network. Only the computer whose address matches the address encoded in the original
signal accepts the information. All other computers reject the data. Because only one computer at
a time can send data on a bus network,
Signal Bounce Because the data, or electronic signal, is sent to the entire network, it travels
from one end of the cable to the other. If the signal is allowed to continue uninterrupted, it will
keep bouncing back and forth along the cable and prevent other computers from sending signals.
Terminator To stop the signal from bouncing, a component called a terminator is placed at each
end of the cable to absorb free signals. Absorbing the signal clears the cable so that other
computers can send data.

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Figure 5.1 bus topology

2. Star topology:
In the star topology, each computer are connected to a centralized component called a hub.
Signals are transmitted from the sending computer through the hub to all computers on the
network.

The star topology offers the advantage of centralized resources and management. This
topology requires a great deal of cable in a large network installation. Also, if the central
point fails, the entire network goes down. If one computer or the cable that connects it to the
hub—fails only the failed computer will not be able to send or receive network data.

Figure 5.2 star topology

3. Ring topology:

The ring topology connects computers on a single circle of cable. Unlike the bus topology,
there are no terminated ends and no collisions. Since only one terminals can send data at a given
time.

The signals travel around the loop in one direction and pass through each computer, which can
act as a repeater to boost the signal and send it on to the next computer. The failure of one
computer can have an impact on the entire network.

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One method of transmitting data around a ring is called token passing. (A token is a special series
of bits that travels around a token-ring network. Each network has only one token.) The token is
passed from computer to computer until it gets to a computer that has data to send. The data
passes by each computer until it finds the one with an address that matches the address on the
data.

The receiving computer returns a message to the sending computer indicating that the data has
been received.

Figure 5.3 ring topology

4. Mesh topology:
In a mesh topology, each computer is connected to every other computer by separate cabling.
This configuration provides redundant paths throughout the network so that if one cable fails,
another will take over the traffic. These networks are expensive to install because they use a lot
of cabling.

Figure 5.4 mesh topology

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These four topologies can be combined in a variety of more complex hybrid topologies.
Many working topologies are hybrid combinations of the bus, star, ring, and mesh topologies.
There are many factors to consider when deciding which topology best suits the needs of an
organization.

Table 1.2 Topology Advantages and Disadvantages

Topology Advantages Disadvantages
Bus -Use of cable is economical. -Network can slow down in heavy traffic.
-System is simple and reliable. -Problems are difficult to isolate.
- Easy to extend. -Cable break can affect many users.
-limits on cable length & computers

Ring -System provides equal access for all
computers.
-Performance is even despite many users.
-computers act as repeaters
Star -Modifying and adding new computers is easy.
-Centralized monitoring and management.
-Failure of one computer does not affect the
rest.
Mesh -System provides increased redundancy and
reliability as well as ease of troubleshooting.
-Failure of one computer or one cable does not
affect the rest of the network.
-Failure of one computer can impact the rest.
-Problems are hard to isolate.
-the more terminals, the network becomes
slower.
-Security may be less(as data has to travel
through other computers)
-Network reconfiguration disrupts operation.
-If the centralized point fails, the network fails.
-uses more cable
- expensive to install because it uses a lot of
cabling

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The internet

The internet is a vast network of networks, the ultimate WAN, consisting of tens of thousands of
businesses, universities, and research organizations with millions of individual users and using a
variety of different network architectures.

The Internet is defined as “a loosely-organized international collaboration of autonomous,

interconnected networks.”

 Loosely-organized: No single organization has authority over the Internet. Anyone can
upload any kind of content or software and no one controls that. No one guarantees the
accuracy of the information that you find on the Internet.
 International: More than 100 countries are represented on the Internet.
 Collaboration: Many organizations cooperate to provide the services and support needed
to sustain it. For example, much of the software that drives the Internet is open-source
software developed collaboratively by programmers throughout the world, who
constantly work to improve the code.
 Autonomous: Organizations that join the Internet are free to make their own decisions
about how they configure and operate their networks.
 Interconnected: There are standard protocols to enable different networks communicate
with each other. Without the interconnection provided by TCP/IP protocol, the Internet
would not exist.
 Networks: The Internet is “network of networks”, i.e. most of individual users who are on
the Internet don’t access the Internet directly. Instead they access the Internet indirectly
through another network, like LAN or dial up or broadband network provided by an
Internet Services Provider (ISP). Otherwise, the Internet would be completely
unmanageable if it consisted of 171 million individual users, all interconnected.
The Internet is composed of several distinct types of networks: Government agencies, military
sites, educational institutions, businesses, ISPs, commercial online services etc.

Every site on the internet has address, just like people have PO Box number at their local post
office. On the internet addresses are called URLs (Uniform Resource Locaters). URLs are
written as a number of words separated by dots, for example www.yahoo.com. The word after

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the final dot (e.g.com) is the domain of the address. The domain indicates the category of the
web site.

The World Wide Web:-The World Wide Web (www) is a way of browsing the information on
the internet in a pleasant, easy to understand. Text can be mixed with graphics, video and audio
to provide multimedia (many different media) internet content.

Computer Hazard and Security

A. Computer Hazard
Computers and the information they contain are often considered confidential systems because
their use is typically restricted to a limited number of users. This confidentiality can be
compromised in a variety of ways. Factually, these data or information inside the computer may
be affected by different hazards. For example, people who spread computer viruses and worms
can harm computers and computer data. So taking care of the data and information in the
computer and the computer itself is very essential, this idea tends to security.
What is computer virus?
- Computer virus is a self- replicating (copying) computer program that interferes with
computer's HW or OS & duplicates itself without the user's knowledge. It may damage
corrupt, or destroy data or degrade system performance. Once the infected program is
executed, the computer viruses like biological viruses destabilize the normal flags of
the Os.
- Like any other computer program a virus must be executed to function, that is, it must
be loaded from the computer’s memory and the virus's instructions must then
Identify each letter or number, symbol etc in the form of two states/digital signals, either a
HIGH voltage state “ON/TRUE”, or a LOW voltage state “OFF/FALSE”.
- How computers represent data in the form of two states?

Types of Computer Viruses

There are different types of viruses. Some of these are:-
a) Parasitic or file viruses c) Multi-partite viruses
b) Bootstrap-sector viruses d) Script viruses

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e) Data File Viruses

1. Data File Viruses

Viruses infect programs that contain powerful macro language (programming
language that let the user create new features & utilities). These files are called data file
viruses or macro viruses. This virus spread infected files, which allows use of macro
Languages
2. Boot Sector Viruses
These viruses infect the boot sector of a hard disk or floppy. They reside on the
boot sector & replace either the program that store information about the disk's contents
or the program that start the computer. An attempt to boot from a diskette infected with
active in memory. These types of viruses will place a copy of itself on to master boot
record;
3. Parasitic or file viruses infect executable files or programs in the computer. These
files are often identified by the extension .exe in the name of the computer file. File
viruses leave the contents of the host program unchanged but attach to the host in such
a way that the virus code is run first. These viruses can be either direct-action or
resident. A direct-action virus selects one or more programs to infect each time it is
executed. A resident virus hides in the computer's memory and infects a particular
program when that program is executed.
4. Multi-partite viruses combine the abilities of the parasitic and the bootstrap-sector
viruses, and so are able to infect either files or boot sectors. These types of viruses can
spread if a computer user boots from an infected diskette or accesses infected files.
5. Script viruses are written in script programming languages, such as VBScript (Visual
Basic Script) and JavaScript. These script languages can be seen as a special kind of
macro language and are even more powerful because most are closely related to the
operating system environment. The "ILOVEYOU" virus, which appeared in 2000 and
infected an estimated 1 in 5 personal computers, is a famous example of a script virus.
B. Computer Security
Computer security is a technical developed to protect single computers and Network- Lined
computer system from accidental or intentional harm including destruction of computer hue &

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sue. One of the causes of disaster on a computer system is computer virus. There are different
types of security methods. Some of which are as follows:-
I. Disaster Recovery Plans: It is Periodical testing and upgrading of the contents of the
computer. It helps to safe guard documents from sudden damage.
II. Application Safeguards: Protecting the computer itself and the document within the
system from internal and external damage.
III. Intrusion Selection Systems: it Security software called intrusion detection systems may
be used in computers to detect unusual and suspicious activity and, in some cases, stop a
variety of harmful actions by authorized or unauthorized persons. Abuse and misuse of
sensitive system and application programs and data such as password, inventory,
financial, engineering, and personnel files can be detected by these systems
IV. Firewalls: Software placed between the networked computers and protects the networked
computers. The firewall examines, filters, and reports on all information passing through
the network to ensure its appropriateness.
V. Passwords: are confidential sequences of characters that allow approved persons to make
use of specified computers, software, or information.
VI. Backup: Storing backup copies of software and data and having backup computer and
communication capabilities are important basic safeguards because the data can then be
restored if it was altered or destroyed by a computer crime or accident.
VII. Encryption: a process of converting messages or data into a form that cannot be read
without decrypting or deciphering it. The root of the word encryption—crypt—comes
from the Greek word kryptos, meaning “hidden” or “secret.”
VIII. Anti-viral Tactics

a) Preparation and Prevention c) Containment and Recovery

b) Virus Detection

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