Lehrstuhl für Regelungs- und

Steuerungstechnik

Fundamentals of Control

Part 1: Linear Control

Last updated: 2023-10-21

Contents

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Interrelations in control technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Strategy for control loop design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.1 Difference between open-loop and closed-loop control . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.2 Examples for control circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2 Structure of a control loop 6

2.1 Elements of a block diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2 Requirements for control circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3 The flow diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4 Properties of linear time-invariant transfer elements . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

3 Analysis in the frequency domain 19

3.1 The Laplace-Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2 Application of the Laplace-Transformation to linear transfer elements . . 23
3.3 Characteristic equation and Partial fraction decomposition . . . . . . . . 28
3.4 Algebra of signal flow plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

i
Preface

This courseware on ’Linear Control’ describes the basic principles of linear control
theory in the frequency domain. It gives a primary understanding of feedback control
and its mathematical representation. Linear and time-invariant transfer elements are
introduced and P(roportional)-I(ntegral)-D(erivative) controllers are subject of further
controller design. A major focus is on feedback system stability.

If time allows, the State-Space control approach to systems analysis and con-
troller/observer design is presented here briefly, which is carried out by means of the
state-space description in the time-domain. This topic will be adressed in more detail
in future courseware.

Siegen, Germany in October 2023

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Michael Gerke

ii
1 Introduction

Control theory deals with methods and techniques to influence process dynamics by
means of feedback control loops.

1
History of control:
300 b.C. Alexandria
water meter based on a float (object that is buoyant in water)

18th century James Watt:

steam engine with centrifugal force pendulum

...... .....
...... .. ...... ...........
...... ..... ...... ......
...... ....... ...... ......
.....................
. ...
..
...... ......
...... ......
.... .... .........
...... ...... .......
...... ......
....... ...... ...... .......

xx
x
x
xx
x
xx
x
x
xx
x
x
xx
x
..
....................... ..... ...
xx
........ ......
x
x
xx
x
xx
x
x
xx
x
x
xx
.. ......... ........
x
x x
..
x x
.. .. ..
...... ....... .. ...
x
x x
xx
...... ...... ..... .....
...... ......
.........
....... ... ... x
x x
... ... .......................
xx ...... .......
x
x
x x ...... ......
........................
... ..
... ... ..... ...
..
.. ...
.
... ... x
x
x x
...... ......
...... .......
x x
. ...........
x x
... ... ........
x
xx
x
x
xx x
x
xx
x
x
... ...
... ...
....... .. ...
.
.. ... x
xx
x
x
xx x
x
xx
x
x
x
x
xx
x
x
xx x
x
xx
x
x
xx
..... ... .
... ... .. .. ...
... ... ......... .
... ... ....... ... ...
... ... ..... ... ... ...
... ... .. ... ...
... ... .........
... ... ....... ... ...
.
... .. .... . ...
. ... ...
... ... ..... ... ...
... ... ............ ... ...
... ... .... .. ...
.
... ... . .. ..
... ..
. ... ....
.....................................................
....................................
....................................
....................................
......................................
. ...................................
..... ....................................
.. .. ....................................
.. ........... .................. ......................
..
.... ......
... ..
..... . . ...
.... .

... ..
... ...
steam
...... .................
.....
.... .....
..

19th century instability problems observed

(occuring in control of water turbined)
→ First theoretical approaches in stability analysis
(developed by Routh and Hurwitz)

about 1920s Feedback structures were discovered in biological organisms

(e.g. stabilization of body temperatur)

1948 “ Cybernetics” to be established by Norbert Wiener,

sciences in control from different origins (technical, biological, socio-economics etc.)

since 2nd half various applications in the field of automation

of 20th century practical realization by means of
• analog computer devices (in early days)
• digital computers, micro-controllers (nowadays)
powerful hardware and Realtime-
multitasking OS (operating system) available

2
1.1 Interrelations in control technology

Technical systems interacting in control are represented by the following graphical struc-
tures:

control system controlled system

(centrifugal pendulum) (steam engine)
...... ......
..... .....

block diagram model design

....... ....
....... .......
....... .......
....... .......
.......
....... .
...
.........
....... ...
....... .......
....... .......
....... .......
....... .......
.......... .. ....
.........
.
...............
flow diagram ..
.............

For system analysis purpose and subsequent control systems design, usually a graphical
overview of the whole process with the help of a ’flow diagram’ is achieved.

reason effect
..........
....... element ..........
.......

direction of action
..........
.......

All elements of a flow diagram describe a causal action between the input signal (’reason’)
and the output signal (’effect’).

Elements of a signal flow diagram

• usually provide a mathematical description of their functional action,

• do not have any internal feedback, and

• the direction of action is assigned by input signal arrow (towards transfer element)
and output signal arrow (originating from transfer element).

The signal flow diagram gives a graphical representation of complex functional interac-
tions within a technical process.

3
1.2 Strategy for control loop design

The integration of control strategies into a technical process is following a structured

design procedure:

• Modeling of the controlled (technical) system .........

• Design of a suitable controller .........

• Analysis of stability.........
changes .........
• Simulation examinations

• Implementiation of the control systems .........

Connection to the controlled system

adaptations
• Implementing tests
Continous operation

1.2.1 Difference between open-loop and closed-loop control

open-loop: control signals directed towards the output, only

closed-loop: feedback-loop exists to compare input and output

in order to calculate control deviation

Example: Heating system

Room boundary
..
..
...
..
..
..
.
......
......
Heating element
.. ......
.. ......
......
..
..
..
..
......
.
...
. Outside temperatur ......
Energy ..........
...
..
.. .. ..
...
.
........
.......
........

....... .. .
...... .
..... .... .. ...............
. .. . .
.................................................................................................................
.
.......
.
. ......
.....................................................................................................................
... ..
...
......
. ...
...... ..
....
....... ...
.
.... ...
......
...... ...
...
Valve ....
..
..

Open-loop control:

The heat transfer into the room is influenced by the valve position.

4
 .......................
............ .......
....... ......
..... .....
..... .....

...
..
.
.....
cold
The adjustment of the valve ...
...
...
. ...
.... ...

22 C ◦ ...
1 position is related to ab- ...
....
...
...
3 ...
.
...
...
...
stract numbers (1,2,3) first. .
.
..
... ...

20 ◦ C
...
. 2
...... ......... The assignment to room ...
........
...

16 ◦ C
......
........
......................................
......
.
..
. ..

temperatures is based on
18 ◦ C users experience.
Drawbacks:
• no exact adjustment of room temperature
• no consideration of external disturbances (e.g. outside temperature)
Closed-loop control:
The valve is not fixed to a particular desired value, but automatically adjusted depending
on measurement of the actual room temperature.

Room boundary
..
..
..
...
..
..
..
...
......
......
Heating element
......
.. ......
..
..
...
......
......
.
...
.
Outside ..
.......
temperature
Energy ..........
..
.. ........
.......
.......
.... .. .............
... ..... .... ..
. ...............
.......................................................................................................................
........
. . .
.. ......
.
.
............................................................... ..................................................
..
.
..
..
...
. Sensorics
..
...
.....................
.... ..
... ...
..
(actual temp.)
.....
...
.....
M
................. ...
. .
... ..
.. ....
...
... ...
... ...
...
...
...
.............................. ...
....... ◦ .......... ...
18 C ..... ...
.... ... ...
... ... ...
.... ◦ ...
19 C
.. ... ...
...
....
... ◦ ◦.....
.. Controller .
20 C 22 C
...
...
... ..
.
.
..... ◦ .........
21 C ......
..........
....................
....

The controller module carries out a permanent comparison between the ’desired tem-
perature’ and the measured ’actual temperature’. Dependent on the deviation between
these two input signals the controller adjusts the valve automatically.
Advantages:
• exact adjustment of room temperature is possible.
• external disturbances (e.g. outside temperature) can be considered.

1.2.2 Examples for control circuits

• biological circuits e.g. sense of equilibrium

• economical circuits e.g. price / effort ration for consumer goods
• technical circuits e.g. room temperature
• Human in the loop e.g. motorist in traffic

5
2 Structure of a control loop

d
.....
....

w .. ..
......
..... ....... e u ....... y .......
.............
..
...... ........
.....
...........
.. controller ........ controlled system ........
...
.....

w : nominal value (adjusted temperature); also called: ’desired value’

y : actual value (measured temperature)
e : control deviation (temperature difference: desired <-> actual); also called: ’error’
u : control signal (energy supply)
d : disturbance (fluctuation of outside temperature)

A closed-loop control is characterized by its signal feedback and the comparison between
the desired (nominal) value and the measured (actual) value. This results in the typical
feedback structure of control circuits.
Usually, the signals in a block diagram have dimensions. However, for simplification in
control engineering they are treated as dimensionless variables.
Transfer blocks are regarded as free of any internal feedback. This means, that input
signals (variables) are not influenced by the outputs of the same transfer block.

2.1 Elements of a block diagram

x signal (physical variable)
-
e.g. temperature

- - Transfer block (technical system)

e.g. thermostat

x1 ....... ...
................
.
x3................
............... ..... ..
............
........
.. ..

x2 addition: x3 = x1 + x2

6
 x1 ....... ...
................
.
x3................
............... ..... ..
.............
.....
... ...

subtraction: x3 = x1 − x2
x2
x1 x3-

branching point: x3 = x2 = x1
x2
?

Signal behavior for simple control circuit

Definition by cases:
control tendency

y<w → e>0 → increase of energy supply u

y>w → e<0 → decrease of energy supply u
y=w → e=0 → constant energy supply u

Figure 2.1: Example: Control of room temperature via energy supply u

7
2.2 Requirements for control circuits

good nominal behavior: Fast adaption of the actual value towards the desired value.

good suppression of disturbances: small influence of disturbances on actual output value

Stability: the output value remains bounded, it is not pursuing to ∞, e.g. no mismatch
in control tendencies.

Fast speed: short duration of the controller’s transient behavior.

no steady-state control error: exact adaption of the actual output signal to its desired
value in steady state conditions.

no overshooting: (in many cases) the output signal should not exceed the desired value

Robustness: small changes of operation condiitions, environment should not influence

the control behavior.

Figure 2.2: Partly concurrent requirements

8
Stability of control circuits

Assume the following systems input w(t) (here: step function):

..
w .....

...........
ts t

The output response y(t) of the control circuit could look like one of the examples given
below:

• Stable asymptotic closed-loop response y(t)

..
y .....

pp pppp p ppp p p pp
1 p p p p p p p p ppppppppp p p p p p p pp p p p p p p p p ppp p p p p pppp p p p p p p p p
..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .

p p p p p p p p p p p p p p ppp p p p p p p p stable
p p p ppp p
p p p pp p p p p
p p p p pp p p p p p p p p p p pp ...........
ts t

• Stable closed-loop response y(t) with single overshoot (aperiodic borderline case)
...
y ......
y
..p..p..p.p..p..p..pp
p p p p p p p p pp p p p p p p p p pp p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p
.max

p p p
..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .p..p.. ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..p..p.p p p..p.p..p p p.p.p..p.p p p.p..p..p p p p....p.p p ..
1 pp
p pp stable
ppp p p
p
p p p p pp p p p p p p p p p p ...........

ts t

• Stable closed-loop response y(t) with decreasing oscillations

..
y .....
y.max
p pp ...p.p..p.p..p.p...

p p p p p p p p pp p p p pp p p p p p p p p
..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ....p. ..... ..... ..... p.p.p... .....p p p..p..p.p p ..... ..... .....pp p .p..p.p.p p p..p.p..p p ...p.p.p p p..p.p..p p p..p..p.p p p..p.p..p p p..p.p..p p p.p.p.p..p p p.p..p..p p ..
p
1 pp p pp p p p p p
stable
p
p p p p pp
p p p p pp p p p p p p p ...........
ts t

• Marginally stable (at stability border) closed-loop response y(t) with permanently
lasting oscillation
y.max
pppp pppp .....p..p..p....
p pp pppppp
ppp p ppppp ppp ppppp pp pppp
..
y .....
p p
pp ppp p p p pp
ppp ppp p ppp ppppp pppp pppp ppp
pp p p pp
..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... p..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .....p ..... ..... ..... ..... .....pp ..... ..... ....p.p ..... ..... ..
p ppp
borderline
1 ppp ppp ppp ppp ppp pp
p ppp pp ppp p ppp pp stable
p ppp ppp pp
pp p
ppp ppp
pp pp
ppp p p
ppp pp
p p p p pp p p p p p p p p p pp p p p pp p ppp p ...........

ts t

9
• Instable closed-loop response y(t) with increasing oscillation
p
pp
pppp
p
ppp p ppp
pp p ppppp pppp
p p ppp pp pppp p
ppp
y ...
.... ppp p ppppp pppp ppppp pppp
pp ppp pp
p ppp
ppp
p p p p p
ppp pppp pp ppp
p p
p
..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .....p p p..... pp..p... ..... .....pp ..... ..... .....pp ..... ..... p..... ..... ..... pp ..... ..... ..... pp..... ..... ..... ..
1 pp ppp pp ppp pp ppp
p pp ppp pp ppp pp
pp
ppp pp unstable
ppp pp pp p p p
pp
ppp ppp
ppp ppp
ppp
ppp pp
p p p p pp p p p p p p p p p p
p p pp ppp pppp
p
...........
ppp pp
ts ppp ppp t
ppp p
ppp ppp
ppp p
pp

• Instable closed-loop response y(t) aperiodically increasing to ∞

pp
p pp
y ..
..... ppp p p
p p p pp
p p p p p ppp p pp
p
..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .....ppp.p..p.p.p ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..
1
p p p p p p p p p p p pp p unstable
p
p p p p p p p pp
p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p ppppp p p p p p p p
p pp p p p p p p p p p p p p ...........
ts t

10
2.3 The flow diagram

• The flow diagram results from the block diagram by a more precise determination
of the technical elements

• The mathematical coherences must be recognizable here.

Example: Simple fluid level control

sonar-
w y sensor
..........
....... control .......
........
.......
........ .................
....
........
........
... .... .....
.
................................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................
..
................... ............................................................................................................................................................................................
...... .....
.... ............................................................................................................................................................................................
..... ... ............................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................
...
...
...
......
M ..
..
...
. u
............................................................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................................................
d
...................... ... ..
......
............................................................................................................................................................................................ ... ..
....
............................................................................................................................................................................................
................ ............................................................................................................................................................................................ ..................
... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... ..
..... . ........................................................................................................................................................................................... ......................... ......
........ . .
....................................... . ........................................................................ .. ..
.........
........
......... ........................................
.......
.......................................
........................................ ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.........................
....... ..............
... .. ............................................................................................................................................................................................ ... .. ............
... .... ............................................... ... .... ...........
. . . . ............
... .
pump valve base a .. ... .....
.
.
... .....
.. ... ...
.
.. ... .

w : desired value for the water level

y : actual valuie for the water level (measured value)
u : flow-in per time-unit (control variable)
d : flow-out per time-unit (disturbance)

Block diagram:

control system ...

...
...
....
.
..
d
.........
........
.
w .............
....
...................
... e .......... u........ Fluid tank y
..........
...
....... .........
...
.. .......... controller .........
to be controlled
..........
.......
........
.....
.. ..

11
Flow diagram:

Fluid tank (to be controlled)

...
...
...
d
.........
........
w ....................
.... ... e .......... u .....................
.... ... 1 y
KR
............ ............
R
....... ....
....
................ ...
.
..
... .......... ...........
....
....................
.
...
..........
.......
a
..........
....... (.)dt .......
..........
.....
..
.. ..

Components of a flow diagram

Linear components:

x1 .......... x2 ..........
• gain ........
K ........ x2 (t) = K x1 (t)

x1 .......... x2 .......... Rt
• Integrator x2 (t) = x1 (τ )dτ
R
....... .......

x1 ................
.............. .
x3................
....... .... ..... ..
............
........
• Addition .. ..
x3 (t) = x1 (t)+x2 (t)
x2

x1 .............
................. x3................
....... .... .. ..
...............
.......
.
• Subtraction .. ..
x3 (t) = x1 (t)−x2 (t)
x2

• Time Shift x2 (t) = x1 (t−Tt )

12
Nonlinear components:

x1 .......... x3 ..........
.......
× .......

• multiplication ...
.....
... ..
x3 (t) = x1 (t)·x2 (t)

x2

x1 .......... x3 ..........
........
÷ ........

x1 (t)
• division ..
..... x3 (t) =
.. ... x2 (t)
x2

x1 .......... x2 p p p p p p p p p p p p p x2 ..........
ppppp
• characteristic lines ppppppppp p saturation
........ ........
x1

x1 .......... x2 x2 ..........
........ hysteresis
........
x1

p
x1 .......... pp pp x2 ..........
pppp
x2
pp
ppp pppp dead zone
........ ........
x1

√
• sin, cos, tan, , square
• u.v.m.

Double frames mark non-linearities.

13
Time-Shift element

The time.shift element belongs to the group of linear components. It represents the shift
of a signal in time.

Example: Conveyor belt

... .
... ...
... ...
... ...
...
... ....
.
... ...
... ...
... ...
...
... ....
.
... ...
... ...
...
... ...
... ....
v ...
...
..
...
...
.................
...
...
...
....
.. . .
q1
.. .. .. .. .......
... ... ... ...
..... ... .... ....
..... . . . ..... .. .
..... . .... .... . .....
. ..... ..... .
....... . .......
.... ............ ................
.... ..... .... ..... .... ....
.... ............ ................
....... .......
q1 ... ..
... .. ..
... ... ..
...... .. ... ....
. .
. ... .. ....
... ... ...
... .... ...
.... ... .....
.. .. ..
... .... ....
... .. ...
.... ... ...
.. ... ...
.... .... ...
.
.
..... .....
.
.
..... .....
.....
.
. .....
..... .
....
.
.....
.....
.

................. ..........
l .......

The time-shift Tt corresponds to the elapse time of the material on the conveyor belt.

It can be calculated as:

Tt = vl

The value for Tt is assumed to be constant (not variant in time).

Consequently it is obvious, that:

q2 (t) = q1 (t−Tt ) ..
.....
.. ..
q1 ...... ............
....... .......
..... .....
..... .....
....... ......
........
... ...........
.... ..... .. ......
..... .......
.... ....
... ...........
......

....
t
......
q2 . ..... ...........
. ....... .......
......
. .....
.................. .........
..........
....... Tt .
. ....
...
.....
......
.......
.........
. ........ ....... .. ....
...... ..
. ..... .
. ....
.... ...........
......

14
2.4 Properties of linear time-invariant transfer elements

Homogenity:

If it is valid: systems
.. ..
identical
. .
. .
.. ...
.. .
. ..
... ...
.
...
x1 (t) .
.
... x2 (t)
....... ... ..........
.......... time invariant linear system .
...
.......
.
..
..
.
...
.
..
.
..
...
it also applies: .
...
.
...
....
.
...
.
..

c x1 (t) c x2 (t)
....... ..........
.......... time invariant linear system .......

Superposition:

If it is valid: systems identical

... ... ... . .
.
.. ... ...
. . ..
... ... ..
.
... .... .
...
.
x1 (t) .
... .... x2 (t)
....... .. ... ..........
.......... time invariant linear system ..
. .
..
.......
... .
.
..
. .
.. ...
.
.. ..
.
... .
. ..
... .
...
x3 (t) .
... x4 (t)
....... ... ..........
.......... time invariant linear system .
...
.......
.
...
....
...
.
...
.
.
it also applies: .
..
..

...
.
...
.
...
x1 (t) .
..
...
.
...
.
...
...
...
... .. .
....
............
..... .......
x2 (t) + x4 (t)
..... ....... ..........
...
.
..
..................
.......... time invariant linear system .......

........
.. ..

x3 (t)

15
Analysis of a simple linear and time-invariant control circuit

w ....................
.... ... e .......... u .......... y
.............
KR
.
R .......
....... ... ... .......... .......... ..........
.... ....
.
..................
.....
.
.. ...

.........
..... ...........
.....
..... . ... ..... ...
.... ..... ..
..... ...
.. ..... .....
..... ..... .....
? ..... .....
..
..... ...
..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .....

Controlled system: Integrator

Controller: Proprotional element (gain KR )
Procedure of analysis: Determination of signal transfer from “right” to “left”

Rt
Controlled system: y(t)= u(τ )dτ (1)
o

Controller: u(t) = KR · e(t) (2)

Comparator: e(t) = w(t) − y(t) (3)

By differentiating (1) in terms of time t we receive

ẏ(t) = u(t)

By inserting (2) we combine

ẏ(t) = KR · e(t)

By means of equation (3) the intermediate signal e(t) can be eliminated

ẏ(t) = KR (w(t) − y(t))

Obviously a differential equation of 1st order governs the process.

ẏ(t) + KR y(t) = KR w(t)

This differential equation describes the input/output-behaviour of the closed-loop control

circuit.

16
Frequently occurring input signals

• (Unit) Step function σ:

...
w ........
1 pppp
ppp e.g. on/off power button switch
ppp ...........
....

) t
w(t) = 0 for t < 0
w(t) = σ(t)
w(t) = 1 for t ≥ 0

• Ramp function (steepness a):

...
w ........ pppp
pppppppp pppppppppppp
1 p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p ppppppppppppp pppppppp
ppppppppppppp a
p pppppppppppppppp ppp
e.g. Tracing a telescope
ppppp ppppppppppppppp 1 ...........
....

t
w(t) = 0 for t < 0
w(t) = a · t for t ≥ 0

• Dirac-Impulse function δ:
...
w ........r
rrr e.g. short-term excitation of an electronic
1 rrrrrrrr
rrr circuit
rrr ...........
....

t .....
w ....q....q
qqqqqqqq

w(t) = 0 for t ̸= 0 
q
qqq

qqqqq

w(t) = ∞ for t = 0 
w(t) = δ(t)
+∞ qq
qqq
R
w(t)dt = 1 qqqq



 ...........
−∞ ....

t
The Dirac δ-impulse is “∞ slim”, at the same time “∞ high”
and it consists of an enclosed “area” of size 1.

• Sinusodial function:
...
w ........
................. .............
.... .... ..... .......
.... .... ....
.... ...
....
....
....
...
....
.... ...
.
...
.. ....
....
.... ....
.
....
...........
.... e.g. common test signal for frequency analysis
.... ...... .... ...
.... .......
............ ...... t
w(t) = 0 for t < 0
w(t) = sin(ωt) for t ≥ 0

17
The step response

Assume, that a step function σ is applied to the input w of a technical system. The
systems output reaction y to this particular input signal is called step response.

System input: w(t) = σ(t)

Transfer behaviour: ẏ(t) + KR · y(t) = KR · w(t)
to be calculated → System output y(t)

Precondition: y(0) = yo = 0 initial value

Solution: y(t) = 1 − e−KR t (estimated)

Test: ẏ(t) = KR e−KR t (y, ẏ inserted into differential equation)

KR · e−KR t + KR (1 − e−KR t ) = KR · 1 −→ correct

....
.....
w .. ..

1 pppp
ppp Unit step function σ(t)
ppp
ppp
pp ...........
........

...
t
.....
... ..
y

p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p pp p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p
p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p pp p p
1 ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
...
...
p p p p p p p p p p p p Step response
p p p p p ppp
..
. ..

p p p p pp
.....
........

pp p
.. . .
. . ........
........ . . . . . . ........... . .
. .. . . . .................. ................
...

The system is of first order: obviously it provides a dynamic behaviour following a

differential equation of 1st order

18
3 Analysis in the frequency domain

3.1 The Laplace-Transform

Intended Strategy:

Time domain Frequency domain

......
........
...............
.............................................
.........
......
...
Laplace- Laplace
... ..........
....
....
.......
Diff.eq. ..
...
.....
. .......
..........
.......................................................... ......
.
Transform Transform
Algebraic
... ..
......
calculations
.

.....
........
...............
..............................................
........
......
...
Inverse Laplace- Solution in
... .. .................
....
.... Solution ......
...
..
.......
..........
................................................................
.
transformation Frequency domain

Advantages: Operations can be calculated much easier in the frequency domain than
equivalent operations carried out in the time domain. They also remain very transparent
here.
Introduction of complex frequencies:
........
..........
...
...
Im ...
... ...
...................
...
...
...
...
s .....
...... ......
...........
..
...
...
...
...
...
... ..... .....
ω ...
... . . . . . . . . . . ...................
... .
s = σ + jω ...
...
...
.
.
.
.
... .
.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
√ ...
...
j= −1 ...
...
... σ Re
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
.

Real part: σ (describes increasing/decreasing behaviour of signals)

Imaginary part: ω (describes periodically oscillating behaviour of signals)

19
Corresponding Laplace-Transform F (s) of a time function f (t):
R∞
F (s) = £ {f (t)} = f (t) · e−st dt
o

Example:

Laplace-Transform F (s) of the unit step function f (t) = σ(t)

From f (t) = 1 it results, that

t=∞
R∞ −st

F (s) = 1 · e−st dt = e−s = 1s
o t=0

Theorems of the Laplace-Transformation:

• Theorem of Linearity:

£{a · f1 (t) + b · f2 (t)} = a · £{f1 (t)} + b · £{f2 (t)}

• Theorem of time shift:

£{f (t − Tt )} = e−sTt · £{f (t)}

• Theorem of attenuation:

£{f (t)e−at } = F (s + a)

• Theorem of convolution:

Rt
f1 (t) ∗ f2 (t) = f1 (τ ) · f2 (t − τ )dτ
0

£{f1 (t) ∗ f2 (t)} = F1 (s) · F2 (s)

20
Limiting value theorems of the Laplace-Transformation:

• Initial value theorem (IVT):

To calculate functional values of signals near the starting point t = 0:

x(t → 0+ ) = lim s · X(s)

s→∞

Precondition: lim x(t) exists

t→0+

• Final value theorem (FVT):

To calculate functional values of signals after long observation time t → ∞

(e.g. signal usually settled, stationary)

x(t → ∞) = lim s · X(s)

s→0

Precondition: lim x(t) exists

t→∞

Simple example for application of the FVT:

Step function: X(s) = 1s

For t → ∞ the calculation of final signal value is as follows:

x(t → ∞) = lim s · 1s = lim 1 = 1

s→0 s→0

As expected, the final value of a unit step signal is equal to 1

for t → ∞.

21
Rules for Differentation and Integration of signals in frequency domain:

• Differentation:

£{f˙(t)} = s · F (s)

General rule:

In frequency domain, a signal can be differentiated by multiplication with

the complex frequency s.

• Integration:
( )
Rt
£ f (τ )dτ = 1s F (s)
0

General rule:

In frequency domain, a signal can be integrated by its division through the

complex frequency s.

In addition, initial values would have to be considered here, if the functional value
of the time signal is unequal 0 for t ≤ 0.

22
3.2 Application of the Laplace-Transformation to linear
transfer elements

The forward transformation into the Laplace frequency domain

Starting point: Differential equations

y (n) (t) + an−1 y (n−1) (t) + . . . + a1 ẏ(t) + ao y(t) =

= bo u(t) + b1 u̇(t) + . . . + bm u(m) (t)
⃝
| Laplace-Transformation
•

sn Y (s) + an−1 sn−1 Y (s) + . . . + a1 s Y (s) + ao Y (s) =

= bo U (s) + b1 s U (s) + . . . + bm sm U (s)

Y (s) · (sn + an−1 sn−1 + . . . + a1 s + ao ) = U (s) · (bm sm + ... + b1 s + bo )

Y (s) m
= n bm s + . . . + b1 s + bo = G(s)
U (s) s + an−1 sn−1 + . . . + a1 s + ao

U (s) Y (s)
..........
....... G(s) ..........
.......

Frequency domain Time domain

System input: U (s) u(t)

System output: Y (s) y(t)
Transfer function: G(s) g(t)

The following applies to linear and time-invariant systems:

In LAPLACE frequency domain the systems
output Y (s) can be calculated by simple mul-
Y (s) = G(s)·U (s) tiplication of the systems input U (s) and the
complex transfer function G(s) of the system
itself.

In time domain this multiplication corresponds to a much more complicated con-

volution of time functions u(t) ∗ g(t), which is an integral operation.

23
The convolution:

G(s) · U (s) = £{g(t) ∗ u(t)}

symbolically represents

Rt
g(t) ∗ u(t) = g(τ ) u(t − τ )dτ
0

Rt
→ y(t) = g(τ ) u(t − τ )dτ
0

g(t) is denominated as weight function of the technical system. Its LAPLACE

correspondency is called the transfer function G(s).

24
The inverse transformation back into the time domain

The inverse Laplace transformation yields from the frequency dependent function F (s)
to the corresponding time dependent function f (t)

f (t) = £−1 {F (s)}

Realization of the inverse Laplace transformation:

• Calculation of the complex reversal integral of the Laplace transformation

komplexen Umkehrintegrals der Laplace-Transformation
σ+j∞
£−1 {F (s)} = 2π1 j es t F (s) ds
R
σ−j∞

→ for theoretical studies, only

• Application of correspondance tables

→ practical way towards problem solving.

Example:

Input function: σ(t) o–· 1

s

Transfer function: Integration 1s

σ(t).......... R ? ..........
........ ........

Output function: Y (s) = 1s · 1s = 12

s

Inverse Laplace transformation by means of correspondance tables

y(t) = t ramp function

25
Some most important correspondences of the Laplace-Transformation

time function frequency function

f (t) for t ≥ 0 F (s) where s = σ + jω

δ(t) 1 Impulse function

σ(t) 1 Step function

s

t 1 Ramp function
s2

tn−1 1
(n − 1) ! sn

e−at 1 decreasing function

s+a

t e−at 1 aperiodically decreasing function (borderline case)

(s + a)2


sin(ωt) ω 
s2 + ω 2



permanently oscillating functions
cos(ωt) s 

s2 + ω 2



e−at sin(ωt) ω 
(s + a)2 + ω 2




decreasing oscillations
e−at cos(ωt) s+a 

(s + a)2 + ω 2



26
Practical application of the theorem of linearity

• Addition:

time domain: ⃝ x1 (t) + x2 (t)

|
• X1 (s) + X2 (s)
• Multiplication with a constant factor:

time domain: ⃝ k · x1 (t)

|
• k · X1 (s)

Example: Integrator, integrating transfer element

...
.....
... ..
.....
......
y(t) ..............................
......
......
.......
.......
..
.........
.
. ..
.......
.......
......
.......
.
ramp gradient 1
.
...
........
..
......
qqqqq
.
.
.....
......
.......
qqqqqqqqq
qq .
qqq . . step area 3
qqqqq u(t)
U Y .......... q
..........
....... 1 ........ qqq
....................................qq ..........
s .......

Given: System input: ⃝ u(t) = σ(t) + 3 · δ(t)

|
• U (s) = 1s + 3
Transfer function: Integrator

G(s) = 1s

Output function: Y (s) = G(s) · U (s)

Y (s) = 1s 1s + 3 = 12 + 3s
 
s
Inverse transformation via correspondance tables:
1

•−⃝ t ramp function 
s2


y(t) = t + 3 · σ(t)
3

•−⃝ 3 · σ(t)

s step function 

27
3.3 Characteristic equation and Partial fraction decomposition

Application of the Partial fraction decomposition (PFD)

PFD execution for complex polynomial expression
Procedure:
• Find the zeros of the polynomial expression in the denominator (poles); here it is
assumed that there are no more common divisors of numerator and denominator,
• Identify fractional terms related to each pole and decomposite the original expres-
sion accordingly (sum of fractions), and
• Perform the inverse Laplace transformation for all simple partial fractions into
time-domain functions based on correspondence tables.
PFD execution:
• Staring point: Polynomial with no common divisors in numerator and denominator

bn−1 sn−1 + . . . + b1 s + bo
Y (s) =
s + an−1 sn−1 + . . . + a1 s + ao
n

After locating all the poles of the polynomial expression, only 4 different cases have to
be considered:

• single real pole at s1 :

A
(s − s1 )

• multiple (k-fold) real pole at s2 :

Bk Bk−1 B2
+ + ... + + B1
(s − s2 )k (s − s2 )k−1 (s − s2 )2 (s − s2 )

• single pair of complex conjugate poles:

Cs + D
s2 + p1 s + q1

• multiple (l-fold) pairs of complex conjugate poles at the same position:

El s + Fl El−1 s + Fl−1
l + + ...
2
(s + p2 s + q2 ) (s + p2 s + q2 )l−1
2

... + E2 s + F2 + E1 s + F1
(s2 + p2 s + q2 )2 (s2 + p2 s + q2 )

Constant values A, B1 . . . Bk , C, D, E1 . . . El , F1 . . . Fl have to be calculated by com-

parison of coefficients.

28
Characteristic equation of a polynomial

Consider the following transfer system:

u ..........
x ..........
.......
F (s) .......

Related differential equation:

an x(n) (t) + . . . + a2 ẍ(t) + a1 ẋ(t) + a0 x(t) = b0 u(t) + b1 u̇(t) + . . . + bm u(m) (t)
⃝ where n ≥ m ≥ 0
| Laplace-Transformation
•

an sn X(s) + . . . + a2 s2 X(s) + a1 sX(s) + a0 X(s) =

b0 U (s) + b1 sU (s) + . . . + bm sm U (s)

Complex transfer function:

X(s) Zähler(s) m
F (s) = = = bm sn + . . . + b1 s + b0
U (s) Nenner(s) an s + . . . + a1 s + a0

Characteristic equation:
an s n + . . . + a2 s 2 + a1 s + a0 = 0

Rearrangement into:
(s − s1 ) (s − s2 ) . . . (s − sn ) = 0
where: si = σi ± j ωi , i = 1 . . . n
Here s1 . . . sn are the zeros of the characteristic equation.

• The poles of the complex transfer function F (s) correspond to the zeros s1 . . . sn
of the characteristic equation.
• Due to the properties of the partial fraction decomposition each pole of the complex
transfer function corresponds to a particular self-oscillation of the system according
to its underlying differential equation.

These determinations lead to the following conclusion:

The zeros s1 . . . sn of the characteristic equation

(s − s1 ) (s − s2 ) . . . (s − sn ) = 0
⇝
provide all necessary information about the self-oscillatory behaviour resulting
from the systems differential equations.

Therefrom it can be derived, that all constant s1 . . . sn can also consist of complex values.

29
3.4 Algebra of signal flow plans

Combinations of transfer systems:

• Serial connection

F (s)

U .......
X .......... Y ...........
..........
F1 (s) .......
F2 (s) ......

→ F (s) = F2 (s)·F1 (s)

Equivalent to:

F (s) = F1 (s)·F2 (s)

• Parallel Connection

F (s)

..........
X1
....... F1 (s) ...
...
..
..........
........
U ....
. .
..... .......
... Y ..........
...... ........ .......
.....
.....
.........
X2 ..
...
..
..........
....... F2 (s)

→ F (s) = F1 (s)+F2 (s)

Equivalent to:

F (s) = F2 (s)+F1 (s)

30
 • Closed loop

F (s)

U ..........
............. .....
X2.......... Y ..........
....... .... ....
...........
.......
.......... Fv (s) .......

... ..

X1
Fr (s) .................

X1 (s) = Fr (s) · Y (s)

X2 (s) = U (s) − X1 (s)

Y (s)= Fv (s) · X2 (s)

= Fv (s) · (U (s) − X1 (s))
= Fv (s) · (U (s) − Fr (s) · Y (s))

Y (s) = Fv (s) · U (s) − Fv (s) · Fr (s) · Y (s)

(1 + Fv (s) · Fr (s)) · Y (s) = Fv (s) · U (s)

Fv (s)
Y (s) = · U (s)
1 + Fv (s) · Fr (s)

Fv (s)
F (s) =
1 + Fv (s) · Fr (s)

Or, if expressed by the transfer function of the open loop: Fo (s) = Fv (s) · Fr (s)

Fv (s)
F (s) =
1 + Fo (s)

31
Example:

Calculation of the transfer function FW (s) of a closed loop:

FW (s)

Controller Process
W .........
............... .....
E........ U Y ........
....... ..... ....
.........
.......... FR (s) ..........
....... FS (s) ..........
.....
... ..

FR (s) · FS (s)
FW (s) =
1 + FR (s) · FS (s)

Comparison with the general feedback structure:

Here the feed-foreward transfer Fv (s) and the open-loop transfer F0 (s)

Fv (s) = FR (s) · FS (s)

Fo (s) = FR (s) · FS (s)

lead to the closed-loop transfer function FW (s):

Fv (s)
FW (s) =
1 + Fo (s)

32
Displacement of addition and branching points

Displacement of a point of addition:

u1 .........
.............. .....
y u1 .........
.............. .....
y
..........
... F (s) ... .... ...
.........
..........
... ... .... ...
.........
..........
... F (s) ..........
...
.... ....
.... ....

1
u2 F (s)
.... .
.....

u2

u1 ........
............... .....
y u1 ........
............... .....
y
... .... ...
...........
..........
... F (s) ..........
...
..........
... F (s) ... ... ...
...........
..........
...
.. ..
...... ......

u2 F (s)
.....
.. ..

u2

Displacement of a branching point:

u y2 u y2
..........
... F (s) ..........
...
..........
... F (s) ..........
...

.....
.....
y1
......
F (s)
.....

y1 ...........

u y2 u y2
..........
... F (s) ..........
...
..........
... F (s) ..........
...

......
.....
y1 1
......
..... F (s)
.....
.....
y1

General rule: Addition and branching points may not be displaced without fur-
ther considerations.

33
Example: Simplification of a complex signal flow plan

F2 (s) ...... ..... ....... ......... ...... ....... ...... ....... .....
... ... ... ... .. .. .. .. ... ... ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ... .... ............................
....
... ........ ........... ........... ......... ......... ........... ........... ........... ............ ..
... ...
u .........
............... ....
.....
..........
.............. ....
.........
.............. .....
y
... ... ....
..........
.
..........
... F1 (s) ... ... ....
.........
..........
... F3 (s) ... ... ..
..........
.
..........
...
..... .....
.. .. .. ..
. .......... .......... ........ ....... ..... ......
............................... .... ... .... ... .... .... .... ..... ..... .... .... .....
..... ...... ........ ....... ....... ....... .
..........
....... F4 (s)

..........
....... F2 (s) · F3 (s)
... ...
u .........
.............. .....
....
...........
............. .....
y
... .... ...
.........
.
..........
... F1 (s) ...
.......... F3 (s) ... .... ...
.........
.
..........
...
..... .....
.. ... .. ...

..........
....... F1 (s) · F4 (s)

..........
....... F2 (s) · F3 (s)
... ..
u .........
.............. ....
......
.........
............. ....
y
... ... ....
..........
.
..........
... F1 (s) · F3 (s) ... ... ....
..........
..
..........
...
..... ......
.. ... .. ..

..........
....... F1 (s) · F4 (s)

u .........
.............. ....
y
... ... ....
..........
.
..........
... F2 (s) · F3 (s) + F1 (s) · F3 (s) + F1 (s) · F4 (s) ..........
...
.....
.. ...

u ..........
F2 (s) · F3 (s) + F1 (s) · F3 (s) + F1 (s) · F4 (s) y ..........
... ...
1 + F2 (s) · F3 (s) + F1 (s) · F3 (s) + F1 (s) · F4 (s)

34