Project Final File

CHAPTER :1
1
1.1. INTRODUCTION
Faults on transmission line can be caused by lightning strikes, flash over on contaminated
insulator surface, broken conducting line, short circuit between conducting lines, etc.
Electromagnetic transients in power systems result from a variety of disturbances on
transmission lines, such as faults, are extremely important. A fault occurs when two or more
conductors come in contact with each other or ground in three Phase systems, faults are
classified as Single line-to ground faults, Line-to-line faults, double line- to-ground faults, and
three phase faults. For it is at such times that the power system components are subjected to
the greater stress from excessive current.
To prevent such incidents, protective relays are installed in the system, which detect and
isolate the faulted section from the rest of the system. The three-phase fault analysis method
is used to detect the type of fault that has occurred, whether it is a temporary fault or a
permanent fault. In the case of a temporary fault, the protective relay automatically resets the
system after a brief period.
This analysis focuses on two primary types of faults: temporary faults and
permanent trips, each requiring different responses from protection systems. Temporary
faults are short-duration disturbances in the system, often caused by transient conditions like
lightning strikes or momentary line faults. Permanent trips, on the other hand, indicate
persistent faults that necessitate corrective actions such as isolating the faulty section of the
network.
A fault in a power system can be referred to any abnormality in the electric current
flowing in it. For example, if the current is interrupted by some failure in the circuit, the
resulting fault is an open circuit fault. If the current in the circuit bypasses the normal load, it
results in a short circuit fault. In a three phase system, the fault may occur between one or
more phase and ground or only between phases of the system. Generally, protective devices
are used in transmission systems to detect fault conditions and result in operation of circuit
breakers or isolators that help in limiting the damage due to the failure. In three-phase or
polyphase systems, a fault may affect some phases (causing asymmetrical faults). If all the
phases are affected equally, it results in a symmetrical fault. Symmetrical faults are easier to
analyze than asymmetrical faults.
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1.2. CLASSIFICATION OF FAULTS
1.2.1 Transient faults:
In a system, if a fault diminishes when power is disconnected for a short
period of time and then restored, the fault is referred as a transient fault. A transient fault
may also be an insulation fault that temporarily affects a device’s dielectric properties.
Transient faults may be caused due to momentary tree contact, animal contact, lightning
strike, etc.
1.2.2. Persistent faults :
Faults that do not diminish when power is disconnected and restored are called
persistent faults. Such faults generally occur due to mechanical damage to the cable or other
equipment of the system.
1.3. TYPES OF FAULTS IN POWER SYSTEM

The fault in the power system is defined as the defect in the power system due to which the
current is distracted from the intended path. The fault creates the abnormal condition which
reduces the insulation strength between the conductors. The reduction in insulation causes
excessive damage to the system.
• The fault in the power system is mainly categorised into two types they are-
1. Open Circuit Fault

2. Short Circuit Fault.
The different types of power system fault are shown below in the image.
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The faults in the power system may occur because of the number of natural disturbances like
lightning, high-speed winds, earthquake, etc. It may also occur because of some accidents like
falling off a tree, vehicle colliding, with supporting structure, aeroplane crashing, etc.
1.3.1 Open Circuit Fault:
The open circuit fault mainly occurs because of the failure of one or two conductors. The
open circuit fault takes place in series with the line, and because of this, it is also called the
series fault Such types of faults affect the reliability of the system. The open circuit fault
categorised as
• Open Conductor Fault

• Two conductors Open Fault
• Three conductors Open Fault.
The open circuit fault is shown in the figure below.
1.3.2. Short-Circuit Fault

• In this type of fault, the conductors of the different phases come into contact with
each other with a power line, power transformer or any other circuit element due to
which the large current flow in one or two phases of the system.
• The short-circuit fault is divided into the symmetrical and unsymmetrical fault.
1.3.3. Symmetrical Fault

• The faults which involve all the three phases is known as the symmetrical fault. Such
types of fault remain balanced even after the fault. The symmetrical faults mainly
occur at the terminal of the generators. The fault on the system may arise on account
of the resistance the arc between the conductors or due to the lower footing
resistance.
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• The symmetrical fault is sub-categorized in line-to-line-to-line fault and three-phase
line-to-ground-fault
1.3.3.a. Line – Line – Line Fault –
Such types of faults are balanced, i.e., the system remains symmetrical even after the fault.
The L – L – L fault occurs rarely, but it is the most severe type of fault which involves the
largest current. This large current is used for determining the rating of the circuit breaker.
1.3.3.b. L – L – L – G (Three-phase line to the ground fault) –
• The three-phase line to ground fault includes all the three phase of the system.
• The L – L – L – G fault occurs between the three phases and the ground of the system.
The probability of occurrence of such type of fault is nearly 2 to 3 percent.
1.3.4.Unsymmetrical Fault
• The fault gives rise to unsymmetrical current, i.e., current differing in magnitude and
phases in the three phases of the power system are known as the unsymmetrical fault.
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• It is also defined as the fault which involves the one or two phases such as L- G, L – L,
L – L – G fault. The unsymmetrical makes the system unbalanced. It is mainly classified into
three types. They are
1. Single Line-to-ground (L – G) Fault

2. Line-to-Line Fault (L – L)
3. Double Line-to-ground (L – L – G) Fault
The unsymmetrical fault is the most common types of fault occur in the power system.
1.3.4.1. Single Line-to-Line Ground –
The single line of ground fault occurs when one conductor falls to the ground or contact the
neutral conductor. The 70 – 80 percent of the fault in the power system is the single line-to-
ground fault.
Circuit diagram of single line-to-ground fault
Suppose the phase a is connected to ground at the fault point F as shown in a figure below. Ia,
Ib and Ic are the current and Va, Vb and Vc are the voltage across the three phase line a, b and c
respectively. The fault impedance of the line is Zf.
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Since only phase a is connected to ground at the fault, phase b and c are open circuited and
carries no current; i.e fault current is Ia and Ib = 0, Ic = 0. The voltage at the fault point F is
Va = Zf Ia.
The symmetrical component of the fault current in phase “a” at the fault point can be written as
This relation can also be found by matrix method as follows:-
In the case of a single line-to-ground fault, the sequence currents are equal. The
sequence voltage at the fault point is determined by the equations:-
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Where, Ea0, Ea1, and Ea2 are the sequence voltages of phase a, and Za0, Za1 and Za2 are the
sequence impedances to the flow of currents Ia0, Ia1, and Ia2 respectively. For a balanced
system
We know that
On substituting the Ia0 = Ia1 = Ia2 = Ia in above equation we get,
The sequence current is given by equation,
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1.3.4.2. Line – to – Line Fault –
A line-to-line fault occurs when two conductors are short circuited. The major cause of this type
of fault is the heavy wind. The heavy wind swinging the line conductors which may touch
together and hence cause short-circuit. The percentage of such type of faults is approximately 15
– 20%.
A line to line fault or unsymmetrical fault occurs when two conductors are short circuited. In
the figure shown below shows a three phase system with a line-to-line fault phases b and c.
The fault impedance is assumed to be Zf. The LL fault is placed between lines b and c so that
the fault be symmetrical with respect to the reference phase a which is un-faulted.
The symmetrical components of a fault current in phase ‘a’ at the fault point can be
divided into three component.The zero sequence component of current at phase a is
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In the equation (1) Ib = -Ic. Positive sequence component of phase a is expressed as
and the negative sequence component of phase a is given by the equation,
The sequence current can also be found by matrix method
Therefore, we get
Expressing Va, Vb and Vc regarding voltages at the fault point are found by the
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relations given by
Combination of equation (1), (4) and (5) gives
The sequence current of voltage at the fault point are determined by the relations
shown below
From equation (8) and (9) we get
Combination of equation (4), (10) and (9) gives
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The fault current is given by the equation
From equation (1) it is clear that the line-to-line fault the zero-sequence component of
current Ia0 is equal to zero.
Equation (4) shows that the positive-sequence component of current is opposite in

phase to the negative-sequence component of current.
1.3.4.3. Double Line – to – line Ground Fault –
In double line-to-ground fault, the two lines come in contact with each other along with the
ground. The probability of such types of faults is nearly 10 %.
The symmetrical and unsymmetrical fault mainly occurs in the terminal of the generator, and the
open circuit and short circuit fault occur on the transmission line.
1.4. Fault Detection:
• Detection of faults is the first step in the analysis process. This involves monitoring
system parameters such as voltage, current, and frequency to identify deviations from
normal operating conditions.
• Fault Classification:
• Once a fault is detected, it needs to be classified as temporary or permanent. This
classification is based on factors such as fault duration, magnitude, and persistence.
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1.5 The process of fault detection and diagnosis
FDD involves several stages that enable the accurate identification and resolution of issues in
building systems. These stages include:
#1.5.1 Data Collection

Sensors and monitoring systems collect data on various parameters, such as temperature,
pressure, and energy consumption. Then these sensors are strategically placed throughout the
building to capture real-time information about the performance of different systems.
Examples of monitored parameters include:

• Temperature (heating and cooling systems)
• Pressure (water supply and HVAC systems)
• Energy consumption (electricity, gas, or other sources).
With these sensors, you can continuously measure and record data, providing a comprehensive
picture of the building's operational status.
#1.5.2. Data Analysis

The collected data is then analysed using fault detection and diagnostic software. With FDD
software like Facilio, you can bypass the challenges of implementing complex solutions for each
system or site with diverse vendor systems and communication protocols to
meet reliability targets
Instead, you can gain a comprehensive view of Energy Performance Indicators (EnPIs), system
failure trends, and resolution times.
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Facilio compares collected data to predefined patterns and models to help detect deviations from
normal operating conditions. So, you can identify potential fault the ,may not be immediately
appetent of human operators.
#1.5.3. Fault Identification
FDD software then flags deviations and potential faults based on the analyzed data. Luckily,
Facilio has predefined alarm templates to meet the unique needs of your building by
specifying simple or complex conditions. You can now take charge of your building by going
beyond basic alarms and nitpicking every little detail to eliminate inefficiencies
Anomalies are highlighted for further investigation by facility managers and technicians. This
helps prevent minor issues from escalating into major problems, minimizing downtime and
costly repairs.
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#1.5.4. FAULT DIAGNOSIS:
Once potential faults are identified, further analysis is conducted to determine their root cause.
This involves a detailed examination of the data, considering various factors could contribute to
the fault.
The fault diagnosis process aims to provide facility managers and technicians with a
comprehensive understanding of the underlying issues, enabling them to develop effective
strategies for resolution.
Detailed diagnostics, including recommended actions and potential solutions, are generated to
guide the fault resolution process.
#1.5.5. ACTION AND RESOLUTION

Equipped with detailed diagnostics, facility managers and technicians address faults by adjusting
system settings, replacing faulty components, or implementing maintenance procedures. These
actions rely on recommendations from fault detection software and the expertise of personnel.
Promptly addressing faults optimizes the building's performance and energy efficiency, ensuring
a comfortable and safe environment for occupants.
1.6. What are the three stages of fault diagnosis in Buildings?

Fault diagnosis typically involves three stages:
#1.6.1 Fault Detection:

This stage focuses on identifying the presence of faults or abnormalities in building systems.
During the fault detection stage, various methods and tools are employed to monitor and analyze
the performance of building systems. These methods may include sensor networks, data logging,
and automated fault detection algorithms.
By continuously monitoring the system, any deviations from normal operation can be detected,
indicating the presence of a fault.
Example, in an HVAC system, fault detection may involve analyzing temperature and
pressure readings, airflow rates, and energy consumption patterns. If any of these parameters fall
outside the expected range or exhibit unusual behavior, it can indicate a fault in the system.
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#1.6.2. Fault Isolation:
Once a fault is detected, the next step is to isolate the faulty component or subsystem. This
involves a systematic approach of analysing the data collected during the fault detection stage and
narrowing down the potential causes.
In an electrical system, fault isolation may involve analyzing circuit diagrams, conducting
electrical tests, and using diagnostic tools to pinpoint the faulty component, such as a
malfunctioning switch or a damaged wire.
#1.6.3. Fault Identification:

After isolating the faulty component, the fault identification stage focuses on determining root
cause of the fault. This requires a thorough analysis of the component's behaviour, performance
characteristics, and any relevant environmental factors.
Example, in a plumbing system, if a leak is detected, the fault identification stage may
involve inspecting the pipes, checking water pressure, and assessing the quality of the water
supply. By considering factors such as corrosion, wear and tear, or improper installation,
the root cause of the leak can be identified.
Once the root cause is determined, a detailed diagnosis is provided, outlining the necessary
repairs or maintenance actions to rectify the fault. This enables targeted and efficient
maintenance, minimizing downtime and optimizing the performance of the building system
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1.7. STATEMENT & PROBLEM
(70 to 90) % of the faults are transient in nature such as insulator flash over, lightning, swinging
wires and temporary contact with foreign objects. Remaining 10-20% faults are permanent in
nature. Example: a small branch falling onto the line, broken wire causing a phase to open or a
broken pole causing the phases to short, faults on underground cables.
These faults give rise to serious damage to power system equipment. Fault which occurs
on transmission lines not only affect the equipment but also the power quality. If it is an
overload fault the person does not know the fault occurred. In this condition, the system is
designed to detect faults quickly and to trip the supply immediately, which damages the
system and decreases downtime. If the downtime decreases the system becomes unstable
and consumers are not affected.
1.8. OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT
1.8.1. Enhanced System Reliability: The primary objective of the project is to improve
the reliability of the power system by implementing an efficient three-phase fault analysis
and protection scheme. This includes reducing downtime caused by faults, minimizing
equipment damage, and ensuring uninterrupted power supply to consumers.
1.8.2. Accurate Fault Detection: Develop algorithms or utilize existing protection relays
to accurately detect and classify three-phase faults in the power system. The objective is
to promptly identify faults and initiate appropriate response actions to mitigate their
impact on system operation.
1.8.3. Automatic Restoration: Implement auto-reset functionality for temporary faults to

automatically restore power after the fault clears. The goal is to minimize disruption to
system and reduce manual intervention required for fault restoration, thereby improving
overall system resilience.
1.8.4. System Integration and Compatibility: Ensure seamless integration of the fault
analysis and protection scheme with existing power system infrastructure. This involves
interfacing
with relays, control systems, SCADA systems, and other relevant components to facilitate
fault detection, response, and data exchange.
1.8.5. Robust Testing and Validation: Conduct comprehensive testing and validation of
the implemented fault analysis and protection scheme under various fault scenarios and
operating conditions. The objective is to verify the reliability and effectiveness of the
solution and identify any potential issues or areas for improvement
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1.8.6. Documentation and Knowledge Transfer: Prepare detailed documentation and
reports outlining the project scope, design specifications, implementation details, and test
results. The objective is to facilitate knowledge transfer to stakeholders and provide a
reference
for future maintenance and troubleshooting activities.
1.8.7. Training and Support:

• Provide training to operators, maintenance personnel, and other stakeholders on the
operation, maintenance, and troubleshooting of the implemented fault analysis and
protection scheme.
• The objective is to ensure that personnel are equipped with the necessary skills and
knowledge to effectively manage and maintain the system.
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1.9. SCOPE OF THE PROJECT
1.9.1.Fault Detection and Classification:
The project will involve developing algorithms or utilizing
existing protection relays to detect and classify three-phase faults in the power system
accurately. This includes distinguishing between temporary faults and permanent trips
based on fault characteristics.
1.9.2. Protection Scheme Design:

Designing a robust protection scheme to respond to detected
faults appropriately. This may include overcurrent protection, distance protection, or other
specialized protection schemes tailored to the specific requirements of the power system.
1.9.3. Auto-Reset Functionality:

Implementing auto-reset functionality for temporary faults to
automatically restore power after the fault clears. This involves designing logic for resetting
protective devices and coordinating with control systems to ensure seamless restoration of
power.
1.9.4.Testing and Validation:

Conducting comprehensive testing and validation of the fault
analysis and protection scheme under various fault scenarios and system conditions. This
ensures the reliability and effectiveness of the proposed solution in real-world operating
conditions.
1.9.5. Documentation and Reporting:

Documenting the project scope, design specifications,
implementation details, test procedures, and results. This includes preparing detailed
reports and documentation to facilitate knowledge transfer and future maintenance.
1.9.6. Training and Support:

Providing training to operators, maintenance personnel, and other
relevant stakeholders on the operation, maintenance, and troubleshooting of the
implemented fault analysis and protection scheme.
1.9.7. Scalability and Future Expansion:

Designing the project with scalability in mind to accommodate future expansions
or upgrades of the power system.
1.9.8. Project Management:

Managing the project effectively to ensure timely completion within
budget and scope. This includes defining project milestones, establishing communication
channels, managing resources, and addressing any risks or issues.
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CHAPTER :2
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2.1. PROJECT DETAILS
2.1.1. BLOCK DIAGRAM:
Fig. Details block diagram of three phase fault analysis with auto reset forTemporary fault
and permanent
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Sure, I can outline a basic block diagram for a three-phase fault analysis system with temporary
fault detection and permanent trip with auto-reset. Here's a simplified overview:
2.1.1 . Three-Phase Power Supply:

This is the source of power that feeds into the system. It
consists of three phases: A, B, and C.
2.1.2. Voltage and Current Sensors:

These sensors monitor the voltage and current in each phase.
They provide analog signals proportional to the voltage and current levels.
2.1.3. Signal Conditioning:

The analog signals from the voltage and current sensors need to be
conditioned before further processing. This may involve amplification, filtering, and isolation to
ensure accurate measurement.
2.1.4. Fault Detection and Classification: In this block, algorithms analyze the voltage and
current signals to detect any faults. For temporary fault detection, the system may look for
short-duration disturbances that do not indicate a serious fault. For permanent trip
detection, the system may look for sustained abnormalities that require immediate action.
2.1.5. Microcontroller or PLC:

This component processes the signals from the fault detection
block. It executes the fault detection algorithms and makes decisions based on the severity and
duration of detected faults. For a temporary fault, it may initiate an auto-reset process after
confirming that the fault has cleared. For a permanent trip condition, it triggers a trip signal to
disconnect the affected equipment.
2.1.6. Auto-Reset Mechanism:

In the case of a temporary fault, the auto-reset mechanism resets
the system after a predetermined time delay, assuming the fault has cleared. This could involve
re-energizing the circuit or resetting protective devices.
2.1.7. Trip Circuitry:

When a permanent trip condition is detected, this circuitry activates to
disconnect the faulty equipment from the power supply to prevent damage or hazards
.
2.1.8. Alarm and Indication:
This component provides visual or audible alerts to notify operators
of fault conditions, system resets, or trips.
2.1.9. Communication Interface:

Optionally, the system may include a communication
interface to send fault data and status updates to a central control system for monitoring and
analysis.
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2.2. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Fig. Details circuit diagram of three phase fault analysis with auto reset for
Temporary fault and permanent trip
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2.2.HARDWARE USED
1. Transformers
2. Arduino Board
3. Current Sensors
4. Voltage Sensors (optional)
5. Relays
6. LEDs
7. Push Buttons (optional)
8. Resistors, Capacitors, and other Passive Components
9. Power Supply
10. Prototyping Board and Connecting Wires
11. NODE MCU Board
12. LCD (Liquid-crystal display)
13. Optional Communication Modules (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Ethernet, etc.)
14. PCB (Printed Circuit Board)
15. Comparators etc.
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2.1. Transformer:
A transformer is an electrical device that is used to transfer electrical energy
from one circuit to another through electromagnetic induction. It typically consists of two or
more coils of wire, known as the primary and secondary windings, which are wrapped around a
core made of ferromagnetic material such as iron.
• The primary winding is connected to the input voltage source, while the secondary
winding is connected to the load or output circuit. When an alternating current (AC)
voltage is applied to the primary winding,
• it creates a changing magnetic field in the core. This changing magnetic field induces a
voltage in the secondary winding through electromagnetic induction, causing current to
flow in the secondary circuit.
• The transformer operates based on the principle of Faraday's law of electromagnetic

induction, which states that a changing magnetic field induces an electromotive force
(EMF) in a nearby conductor.
fig(a) Transformer circuit
• A transformer is a static electrical device that uses inductive coupling between its
winding
circuits to transfer energy.
• In this system three step down three-phase transformers are used, out of which three are
connected in parallel configuration and which have input at 220 volts and provide an
output at 12 volts.
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fig(b) Transformer
2.2. Arduino Board:

The brain of your system. Either an Arduino board (such as Arduino Uno,
Arduino Mega, etc.)
• Arduino is an open-source electronics platform based on easy-to-use hardware an
software. It consists of a physical programmable circuit board (often referred to as a
microcontroller board) .
• A development environment for writing, compiling, and uploading code to the board.
Arduino boards are equipped with input and output pins. which can be used to connect
various sensors, actuators, and other electronic components.
Fig(c) Arduino board
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• The Arduino software, also known as the Integrated Development Environment (IDE),
provides a simplified programming interface based on the C/C++ programming language,
making it accessible even to those with limited programming experience.
• Arduino boards are widely used for prototyping and building a variety of electronic
projects, from simple blinking LED experiments to complex robotics and automation
systems.
2.3 Programing Code :
#include <ESP8266WiFi.h>
#include "Adafruit_MQTT.h"
#include "Adafruit_MQTT_Client.h"
#include<LiquidCrystal_I2C.h>
#include<Wire.h>
LiquidCrystal_I2C lcd(0x27,16,2);
int S1=D0;
int S2=D4;
int S3=D5;
int S4=D6;
int S5=D7;
int S6=D8;
int R1=D3;
/************************* WiFi Access Point *********************************/
#define WLAN_SSID "homeiot"

#define WLAN_PASS "homeiot123"
/************************* Adafruit.io Setup *********************************/
#define AIO_SERVER "io.adafruit.com"

#define AIO_SERVERPORT 1883 // use 8883 for SSL
#define AIO_USERNAME "cablefault121"
#define AIO_KEY "aio_Angl394IhrToGGYvQI1inkR6HaLd"
/************ Global State (you don't need to change this!) ******************/
// Create an ESP8266 WiFiClient class to connect to the MQTT server.

WiFiClient client;
// or... use WiFiFlientSecure for SSL
//WiFiClientSecure client;
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// Setup the MQTT client class by passing in the WiFi client and MQTT server and login details.
Adafruit_MQTT_Client mqtt(&client, AIO_SERVER, AIO_SERVERPORT,
AIO_USERNAME, AIO_KEY);
/****************************** Feeds ***************************************/
// Setup a feed called 'photocell' for publishing.

// Notice MQTT paths for AIO follow the form: <username>/feeds/<feedname>
Adafruit_MQTT_Publish sensor_1 = Adafruit_MQTT_Publish(&mqtt, AIO_USERNAME
"/feeds/S1");
"/feeds/S2");
"/feeds/S3");
"/feeds/S4");
"/feeds/S5");
"/feeds/S6");
// Setup a feed called 'onoff' for subscribing to changes.
//Adafruit_MQTT_Subscribe onoffbutton = Adafruit_MQTT_Subscribe(&mqtt,
AIO_USERNAME "/feeds/onoff");
/*************************** Sketch Code ************************************/
// Bug workaround for Arduino 1.6.6, it seems to need a function declaration

// for some reason (only affects ESP8266, likely an arduino-builder bug).
void MQTT_connect();
void setup() {
Wire.begin(D2,D1);
Serial.begin(115200);
lcd.begin();
lcd.setCursor(0,0);
lcd.print("Cable Fault ");
delay(10);
pinMode(S1, INPUT);
pinMode(S2, INPUT);
pinMode(S3, INPUT);
pinMode(S4, INPUT);
pinMode(S5, INPUT);
pinMode(S6, INPUT);
pinMode(R1, OUTPUT);
Serial.println(F("Adafruit MQTT demo"));
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// Connect to WiFi access point.
Serial.println(); Serial.println();
Serial.print("Connecting to ");
Serial.println(WLAN_SSID);
WiFi.begin(WLAN_SSID, WLAN_PASS);
while (WiFi.status() != WL_CONNECTED) {
delay(500);
Serial.print(".");
}
Serial.println();
Serial.println("WiFi connected");
Serial.println("IP address: ");
Serial.println(WiFi.localIP());
// Setup MQTT subscription for onoff feed.

//mqtt.subscribe(&onoffbutton);
uint32_t x=0;
void loop() {
int P1= digitalRead(S1);
int P2= digitalRead(S2);
int P3=digitalRead(S3);
Serial.println(P1);
Serial.println(P2);
Serial.println(P3);
Serial.println(P4);
Serial.println(P5);
Serial.println(P6);
MQTT_connect();
// Now we can publish stuff!

Serial.print(F("\nSending Sensor's Value "));
Serial.print("...");
int Value = P1;
if(P1==0)
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{
digitalWrite(R1,LOW);
}
if(P1==1)
{
lcd.clear();
delay(500);
lcd.setCursor(0,0);
lcd.print("T1A LL");
digitalWrite(R1,HIGH);
delay(500);
delay(500);
}
if (! sensor_1.publish(Value)) {
Serial.println(F("Failed"));
} else {
Serial.println(F("OK!"));
}
delay(2500);
Value = P2;
if(P2==0)
{
}
if(P2==1)
{
lcd.clear();
delay(500);
lcd.setCursor(0,0);
lcd.print("T1B LG");
delay(500);
}
} else {
}
delay(2500);
Value = P3;
if(P3==0)
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{
}
if(P3==1)
{
lcd.clear();
delay(500);
lcd.setCursor(0,0);
delay(500);
delay(500);
}
} else {
}
delay(2500);
Value = P4;
if(P4==0)
{
}
if(P4==1)
{ lcd.clear();
delay(500);
lcd.setCursor(0,0);
delay(500);
}
} else {
}
delay(2500);
Value = P5;
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if(P5==0)
{
}
if(P5==1)
{ lcd.clear();
delay(500);
lcd.setCursor(0,0);
delay(500);
delay(500);
}
} else {
}
delay(2500);
Value = P6;
if(P6==0)
{
}
if(P6==1)
{ lcd.clear();
delay(500);
lcd.setCursor(0,0);
delay(500);
}
} else {
}
delay(2500);
// ping the server to keep the mqtt connection alive

// NOT required if you are publishing once every KEEPALIVE seconds
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/*
if(! mqtt.ping()) {
mqtt.disconnect();
}
*/
}
// Function to connect and reconnect as necessary to the MQTT server.

// Should be called in the loop function and it will take care if connecting.
void MQTT_connect() {
int8_t ret;
// Stop if already connected.

if (mqtt.connected()) {
return;
}
Serial.print("Connecting to MQTT... ");
uint8_t retries = 3;
while ((ret = mqtt.connect()) != 0) { // connect will return 0 for connected
Serial.println(mqtt.connectErrorString(ret));
Serial.println("Retrying MQTT connection in 5 seconds...");
mqtt.disconnect();
delay(5000); // wait 5 seconds
retries--;
if (retries == 0) {
// basically die and wait for WDT to reset me
while (1);
}
}
Serial.println("MQTT Connected!");
33
2.3. ARDUINO UNO PINOUT
The Arduino UNO is a standard board of Arduino, which is based on an ATmega328P microcontroller.
It is easier to use than other types of Arduino Boards.
The Arduino UNO Board, with the specification of pins, is shown below:
Let's discuss each pin in detail.
2.3.1. ATmega328 Microcontroller:
It is a single chip Microcontroller of the ATmel family. The processor core inside it is of
8-bit. It is a low-cost, low powered, and a simple microcontroller. The Arduino UNO
and Nano models are based on the ATmega328 Microcontroller.

34
2.3.2 Voltage Regulator: voltage regulator converts input voltage to 5V. The primary function
voltage regulator is to regulate the voltage level in the Arduino board. For any changes in the
input voltage of the regulator, the output voltage is constant and steady.
2.3.3. GND - Ground pins. The ground pins are used to ground the circuit.
2.3.4.TXD and RXD: TXD and RXD pins are used for serial communication. The TXD is used
for transmitting the data, and RXD is used for receiving the data. It also represents the successful
flow of data.
2.3.5.USB Interface: The USB Interface is used to plug-in the USB cable. It allows the board to
connect to the computer. It is essential for the programming of the Arduino UNO board.
2.3.6. RESET: It is used to add a Reset button to the connection.
2.3.7.SCK: It stands for Serial Clock. These are the clock pulses, which are used to synchronize
the transmission of data.
2.3.8. MISO: It stands for Master Input/ Slave Output. The save line in the MISO pin is used
to send the data to the master.
2.3.9 VCC:
It is the modulated DC supply voltage, which is used to regulate the IC's used in the
connection. It is also called as the primary voltage for IC's present on the Arduino board. The
Vcc voltage value can be negative or positive with respect to the GND pin.
2.3.10 Crystal Oscillator: The Crystal oscillator has a frequency of 16MHz, which makes
the Arduino UNO a powerful board.
2.3.11. ICSP: It stands for In-Circuit Serial Programming. The users can program the
Arduino board's firmware using the ICSP pins.
The program or firmware with the advanced functionalities is received by microcontroller with
the help of the ICSP header.
The ICSP header consists of 6 pins.
The structure of the ICSP header is shown below:
35
It is the top view of the ICSP header.
2.3.12. SDA : It stands for Serial Data. It is a line used by the slave and master to send and
receive data.
It is called as a data line, while SCL is called as a clock line.
2.3.13 SCL: It stands for Serial Clock. It is defined as the line that carries the clock data.
It is used to synchronize the transfer of data between the two devices. The Serial Clock is
generated by the device and it is called as master.
2.3.14.SPI : It stands for Serial Peripheral Interface. It is popularly used by
the microcontroller communicate with one or more peripheral devices quickly.
It uses conductors for data receiving, data sending, synchronization, and device selection
(for communication).
2.3.15 .MOSI: It stands for Master Output/ Slave Input.
The MOSI and SCK are driven by the Master.
2.3.16. SS :It stands for Slave Select. It is the Slave Select line, which is used by the master. It
acts as the enable line.
2.3.17. I 2 C : It is the two-wire serial communication protocol. It stands for Inter Integrated
Circuits. The I2C is a serial communication protocol that uses SCL (Serial Clock) and SDA
(Serial Data) to receive and send data between two devices.
3.3V and 5V are the operating voltages of the board.

36
2.4 .Current Sensors:
These sensors detect the current flowing through each phase of the three-phase system.
You can use Hall effect current sensors like ACS712 or current transformers (CTs) depending
on your application's current rating and accuracy requirements.
2.6.Voltage Sensors (optional):

If you want to monitor voltage as well, voltage sensors like
ZMPT101B or resistive voltage dividers can be used to measure the voltage across each phase.
2.7.RELAYS:
Electromechanical relays or solid-state relays (SSRs) can be used for switching and isolating
the faulty phase or tripping the system in case of a permanent fault.
Fig:Relays
➢ A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil of the
relay creates a Magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts.
➢ The coil current can be on or off so relays have two switch positions and most have
double throw (changeover) switch contacts as shown in the diagram.
37
2.7.1.Working Principle of Relay:
It works on the principle of an electromagnetic attraction.When the circuit of the relay senses the
fault current, it energises the electromagnetic field which produces the temporary magnetic field.
This magnetic field moves the relay armature for opening or closing the connections. The small
power relay has only one contacts, and the high power relay has two contacts for opening the
switch.
The inner section of the relay is shown in the figure below. It has an iron core which is wound by
a control coil. The power supply is given to the coil through the contacts of the load and the
control switch. The current flows through the coil produces the magnetic field around it.
Due to this magnetic field, the upper arm of the magnet attracts the lower arm. Hence close the
circuit, which makes the current flow through the load. If the contact is already closed, then it
moves oppositely and hence open the contacts.
38
Pole and Throw:
The pole and throws are the configurations of the relay, where the pole is the switch, and the
throw is the number of connections. The single pole,the single throw is the simplest type of relay
which has only one switch and only one possible connection. Similarly,the single pole double
throw relay has a one switch and two possible connections.
2.8.2. Construction of Relay :

The relay operates both electrically and mechanically. It consists electromagnetic and sets of
contacts which perform the operation of the switching. The construction of relay is mainly
classified into four groups. They are the contacts, bearings, electromechanical design,
terminations and housing.
1. Contacts:The contacts are the most important part of the relay that affects the reliability. The
good contact gives limited contact resistance and reduced contact wear. The selection of the
contact material depends upon the several factors like nature of the current to be interrupted, the
magnitude of the current to be interrupted, frequency and voltage of operation.
2. Bearing:The bearing may be a single ball, multi-ball, pivot-ball and jewel bearing. The single
ball bearing is used for high sensitivity and low friction. The multi-ball bearing provides low
friction and greater resistance to shock.
3. Electromechanical design :The electromechanical design includes the design of the magnetic
circuit and the mechanical attachment of core, yoke and armature. The reluctance of magnetic
path is kept minimum for making the circuit more efficient. The electromagnet is made up of soft
iron, and the coil current is usually restricted to 5A and the coil voltage to 220V.
39
4Terminations and Housing: The assembly of an armature with magnet and the base is made
with the help of spring. The spring is insulated from the armature by moulded blocks which
provide dimensional stability. The fixed contacts are usually spot welded on the terminal link.
2.9. LEDs:
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) can be used for visual indication of system status, such as
indicating fault detection, temporary fault handling, permanent fault trip, or auto-reset.
• Different states of the LED can signify various conditions such as normal operation,
temporary fault detected, permanent fault detected, and auto-reset in progress.
2.9.1. Integration with Control Logic:

The LED's behavior is controlled by the microcontroller's firmware, which implements the
logic for fault detection, temporary fault handling, permanent trip, and auto-reset
functionality.
2.9.2. Safety Considerations:
The LED's operation should adhere to safety standards and regulations to ensure that it
does not inadvertently convey misleading information or compromise system safety.
Fig. LEd Bulb
2.10 Push Buttons (optional):

Push buttons or switches can be used for manual reset or override functionalities, allowing
users to manually reset the system or override the auto-reset feature if necessary.
2.11. Manual Reset:

• One use of the push button is to provide a manual reset capability, allowing the user to
manually reset the system after a fa ult condition has been resolved .
• When the push button is pressed, the system resets, and the LED or other status indicators
return to their normal operating state.
40
2.12. Verride Functionality:
In some cases, the push button can also be used to override certain automatic
actions of the system, such as temporarily bypassing the auto-reset feature or
acknowledging a fault condition without triggering a trip.
2.13. Integration with Control Logic:

The push button's functionality is integrated into the microcontroller's firmware, which
monitors the state of the button and executes corresponding actions based on user input.
2.14. Safety Considerations:

Proper safety measures should be implemented to prevent accidental or unauthorized use
of the push button, especially in critical or hazardous environments.
Fig. Push Button
2.15. Resistors, Capacitors, and other Passive Components:
These components are essential for signal conditioning, filtering, and voltage level shifting
as needed in your circuit design.
2.15.1. Resistor:
• A resistor is an electronic component that restricts the flow of electric current. It is
commonly used to control the amount of current flowing in a circuit, limit voltage levels,
divide voltages, and adjust signal levels.
• Resistors are characterized by their resistance value, measured in ohms (Ω), and their
power rating, measured in watts (W), which indicates the maximum amount of power they
can dissipate without being damaged.
• The SI unit of resistor is Ohm.
41
Fig. Resistor
7.Types of Resistors
42
There are two basic types of resistors as follows:
• Linear resistor
• Non-linear resistor
2.16 Linear resistors

The resistors whose values change with change in applied temperature and voltage are known as
linear resistors. There are two types of linear resistors:
2.16.1.Fixed resistors: These resistors have a specific value and these values cannot be changed.
Following are the different types of fixed resistors:
• Carbon composition resistors

• Wire wound resistors
• Thin film resistors
• Thick film resistors
2.16.2Variable resistors: These resistors do not have a specific value and the values can be
changed with the help of dial, knob, and screw. These resistors find applications in radio
receivers for controlling volume and tone. Following are the different types of variable resistors:
• Potentiometers
• Rheostats
• Trimmers
2.17. Non-linear resistors : The resistor values change according to the temperature and
voltage applied and is not dependent on Ohm’s law. Following are the different types of non-
linear resistors:
• Thermisters
• Varisters
• Photo resistors
2.18.Applications of Resistor :
Following are the applications of resistors:
• Wire wound resistors find applications where balanced current control, high sensitivity,
and accurate measurement are required like in shunt with ampere meter.
• Photoresistors find application in flame detectors, burglar alarms, in photographic devices,

etc.
43
• Resistors are used for controlling temperature and voltmeter.
• Resistors are used in digital multi-meter, amplifiers, telecommunication, and oscillators.
• They are also used in modulators, demodulators, and transmitters .
2.19.Capacitor:
• A capacitor is an electronic component that stores electrical energy in an electric field. It

consists of two conductive plates separated by an insulating material called a dielectric.
• Capacitors are used in electronic circuits for various purposes, including energy storage,
smoothing out voltage fluctuations, filtering signals, blocking DC while allowing AC to
pass (coupling), and timing circuits.
• Capacitors are characterized by their capacitance, measured in farads (F), which indicates
the amount of charge they can store per unit voltage.
Fig. Capacitor
2.20.Inductor:
• An inductor is an electronic component that stores energy in a magnetic field when current
flows through it. It consists of a coil of wire wound around a core material.
• Inductors are used in electronic circuits to control the flow of current, filter out noise, store
energy, and create magnetic fields.
• Inductors are characterized by their inductance, measured in henries (H), which indicates
the amount of magnetic flux generated per unit current
44
45
2.20. Diode:
• A diode is a semiconductor device that allows current to flow in only one direction. It
consists of a PN junction, where one region is doped with a higher concentration of
positive charge carriers (p-type) and
• the other region is doped with a higher concentration of negative charge carriers (n-type).
• Diodes are used in electronic circuits for rectification (converting AC to DC), voltage
regulation, signal demodulation, signal isolation, and protection against reverse voltage
and overvoltage conditions.
2.21. Diode Symbol:
A standard diode symbol is represented as above. In the above diagram, we can see that there are
two terminals that are known as anode and cathode. The arrowhead is the anode that represents
the direction of the conventional current flow in the forward biased condition. The other end is
the cathode.
2.22 .Diode Construction:

Diodes can be made of either of the two semiconductor materials, silicon and germanium. When
the anode voltage is more positive than the cathode voltage, the diode is said to be forward-
biased, and it conducts readily with a relatively low-voltage drop. Likewise, when the cathode
voltage is more positive than the anode, the diode is said to be reverse-biased. The arrow in the
diode symbol represents the direction of conventional current flow when the diode conducts.
This article lets you understand in detail about various types of diodes.
2.23.Types of Diodes:
1. Light Emitting Diode
2. Laser diode
3. Avalanche diode
4. Zener diode
5. Schottky diode
46
6. Photodiode
7. PN junction diode
2.23.1. Light Emitting Diode (LED):

When an electric current between the electrodes passes through this diode, light is produced. In
other words, light is generated when a sufficient amount of forwarding current passes through it.
In many diodes, this light generated is not visible as there are frequency levels that do not allow
visibility. LEDs are available in different colours. There are tricolour LEDs that can emit three
colours at a time. Light colour depends on the energy gap of the semiconductor used.
2.23.2.Laser Diode:
It is a different type of diode as it produces coherent light. It is highly used in CD drives, DVDs
and laser devices. These are costly when compared to LEDs and are cheaper when compared to
other laser generators. Limited life is the only drawback of these diodes.
2.23.3. Avalanche Diode:
This diode belongs to a reverse bias type and operates using the avalanche effect. When voltage
drop is constant and is independent of current, the breakdown of avalanche takes place. They
exhibit high levels of sensitivity and hence are used for photo detection.
2.24.4. Zener Diode:
It is the most useful type of diode as it can provide a stable reference voltage. These are operated
in reverse bias and break down on the arrival of a certain voltage. If current passing through the
47
resistor is limited, a stable voltage is generated. Zener diodes are widely used in power supplies to
provide a reference voltage.
2.25.5. Schottky Diode:
It has a lower forward voltage than other silicon PN junction diodes. The drop will be seen where
there is low current and at that stage, voltage ranges between 0.15 and 0.4 volts. These are
constructed differently in order to obtain that performance. Schottky diodes are highly used in
rectifier applications.
2.26.6. Photodiode:
A photo-diode can identify even a small amount of current flow resulting from the light. These
are very helpful in the detection of the light. This is a reverse bias diode and used in solar cells
and photometers. They are even used to generate electricity.
2.27.P-N JUNCTION DIODE

The P-N junction diode is also known as rectifier diodes. These diodes are used for the
rectification process and are made up of semiconductor material. The P-N junction diode ncludes
two layers of semiconductors. One layer of the semiconductor material is doped with P-type
material and the other layer with N-type material. The combination of these both P and N-type
layers form a junction known as the P-N junction. Hence, the name P-N junction diode.
P-N junction diode allows the current to flow in the forward direction and blocks the flow of
current in the reverse direction.
48
2.28.VI Characteristics of Diode :
49
2.29. Ideal and Real Characteristics:
There are two operating regions and three possible “biasing” conditions for the standard
Junction Diode and these are:
• 1. Zero Bias – No external voltage potential is applied to the PN junction diode.
• 2. Reverse Bias – The voltage potential is connected negative, (-ve) to the P-type
material and positive, (+ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has the
effect of Increasing the PN junction diode’s width.
• 3. Forward Bias – The voltage potential is connected positive, (+ve) to the P-type
material and negative, (-ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has the
effect of Decreasing the PN junction diodes width.
2.30.Zero Biased Junction Diode:

When a diode is connected in a Zero Bias condition, no external potential energy is applied to
the PN junction. However if the diodes terminals are shorted together, a few holes (majority
carriers) in the P-type material with enough energy to overcome the potential barrier will move
across the junction against this barrier potential. This is known as the “Forward Current”
and is referenced as IF Likewise, holes generated in the N-type material (minority carriers), find
this situation
50
favourable and move across the junction in the opposite direction. This is known as the
“Reverse Current” and is referenced as IR. This transfer of electrons and holes back and forth
across the PN junction is known as diffusion, as shown below.
Zero Biased PN Junction Diode
2.31.P-N Junction Diode Under Forward Bias:
When we apply the external voltage across the semiconductor diode in such a way that the p-side
is connected to the positive terminal of the battery and the n-side is connected to the negative
terminal, then the semiconductor diode is said to be forward-biased. In this case, the built-in
51
potential of the diode and thus the width of the depletion region decreases, and the height of the
barrier gets reduced. The overall barrier voltage, in this case, comes out to be V0-V, which is the
difference between the built-in potential and the applied potential. As we supply a small amount
of voltage, the reduction in the barrier voltage from the above-given formula is very less and thus
only a small number of current carriers cross the junction in this case. Whereas, if the potential is
increased by a significant value, the reduction in the barrier height will be more, thus allowing the
passage of more number of carriers.
2.32. P-N Junction Diode Under Reverse Bias:
When we apply the external voltage across the semiconductor diode in such a way that the
positive terminal of the battery is connected to its n-side and the negative terminal of the battery
is connected to the p-side of the diode, then it is said to be in the condition of reverse bias. When
an external voltage is applied across the diode, as the direction of the external voltage is the same
as that of the barrier potential, the total voltage barrier sums up to be (V 0+V). Also, the width of
the depletion region increases. As a result of this, the motion of carriers from one side of the
junction to another decreases significantly.
2.33.Applications of Semiconductor Diode:

Following are the applications of semiconductor diodes:
• Rectifier diode which is used for the rectification of alternating current.

• Gunn diode which is one of the components of high-frequency electronics.
• Zener diodes are used for the stabilisation of current and voltage in electronic systems.
• Photodiode works as a photo-detector.
• Switching diode which is used for fast switching requirements.
• A tunnel diode is a special diode that is used in the negative dynamic resistance region.
52
• LED is used for emitting an infrared light spectrum.
• A variable capacitance diode is used when a voltage is applied in reverse biased condition.
2.33.Rectifier :
A rectifier is an electronic device that converts alternating current (AC) into direct
current
(DC). It typically utilizes diodes to allow current to flow in only one direction, effectively
converting the alternating flow of current into a unidirectional flow. Rectifiers are
commonly used in power supplies
and various electronic devices to provide the steady DC voltage required for their
operation.
Fig. Rectifier
• Rectifiers are used in modulation, demodulation and voltage multipliers.

• Half-wave rectifiers are used as a signal peak detector in AM radio.
• Rectifiers are used in electric welding to provide polarized voltage.
53
2.34. Classification of Rectifier
2.36. Types of Rectifier
54
2.37.HALF WAVE RECTIFIER CIRCUIT
A half-wave rectifier is the simplest form of the rectifier and requires only one diode for the
construction of a halfwave rectifier circuit.
A halfwave rectifier circuit consists of three main components as follows:
• A diode
• A transformer
• A resistive load
Given below is the half-wave rectifier diagram:
2.37.1.WORKING OF HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

In this section, let us understand how a half-wave rectifier transforms AC into DC.
1. A high AC voltage is applied to the primary side of the step-down transformer. The
obtained secondary low voltage is applied to the diode.
2. The diode is forward biased during the positive half cycle of the AC voltage and reverse
biased during the negative half cycle.
3. The final output voltage waveform is as shown in the figure below:
55
WAVE FORM OF HALF WAVE RECTIFIER:
2.38.Full Wave Rectifier Circuit:

The circuit of the full wave rectifier can be constructed in two ways. The first method uses a
centre tapped transformer and two diodes. This arrangement is known as a centre tapped full
wave rectifier. The second method uses a standard transformer with four diodes arranged as a
bridge. This is known as a bridge rectifier. In the next section, we will restrict the discussion to
the centre tapped full wave rectifier only. You can read our article on bridge rectifier to learn the
construction and working of bridge rectifier in detail.
2.38.1.Working of center-tapped Full Wave Rectifier (Theory):
When we apply an AC Voltage Signal as input to the Primary winding of the transformer.
During the positive half-cycle of the AC voltage Signal, terminal-A of the secondary winding
of the transformer will be positive (+) with respect to the Common terminal (CT), and terminal-
B of the secondary winding will be negative (-) with respect to the Common terminal (CT). In
this condition, the diode D1 is forward biased and diode D2 is reverse biased. So, the
diode D1 work as a closed switch that allows current to flow through it, and the diode D2 work
as an open switch that blocks the current to flow through it. Therefore, only the positive output
voltage of terminal-A crosses through the diode D1 and appears across the load resistor.
56
Output of Negative Full-Wave Rectifiers for Positive Half Cycle
During the negative half-cycle of the AC voltage Signal, terminal-B of the secondary winding
will be positive (+) with respect to the Common terminal C, and terminal-A of the secondary
winding of the transformer will be negative (-) with respect to the Common terminal C. In this
condition, the diode D2 is forward biased and diode D1 is reverse biased. So, the diode
D2 work as a closed switch that allows current to flow through it, and the diode D1 work as
an open switch that blocks the current to flow through it. Therefore, only the positive output
voltage of terminal-B crosses through the diode D2 and appears across the load resistor.
Output of Negative Full-Wave Rectifiers for Negative Half Cycle
57
As a result, during the positive half cycle of input AC voltage, diode D1 conducts, and during the
negative half cycle of input AC voltage, diode D2 conducts. So, the current appears across the
load resistor during both half-cycles (Positive and negative) of input AC voltage and we get DC
output voltage across the load resistor. The following figure is the DC output voltage waveform
across the load resistor:
10.4. Advantages and Disadvantages of Full Wave Rectifier
2.39. Advantages:
▪ High rectifier efficiency: The rectification efficiency of full-wave rectifiers (81.2%) is

double of half-wave rectifiers (40.6%). So, this rectifier can converts AC input voltage
into DC output voltage more efficiently than the half-wave rectifier.
▪ No Power loss: This rectifier circuit allows both positive half cycle and negative
half cycle of the AC input. Therefore no voltage signal is wasted.
▪ Low ripples: The output of a full-wave rectifier has lower ripples than a half-wave
rectifier. So it produces smooth DC output more than a half-wave rectifier.
▪
2.40. Disadvantages:
▪ Complex circuit: More components are used to design and construct this circuit. So, the
full-wave rectifier circuit is more complex than a half-wave rectifier circuit.
58
▪ High cost: The center-tapped transformer is used in the circuit that is expensive and
occupy a large space. So, circuit construction cost is high.
2.41 Full Wave Bridge Rectifier:
A bridge rectifier is a type of full-wave rectifier that uses four individual

rectifying diodes connected together in a closed-loop bridge configuration to efficiently convert
the Alternating Current (AC) into Direct Current (DC). It can rectify both half-cycles of an AC
input sine wave.
This Rectifier circuit produces the same output waveform as the full-wave rectifier circuit. The
main advantage of the Bridge Rectifier is that the expensive center-tapped transformer is
not used in this design, a normal transformer is used in place of a center-tapped transformer.
So, the size of the circuit will be reduced, as well as its cost also reduced. For this reason, full-
wave bridge rectifiers have practical applications much more than center-tapped full-wave
rectifiers.
59
2.42.1 Construction of Full Wave Bridge Rectifier:
The full-wave bridge rectifier circuit is constructed with four diodes (D1, D2, D3, D4), a
Normal transformer, and a load resistor (RL). The four diodes are connected together in a
closed-loop bridge configuration. The following figure shows the circuit diagram of the
Bridge rectifier:
Circuit Diagram and Construction of Full Wave Bridge Rectifier
These diodes are arranged in series pairs that only two diodes conduct current during each half
cycle. For example, during the positive half cycle of the AC input, diodes D1 and D3 conduct in
series which allows electric current to pass, but this time diodes D2 and D4 are reverse biased
which block electric current. During the negative half cycle of the AC input, diodes D2 and D4
conduct in series which allows electric current to pass, but this time diodes D1 and D3 are reverse
biased which block electric current. The transformer is used to convert the high-level AC voltage
into low-level AC voltage because the high-level AC voltage input can destroy diodes. The
secondary winding of the transformer is connected to two diametrically opposite points of the
bridge at points A & C and the load resistance (RL) is connected to the other two diametrically
opposite points of the bridge at points B & D. We get output DC voltage across the Load
Resistor (RL).
If we simplify this rectifier circuit to better understanding, then the circuit diagram looks like the
following figure:
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Simple Circuit Diagram of Full Wave Bridge Rectifier
2.41.2WORKING PRINCIPLE OF BRIDGE RECTIFIER
During the positive half-cycle of the AC input voltage, terminal-1 (T1) of the transformer
secondary winding is positive (+) with respect to Terminal-2 (Ground). In this condition, diodes
D1 and D3 are forward-biased. So, the current flows through diode D1 (AB arm), enters
into the load resistance (RL), then it flows through diode D3 (arm DC), and returns to terminal-2
(ground). But, diodes D4 and D2 are reverse biased blocking the current to flow through diodes
D2 (AD and BC arm). So, only the positive voltage appears across the load resistor.
The following figure shows the output of the Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier during the
Positive Half Cycle. The diodes D4 and D2 are reverse biased, therefore we will
omit the diodes D4 and D2 from the rectifier circuit, which helps us to better understand the
direction of current flow in the circuit.
Output of Full-Wave Bridge Rectifiers for Input Positive Half Cycle
61
During the negative half-cycle of the AC input voltage, terminal-2 of the transformer secondary
winding is positive (+) with respect to terminal-1 (Ground). In this condition, diodes D2 and D4
are forward-biased. So, the current flows through diode D2 (CB arm), enters into the load
resistance (RL), then it flows through diode D4 (arm DA) and returns to terminal-1 (ground).
But, diodes D1 and D3 are reverse biased that block the current to flow through diodes D1 and
D3 (AB and DC arm). In this case, again the positive voltage appears across the load resistor as
before.
The following figure shows the output of the Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier during the Negative
Half Cycle. The diodes D1 and D3 are reverse biased, therefore we will omit the diodes D1 and
D3 from the rectifier circuit, which helps us to better understand the direction of current flow in
the circuit.
Output of Full-Wave Bridge Rectifiers for Input Negative Half Cycle
As a result, we get the DC output voltage across the load resistor. This output voltage has the
same polarity and this output current is in the same direction. The DC output voltage across the
load resistor is a series of positive half cycles or positive sinusoidal pulses. In this way, this
rectifier converts the AC input voltage into a DC output voltage.
62
VALUE OF RECTIFIER:
63
• Power Supply:
A stable power supply to provide the necessary voltage and current to the
microcontroller, sensors, and other components in the system.
• Prototyping Board and Connecting Wires: Prototyping boards (breadboards, perf boards,
etc.) and connecting wires are essential for assembling and testing your circuit.
Fig. Prototype Board and connecting wire
• Optional Communication Modules:

If you want to implement remote monitoring or control
capabilities, you can add communication modules such as Wi-Fi (ESP8266/ESP32), Bluetooth, or
Ethernet shields/modules to your system.
2.43. NODE MCU BOARD
Node MCU is an open-source firmware and development kit that enables easy development of
IoT (Internet of Things) applications. It is based on the ESP8266 Wi-Fi module, which integrates
a microcontroller unit (MCU) and Wi-Fi connectivity in a single chip. Node MCU provides a
Lua-based firmware, allowing developers to write and execute Lua scripts directly on the
ESP8266 module. Additionally, Node MCU offers a set of APIs (Application Programming
Interfaces) for controlling GPIOs (General Purpose Input/Output pins), networking
functions, and other features of the ESP8266 chip.
64
Fig. Node MCU
2.44 NodeMCU PINOUT AND FUNCTIONS EXPLAINED
• Power Pins There are four power pins. VIN pin and three 3.3V pins.
• VIN can be used to directly supply the Node MCU/ESP8266 and its peripherals. Power
delivered on VIN is regulated through the onboard regulator on the Node MCU module –
you can also supply 5V regulated to the VIN pin.
• 3.3V pins are the output of the onboard voltage regulator and can be used to supply power
to external components
• GND are the ground pins of Node MCU/ESP8266
• I2C Pins are used to connect I2C sensors and peripherals. Both I2C Master and I2C Slave
are supported. I2C interface functionality can be realized programmatically, and the clock
frequency is 100 kHz at a maximum. It should be noted that I2C clock frequency
should be higher than the slowest clock frequency of the slave device.
• GPIO Pins NodeMCU/ESP8266 has 17 GPIO pins which can be assigned to
functions such as I2C, I2S, UART, PWM, IR Remote Control, LED Light and Button
programmatically. Each digital enabled GPIO can be configured to internal pull-up or pull-
down, or set to high impedance. When configured as an input, it can also be set to edge-
trigger or level-trigger to generate CPU interrupts.
65
• ADC Channel The NodeMCU is embedded with a 10-bit precision SAR ADC. The two
functions can be implemented using ADC. Testing power supply voltage of VDD3P3 pin
and testing input voltage of TOUT pin. However, they cannot be implemented at the same
time.
• UART Pins NodeMCU/ESP8266 has 2 UART interfaces (UART0 and UART1) which
provide asynchronous communication (RS232 and RS485), and can communicate at up to
4.5 Mbps. UART0 (TXD0, RXD0, RST0 & CTS0 pins) can be used for communication.
However, UART1 (TXD1 pin) features only data transmit signal so, it is usually used for
printing log.
• SPI Pins NodeMCU/ESP8266 features two SPIs (SPI and HSPI) in slave and master
modes. These SPIs also support the following general-purpose SPI features:
• 4 timing modes of the SPI format transfer

• Up to 80 MHz and the divided clocks of 80 MHz
• Up to 64-Byte FIFO
• SDIO Pins NodeMCU/ESP8266 features Secure Digital Input/Output Interface (SDIO)

which is used to directly interface SD cards. 4-bit 25 MHz SDIO v1.1 and 4-bit 50 MHz
SDIO v2.0 are supported.
• PWM Pins The board has 4 channels of Pulse Width Modulation (PWM). The PWM
output can be implemented programmatically and used for driving digital motors and
LEDs. PWM frequency range is adjustable from 1000 μs to 10000 μs (100 Hz and 1 kHz).
• Control Pins are used to control the NodeMCU/ESP8266. These pins include Chip Enable
pin (EN), Reset pin (RST) and WAKE pin.
• EN: The ESP8266 chip is enabled when EN pin is pulled HIGH. When
pulled LOW the chip works at minimum power.
• RST: RST pin is used to reset the ESP8266 chip.

• WAKE: Wake pin is used to wake the chip from deep-sleep.
• Control Pins are used to control the NodeMCU/ESP8266. These pins include Chip
Enable pin (EN), Reset pin (RST) and WAKE pin.
• EN: The ESP8266 chip is enabled when EN pin is pulled HIGH.

• When pulled LOW the chip works at minimum power.
• RST: RST pin is used to reset the ESP8266 chip.
• WAKE: Wake pin is used to wake the chip from deep-sleep.
2.45.NodeMCU Carrier Board Schematic:

The NodeMCU Carrier Board schematic shows the two DB-09 connectors, along with the switch
at SW1. The switch toggles the data from either DB-09 between Pin 2 or Pin 3 to the level
converter.
66
Finally, there is a jumper position at J1. The allows serial data from either DB-09 to appear on
the NodeMCU Rx pin.
2.46. LCD (Liquid Crystal Display ) :

An LCD, or Liquid Crystal Display, is a type of flat-panel
display technology that uses liquid crystals to produce images. It consists of a layer of liquid
crystals sandwiched between two transparent electrodes and two polarizing filters. When an
electric current is applied to the liquid crystals, they align in a way that controls the passage of
light through them, producing the desired image. LCDs are widely used in various electronic
devices such as televisions, computer monitors, smartphones, tablets, and digital clocks due to
their compact size, low power consumption, and ability to display high-quality images.
Fig 3.14 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF LCD
67
1. Slimmer Profile :
LCDs are much thinner and lighter than CRT displays, making them
ideal for modern, sleek electronic devices.
Low Power Consumption:

LCDs require significantly less power to operate compared to
CRTs, making them more energy-efficient and suitable for battery-powered devices like
laptops and smartphones.
3. No Flicker:
Unlike CRTs, which can exhibit flickering at lower refresh rates, LCDs
typically do not flicker, resulting in a more comfortable viewing experience for users.
Fig: Pin Diagram of LCD
68
Sharper Images:
LCDs can display images with higher resolution and clarity, making them well-suited for
applications requiring detailed visuals such as graphic design, gaming, and multimedia playback.
5. Better Color Reproduction:

LCDs can produce vibrant and accurate colors, especially with advancements in display
technology such as LED backlighting and quantum dot enhancement .
6. Reduced Eye Strain:

LCDs emit less electromagnetic radiation compared to CRTs, reducing eye strain and
fatigue during prolonged use.
7. Wide Viewing Angles:

Modern LCDs offer wider viewing angles, allowing users to see consistent image quality
from various positions relative to the screen
Precautions :
1. An LCD module is a fragile item and should not be subjected to strong Mechanical shocks.
2. Avoid applying pressure to the module surface, this will distort the glass and cause
a change in colour.
3. Under no circumstances should the position of the Bezel tabs or their shape Be modified.
4. Do not modify or move location of the zebra or heat seal connector
69
Table 15.1 LCD Pins Description
TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS
Display format - 16 characters x 2 lines
Construction - TN/STN LCD panel, Bezel, Zebra and PCB
Optional Edge - Array LED or EL backlight,
Controller - KS0066U or Equivalent
Power - 5V single power input
Temperature - Normal/Custom available
70
CHAPTER :3
71
3. SOFTWARE ASPECTS
3.1. IDE:
• IDE stands for “Integrated Development Environment” it is an official software introduced by
Arduino.cc, that is mainly used for editing, compiling and uploading the code in the Arduino Device.
• Almost all Arduino modules are compatible with this software that is an open source and is readily
available to install and start compiling the code on the go.
• In this article, we will introduce the Software, how we can install it, and make it ready for developing
applications using Arduino modules.
3.2.How to get Arduino IDE:
• we can download the Software from Arduino main website. As I said earlier, the software is available for
common operating systems like Linux, Windows, and MACOS, we select to download the correct software
version that is easily compatible with our operating system.
3.3.Details on IDE: The IDE environment is mainly distributed into three sections.
1. Menu bar
2. Text editor
3. Output pane
Open the IDE software, it will appear like an image below.
Fig(a) IDE software
72
3.4. SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT CYCLE:
• When the IDE software tools are used, the project development cycle is roughly the same as it is for any
other software development project.
• Create a project, select the target chip from the device database, and configure the tools settings.
• Create source files in C or assembly.
• Build the application with the project manager. 44
• Correct the errors in source files.
• Test the linked application.
3.5. COMPLING IN WINDOW ENVIRONMENT:

• IDE Software: It is the Software which we have used to develop the program using Embedded C
Language. It has inbuilt compiler in it which is used to convert Embedded C program into Hex file.
• The hex file in dumped into the microcontroller by which it will understand the code we have return
Embedded C language and operates according to the logics which we have written.
Fig(c) Hex file generation
73
3.36 PROGRAM LOADER:
• This is the programmer which we have used to dump the hexadecimal code into the Microcontroller
which we have generated using Kiel Micro vision Software.
Fig(d) Program loader
3.37. Node MCU pin diagram:
74
3.8. BLYNK APP:
• Blynk is a comprehensive software suite that enables the prototyping, deployment, and remote
management of connected electronic devices at any scale.
• Whether it's personal IoT projects or commercial connected products in the millions, Blynk empowers
users to connect their hardware to the cloud and create iOS, Android, and web applications, analyses real-
time and historical data from devices, remotely control them from anywhere, receive important
notifications, and much more
• Blynk app is a versatile native iOS and Android mobile application that serves these major functions:
1. Remote monitoring and control of connected devices that work with Blynk platform.
2. Configuration of mobile UI during prototyping and production stages.
3. Automation of connected device operations.
Fig(d) Blynk function
3.9. METHODOLOGY:
• Arduino microcontroller can now be one of the device in Wi-Fi internet technologies with the use of
NODEMCU device.
• The idea of this project is NODEMCU connect to any Wi-Fi internet, whereas Blynk Apps that use
internet from any internet service provider (ISP) at the smartphone can control the sensor that been
programmed in the NODEMCU microcontroller.
• The source code to programme the NODEMCU was created by using Arduino IDE software.
75
3.10. DIAGRAM OF THE PROJECT:
• The microcontroller of NODEMCU will be program using Arduino IDE by add the name of SSID and
password of the internet access.
• The Blynk app eventually will be connected with the NODEMCU through the project authentication ID
when the project at Blynk was create. The Figure 2 show the connection of this project
Fig(e) How Blynk and NODEMCU works
3.11. How to setup the Blynk App:
a. Install Blynk from the Appstore/Playstores.

b. Setting up Blynk App at the smartphone
c. Sign in and create a new project
d. Choose NODEMCU using Wi-Fi. This is shown in Figure 7
e. The ‘auth token’ will send to the email that have been register. The token must be the same with the
programming that have been created.
f. The canvas at the Blynk is empty. Let’s add the widget that is used during this project.
g. For the humidity and temperature sensor, the widget that been used is Gauge widget. The humidity is setting
from 0 to 100 percent while the temperature sensor is set from 0 to 50 degree. This is shown in Figure 8.
h. The led sensor and graph temperature are optional, not necessary
76
3.12. WORKING:
• The project uses 3numbers step-down transformers for handling the entire circuit under low voltage
conditions of 12v only to test the 3phase fault analysis.
• 3 transformers are connected to a 3 phase supply in parallel configuration,
• The output of all the 3 transformers are rectified and filtered individually and are given to 6 relay coils.,
one each connected across the relay coil is meant to create a fault condition either at star i.e. LL Fault or
3L Fault.
• The NC contacts of all the relays are made parallel while all the common points are grounded.
• The parallel connected point of NC are given to pin2 through a resistor i.e. wired in monostable mode.
The output of . LED'S are connected at their output to indicate their status.
• The voltage at pin2 coming from the potential divider is so held that it is higher than the pin3 of the Op-
amp used as a comparator so that pin develops zero logic that fails to operate the relay through the driver
transistor.
Fig(f) working diagram
• While the inverting pin i.e. pin-2 of op-amp is connected to preset to potential divider for fix the
voltage. At pin-2 the voltage coming from potential divider is so fixed that it is higher than the non
inverting.
77
• i.e. pin-3 of op-amp used as comparator so that pin-1 develop zero logic that fails to operate the relay
through the driver transistor.
• This relay is ‘3CO’ used for disconnecting load.
3.13. OPERATING PROCEDURE:

• While the board is powered from a 3phase supply all the 6 relay coils get DC voltage and their common
point disconnects from the NC and moves on to the NO points there by providing logic high i.e. that is
kept on.
• While any push button across the relay is pressed it disconnects that relay and in the process in common
contacts moves to the NC position to provide to develop an output that brings.
• which is used in for its reset pin to high such that the astable operation takes place at its output which is
also indicated by flashing DII LED.
78
3.14. RESULT AND ANAYLSIS:
• The LL (Line to Line), LG (Line to Ground), 3L (Three Lines) has been observed by waveform.
• The faults is carried by closing the fault switch in model. These faults are taken temporary or permanent.
(1) Line to Ground fault:
Fig(f) Temporary line to ground fault
• X-axis shows Time and Y-axis show Voltage, Current and Fault current between contact of Circuit
Breaker. From the Figure 12, it is shown that fault occurs in line at a time 0.2 time second and it is cleared
in 0.4 time second. This is a temporary fault cleared by auto reset.
• line to ground fault is permanent, this is not cleared in 0.4 second. Hence, the permanent fault and line
will shut down.
(2) Line to Ground fault:
Fig(g) Temporary 3 Line to Ground fault
79
3.14 ADVANTAGE & DISADVANTAGE:
Advantages of three phase fault analysis with auto reset on temporary fault and permanent trip
otherwise as follows:
• This invention will accurately identifies hazardous faults requiring line de-energization,
and also accurately discriminates, or distinguishes, a hazardous fault from other events for
which the line should remain energized.
• The invention encompasses such a load analysis system which minimizes unnecessary
power service interruptions and outages.
• By using this system the secondary arc current can be abruptly reduced.
• This system is even appropriate for long transmission line transmitting high voltage
• A timer is also provided to identify weather the fault is temporary or permanent . By doing
so frequent tripping of the system can be avoided as temporary faults are self-correcting.
• A individual re-closure to every phase so that if there is fault in any one phase then that
phase only is deactivated keeping the other phases in working condition.by doing so the
efficiency of the system increases .
• This invention provides relatively low cost and reliable apparatus for the intended purpose.
• The invention will respond correctly to phase-ground faults occurring simultaneously on
two of the three phase lines.
• By using this proposed circuitry work should be completed time to time . Also auto
reclosing can significantly reduce the outage time due to faults and provide a higher level
of service continuity to the customer. It helps to maintain system stability.
3.15 . DISADVANTAGE:
• If any fault occurs due to natural calamities then this invention will not able to overcome the fault.
3.16. APPLICATION:
• Substation
• Transformer
• Drives & Relay
• Transmission Line.
80
4.CONCLUSION
This three-phase fault analysis system is built using three single phase transformers out of which
three are wired in parallel configuration, The input to the transformers is 220 volt and output is
12volt. For introducing faults on the low voltage side, set of switches are used that create LL, LG,
and 3L faults.
The supply returns to the load in the case of a short duration fault and is referred as a temporary
trip while long duration disconnection of supply and load shall result in a permanent trip.
Three single phase transformers 230V to 12V of output for to develop an automatic
tripping mechanism for the three phase supply system while transient fault and permanent
fault occurs. Here we used with relay for the fault is temporary or permanent. Short
duration fault returns the supply to the load immediately called as temporary trip while
long duration shall result in permanent trip.
This three-phase fault analysis system is built using six single phase transformers out of
which three are wired in star in star out configuration, and the rest 3 are connected
in delta connections. The input to the transformers is 220 volt and output is 12volt. For
introducing faults on the low voltage side, set of switches are used that create LL, LG,
and 3L faults. The supply returns to the load in the case of a short duration fault and is
referred as a temporary trip while long duration disconnection of supply and load shall
result in a permanent trip.
81
5.REFERENCES
• S. Bakanagari1, A. M. Kumar2, M. Cheenya, ‘Three Phase Fault Analysis with Auto Reset for
Temporary Fault and Trip for’, Permanent Fault, November 2013
• International Journal for scientific research & Development\ Vol. 3, Issue 01, 2015 \ ISSN (online):
2321-0613, “Auto Reset and Tripping Technique for Temporary and Permanent Fault Analysis”.
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_leakage_circuit_breaker “Elektron”.
• D. C. Yu, D. Chen, S. Ramasamy and D. G. Flinn, “A Windows Based Graphical Package for
Symmetrical Components Analysis”, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Vol. 10, No. 4, pp
1742-1749, November 1995.
• Jun Zhu. “Analysis of Transmission System Faults the Phase Domain”, Texas A&M University. Master
Thesis, 2004.
• J.F.Sayyad, “analysis and automatic rest of 3phase fault” , IJAREEIE, , 3march 2016
• HAVRAN, F.J. 1999.” Fault investigation on power transmission system”. ESKOM. Internal document:
38, 96-99KELLER, P. 1998. Correct fault analysis. Eskom internal document.
• H. Akagi, H.E. Watanabe, and M. Aredes, "Instantaneous power theory and applications to power
conditioning", Wiley-IEEE Press, pp: 43-105, (2007).
• AM. Stankovic, "Analysis of Asymmetrical Faults in Power Systems Using Dynamic Phasors", IEEE
Transactions on Power Systems, Vol. 15, pp. 1062-1068, (2000).
• V Gamit, V. Karode ,K. Mistry, P. Parmar and A. Chaudhari. "Fault Analysis on Three Phase System by
Auto Reclosing Mechanism”,IJRET, International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology,
Vol.4, No. 5, (2015).
• S Manivannan, 5. Veerakumar, P. Karuppusamy, and A Nandhakumar "Performance Analysis of Three
Phase Voltage Source Inverter Fed Induction Motor Drive with Possible Switching Sequence Execution
in SVPWM, International Journal of Advanced Research in Electrical, Electronics and
Instrumentation Engineering Vol. 3, No. 6, June (2014).
• M.S. Morey, A. Ghodmare, V. Khomane, A. Singh, J. Dawande, and S. Ali Iqbal Shaikh
"Microcontroller Based Three Phase Fault Analysis for Temporary and Permanent Fault", International
Research Journal
of Engineering and Technology (IRJET), VOL. 02 No. 01, March (2015).
• V. Janbulagam. "Power System Stability Improvement under Three Phase Failts using Static
Synchronous Compensator, International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology. Vol. 3,
No.7, (2014).
• C. Vijaya Tharani M. Nandhini, R. Sundar, and Dr K. Nithyananthan "MATLAB based Simulation
model for three phases Power System Network, International Journal for Research in Applied
Science & Engineering Technology (IJRASET), Vol.4, No. 11, (2016).
• N. Dey, and A.K. Chakraborty Neutral Current and Neutral Voltage in a Three Phase Four Wire
Distribution System of a Technical Institution International Journal of computer Applications vol. 72 ,
NO. 3 , May (2013)
82
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CHAPTER :1

1.3. TYPES OF FAULTS IN POWER SYSTEM

1. Open Circuit Fault

1.3.1 Open Circuit Fault:

• Open Conductor Fault

1.3.2. Short-Circuit Fault

1.3.3. Symmetrical Fault

1.3.3.a. Line – Line – Line Fault –

1.3.3.b. L – L – L – G (Three-phase line to the ground fault) –

1. Single Line-to-ground (L – G) Fault

Circuit diagram of single line-to-ground fault

This relation can also be found by matrix method as follows:-

On substituting the Ia0 = Ia1 = Ia2 = Ia in above equation we get,

The sequence current is given by equation,

and the negative sequence component of phase a is given by the equation,

The sequence current can also be found by matrix method

Combination of equation (1), (4) and (5) gives

From equation (8) and (9) we get

Combination of equation (4), (10) and (9) gives

Equation (4) shows that the positive-sequence component of current is opposite in

1.3.4.3. Double Line – to – line Ground Fault –

1.4. Fault Detection:

#1.5.1 Data Collection

Examples of monitored parameters include:

• Pressure (water supply and HVAC systems)

• Energy consumption (electricity, gas, or other sources).

#1.5.2. Data Analysis

#1.5.3. Fault Identification

#1.5.5. ACTION AND RESOLUTION

1.6. What are the three stages of fault diagnosis in Buildings?

#1.6.1 Fault Detection:

#1.6.3. Fault Identification:

1.8. OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT

1.8.3. Automatic Restoration: Implement auto-reset functionality for temporary faults to

1.8.7. Training and Support:

1.9.2. Protection Scheme Design:

1.9.3. Auto-Reset Functionality:

1.9.4.Testing and Validation:

1.9.5. Documentation and Reporting:

1.9.6. Training and Support:

1.9.7. Scalability and Future Expansion:

1.9.8. Project Management:

2.1.1. BLOCK DIAGRAM:

2.1.1 . Three-Phase Power Supply:

2.1.2. Voltage and Current Sensors:

2.1.3. Signal Conditioning:

2.1.5. Microcontroller or PLC:

2.1.6. Auto-Reset Mechanism:

2.1.7. Trip Circuitry:

2.1.9. Communication Interface:

4. Voltage Sensors (optional)

7. Push Buttons (optional)

8. Resistors, Capacitors, and other Passive Components

10. Prototyping Board and Connecting Wires

11. NODE MCU Board

12. LCD (Liquid-crystal display)

13. Optional Communication Modules (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Ethernet, etc.)

14. PCB (Printed Circuit Board)

15. Comparators etc.

• The transformer operates based on the principle of Faraday's law of electromagnetic

fig(a) Transformer circuit

2.2. Arduino Board:

Fig(c) Arduino board

/* WiFi Access Point *********/

/* Adafruit.io Setup *********/

/ Global State (you don't need to change this!) ******/

/ Feeds *********/

/* Sketch Code **********/