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2D Electrostatic Fields
2D Electrostatic Fields
A Complex Variable Approach
Robert L. Coffie
First edition published 2022
by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
and by CRC Press

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
© 2022 Robert L. Coffie
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and pub-
lisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use.
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Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are
used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2021940927
ISBN: 978-0-367-76975-8 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-367-76976-5 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-16918-5 (ebk)
Typeset in Latin font

by KnowledgeWorks Global Ltd.
Access the Support Material: https://www.routledge.com/2D-Electrostatic-Fields-A-Complex-Vari-

able-Approach/Coffie/p/book/9780367769758
To my parents
and Cathy.
Contents
Preface xv
Author xix
Symbols xxi
Chapter 1 Functions of a Complex Variable 1

1.1 Complex Numbers and Variables 1
1.2 Conjugate Coordinates 6
1.3 Analytic Functions 6
1.4 Real and Imaginary Parts of Analytic Functions 8
1.5 Taylor Series 9
1.6 Multi-valued Functions 9
1.7 2D Vectors and Vector Operators 12
1.8 Line Integrals 18
1.9 Divergence Theorem in 2D 21
1.10 Curl Theorem in 2D 23
1.11 Divergence and Curl Theorems in Conjugate Coordinates 25
1.12 Cauchy’s First Integral Theorem 25
1.13 Cauchy’s Second Integral Theorem 26
1.14 Laurent Series 29
1.15 Classification of Singularities 31
1.16 The Residue Theorem 32
1.17 Green’s Identities in 2D 35
REFERENCES 39
vii
viii Contents
Chapter 2 Electrostatics 41
2.1 Coulomb’s Law 41
2.2 Electric Field Intensity 42
2.3 Electric Fields of Dipoles and Multipoles 43
2.4 Continuous Charge Distributions 47
2.5 Gauss’s Law in 2D 49
2.6 Polarization 52
2.7 Maxwell’s Equations 55
2.8 Boundary Conditions 56
2.9 Electrostatic Potential 57
2.10 Complex Potential 59
2.11 Complex Potential for a Dipole 61
2.12 Complex Potential for a Double Layer 62
2.13 Transforming Poisson’s Equation into Laplace’s Equation 64
2.14 Equipotential Contours 66
2.15 Lines of Force 67
2.16 Field Maps 68
2.17 Gauss’s Law for Inhomogeneous Mediums 70
2.18 Dielectric Boundary Conditions for Φ 72
2.19 Uniqueness Theorem 73
2.20 Conductors and Insulators 74
2.21 Capacitance 75
2.22 Method of Curvilinear Squares 78
2.23 Energy in the Electrostatic Field 81
2.24 Green’s Reciprocation Theorem 83
2.25 Induced Charges on Grounded Conductors 85
REFERENCES 89
Contents ix
Chapter 3 Line Charges 91

3.1 The Complex Potential Plane 91
3.2 Single Line Charge 93
3.2.1 Coaxial Circular Cylinders 93
3.2.2 Two Conductive Plates That Meet at the Origin 94
3.3 Two Line Charges 96
3.3.1 Three Coplanar Plates 97
3.3.2 Two Noncentric Circular Cylinders 99
3.3.3 Conductive Cylinder and a Conductive Plane 103
3.4 Φ for Conductor Boundary in Parametric Form 104
3.5 Green’s Function 107
3.6 Method of Images and Green’s Functions 111
3.7 Green’s Function for a Conductive Cylinder 111
3.8 Green’s Function for a Conductive Plane 113
3.9 Green’s Function for Two Conducting Planes 114
3.10 Ray Tracing for Planar Dielectric Boundaries 115
3.11 Ray Tracing for Planar Conductor Boundaries 119
3.12 Ray Tracing for Planar Line of Force Boundaries 120
3.13 Ray Tracing for Multiple Planar Boundaries 121
3.14 1D Array of Line Charges 123
3.15 2D Array of Line Charges 126
3.16 Line Charge Between a Grounded Cylinder and a Float-
ing Cylinder 131
3.17 Line Charge Between Two Grounded Concentric Cylin-
ders 133
REFERENCES 136
Chapter 4 Conformal Mapping I 137

4.1 Defining Conformal Transformations 137
4.2 Transforming Complex Potentials 138
4.3 Translation 140
4.4 Magnification and Rotation 140
4.5 Complex Inversion and Inversion 141
x Contents
4.6 Inversion of a Point 144

4.7 Inversion of a Triangle with Vertex at zc 144
4.8 Inversion of a Line 145
4.9 Inversion of a Circle 146
4.10 Inversion of Orthogonal Circles 148
4.11 Symmetry Preservation with Inversion 149
4.12 Möbius Transform 151
4.13 Logarithm Transformation 153
4.14 Riemann Sphere 154
4.15 Charges at Infinity 156
4.16 Dielectric Cylinder and Line Charge 158
4.17 Floating Conductive Cylinder and Line Charge 160
4.18 Line Charge Between Two Concentric Conductive Cylin-
ders Revisited 161
4.19 Nonconcentric Cylinders to Concentric Cylinders 162
REFERENCES 165
Chapter 5 Conformal Mapping II 167

5.1 Riemann Mapping Theorem 167
5.2 Symmetry of Conformal Maps 169
5.3 van der Pauw Theorem 173
5.4 Thompson-Lampard Theorem 175
5.5 Schwarz-Christoffel Transformation 175
5.6 S-C Transformation with bn = ∞ 180
5.7 S-C Transformation onto a Unit Disk 181
5.8 Phase of A1 181
5.9 Exterior Angle for a Vertex at Infinity 182
5.10 Boundary Condition for Parallel Lines that Meet at Infinity 182
5.10.1 φs,∞ = π 182
5.10.2 φn,∞ = π 184
5.10.3 φs,∞ = 2π 185
5.10.4 φn,∞ = 2π 188
5.10.5 Example 189
Contents xi
5.11 Polygons with Both Vertices at Infinity 190

5.12 Polygons with One Finite Vertex and One Vertex at Infinity 193
5.13 Polygons with One Finite Vertex and Two Vertices at In-
finity 196
5.13.1 General S-C Integral 196
5.13.2 Case 1: ϕ = β = 0 198
5.13.3 Case 2: ϕ = 1/2, β = 0 199
5.13.4 General Solution 200
5.14 Polygons with Two Finite Vertices and One Vertex at In-
finity 201
5.14.1 General S-C Integral 201
5.14.2 Case 1: α = β = 1/2 202
5.14.3 Case 2: α = −1/2, β = 1/2 202
5.14.4 Case 3: β = −1 203
5.14.5 General Solution 204
5.15 Polygons with Two Finite Vertices and Two Vertices at In-
finity 205
5.15.1 Case 1 205
5.15.2 Case 2 207
5.15.3 Case 3 209
5.16 The Joukowski Transformation 211
5.17 Polygons with Three Finite Vertices 213
5.18 Polygons with Four Finite Vertices 215
5.18.1 General Rectangle Transformation 216
5.18.2 Two Equal Finite Coplanar Plates 217
5.18.3 Coplanar Center Conductor Between Grounds 218
5.18.4 Coplanar Finite Plate and Semi-infinite Plate 220
5.18.5 Two Coplanar Unequal Finite Plates 221
5.18.6 Quadrilateral with Reflection Symmetry 222
5.18.7 Quadrilateral with One Right Angle 225
5.18.8 Line Charge and Two Finite Coplanar Grounded
Plates 228
REFERENCES 238
xii Contents
Chapter 6 Case Studies with Conformal Mapping 241

6.1 Parallel Plate Capacitor 241
6.1.1 Introduction 241
6.1.2 Zero Thickness, Finite Plate Width Model 244
6.1.3 Zero Thickness, Semi-infinite Plate Width Model 247
6.1.4 Comparison of Zero Plate Thickness Models 249
6.1.5 Finite Thickness, Semi-infinite Plate Width
Model 252
6.1.6 Comparison of Finite Plate Thickness Model
and FEM Simulations 255
6.1.7 Key Findings and Summary 257
6.2 Characteristic Impedance of Lossless Transmission Lines 259
6.2.2 Small Diameter Wire Approximation 260
6.3 Charge Imaging on Infinite Plate 263
6.4 Field Plates 266
6.4.2 Conformal Mapping to a Flat Plate 269
6.4.3 Complex Potential Analysis 270
6.4.4 Electric Field Analysis 272
6.4.5 Induced Charge Density Analysis 274
6.5 Trigate FinFETs 278
6.5.2 Conformal Mapping to a Flat Plate 279
6.5.3 Electrostatic Potential, ρ not specified 280
6.5.4 Electrostatic Potential for Sheets of Charge 280
6.5.5 Pinch-off Voltage for a Single Sheet of Charge 283
6.5.6 Pinch-off Voltage for Multiple Sheets of Charge 285
6.5.7 Electrostatic Potential for a Region of Charge 286
6.5.8 Pinch-off Voltage for a Region of Charge 288
Contents xiii
6.5.9 Infinite Depth Assumption 289

6.6 Uniform Electric Field 291
6.7 Circular Conducting or Dielectric Cylinder in a Uniform
Electric Field 292
6.8 Elliptic Dielectric Cylinder in Uniform Electric Field 295
6.9 Limitations for Conformal Mapping 300
6.10 Conclusions 304
REFERENCES 307
Chapter 7 Other Fields of Physics 311

7.1 Translating to Other Areas of Physics 311
7.2 Steady Electric Current 311
7.3 Magnetostatics 317
7.4 Steady Heat Power Flow 321
7.5 Fluid Dynamics 324
REFERENCES 331
Appendix A Differentiating an Integral 333
Appendix B Dirac δ -Function 335
Appendix C Elliptic Integrals 339
Appendix D Jacobi’s Elliptic Functions 343
Appendix E Gamma and Beta Functions 345
Appendix F Gauss’s Hypergeometric Function 349
Appendix G Dilogarithm and Trilogarithm Functions 353

REFERENCES 355
Index 357
Preface
In the fields of engineering and physics, analytic solutions are often

sought as they allow for the identification of key variables and their
mathematical relationships. This typically leads to a deeper understand-
ing of the physical situation than can be obtained by other means such
as numerical simulations. Based on this philosophy, students are often
assigned 1D physical problems that have analytic solutions. Due to the
mathematical simplification, this is helpful to the beginner, but there
are some drawbacks. First, the number of 1D problems that accurately
model real world situations is extremely limited. Second, some physics is
lost in 1D. For example, the curl of a vector does not exist in 1D. On the
other hand, attempting to solve 3D problems analytically can often lead
to mathematical complexity that is beyond the scope of most students
and engineers. This leads to abandoning analytic techniques in favor of
numerical simulations for 3D problems. Two-dimensional analytic solu-
tions are a suitable compromise to these two extremes. A large number
of physical problems can be treated as 2D in nature and with functions
of a complex variable, the mathematics is greatly simplified compared
to 3D analysis.
The purpose of this book is to demonstrate how to use functions of a
complex variable to solve engineering problems that obey the 2D Laplace
equation (and in some cases the 2D Poisson equation). The book was
written with the engineer/physicist in mind and the majority of book
focuses on electrostatics. A key benefit of the complex variable approach
to electrostatics is the visualization of field lines through the use of field
maps (another concept missing with 1D analysis). With todays’ pow-
erful computers and mathematical software programs, field maps are
easily generated once the complex potential has been determined. Addi-
tionally, problems that would have been considered out of scope previ-
ously are now easily solved with these mathematical software programs.
For example, solutions requiring the use of non-elementary functions
such as elliptic and hypergeometric functions would have been viewed
as not practical in the past due to the tedious use of look up tables for
xv
xvi Preface
evaluation. Now, elliptic and hypergeometric functions are built-in func-

tions for most mathematical software programs making their evaluation
as easy as a trigonometric function.
Although the text is primarily self-contained, the reader is assumed
to have taken differential and integral calculus and introductory courses
in complex variables and electromagnetics. Chapter 1 consists of the
mathematics required for subsequent chapters. This includes complex
variable theory, formulation of vectors and vector operators in terms
of complex variable notation, and mathematical theorems. In Chapter
2, the theory of electrostatics is developed. After establishing the re-
quirements for 2D analysis to be valid, all subsequent theorems and
analysis are performed in 2D. The 2D treatment allows formulating elec-
trostatics completely in terms of complex variables. Chapter 3 focuses
primarily on potential functions that can be described by the super-
position of individual line charges. Both indirect and direct methods
are developed. Indirect methods describes the approach where poten-
tial functions are stated and the physical situation it describes needs
to be found. Direct methods describes the approach where the physical
problem and boundary conditions are stated and the potential function
needs to be found. Green’s functions are the primary direct method for
obtaining the potential function in Chapter 3. In Chapter 4, full plane
conformal mappings are developed and used to demonstrate how the
potential function can be obtained with conformal mapping. In Chapter
5, the Schwarz-Christoffel transformation is developed and used to ob-
tain the potential function for various geometries. Due to the importance
of the Schwarz-Christoffel transformation for solving problems, more
than the usual number of problems have been worked. Chapter 6 com-
bines all the tools developed in Chapters 1–5 to solve several engineering
examples in depth. These examples are used to demonstrate not only
the utility of conformal mapping and the method of Green’s functions,
but also the limitations and potential pitfalls often encountered when
applying these methods. Although the focus through Chapter 6 is 2D
electrostatics, the solving problem techniques developed are valid for
other engineering analysis that obey Laplace’s equation. This versatility
is demonstrated in Chapter 7, by applying them to problems in other
engineering disciplines.
The problem sets at the end of each chapter are designed to test
the reader’s grasp of key points developed in each chapter. The reader
is encourage to work the problem sets and can check their work with
Preface xvii
the solutions posted at the books website. A short conformal mapping

dictionary can also be found at the books website.
Despite the desire to eliminate all mistakes from the texts, the author
is sure some still persist and will be grateful to anyone pointing them
out. The author wishes to thank Cathy Lee for her continuous support
throughout the course of writing the book. Without it, the book would
never have been completed. He also wishes to thank Dr. Chang-Soo Suh
for requesting a better field plate model from the author that launched
the deep dive into conformal mapping.
Author
Robert Coffie is the Founder and President of RLC Solutions, a semicon-

ductor/microelectronics consulting company. Robert has over 20 years
of experience in compound semiconductor transistor design, processing,
electrical characterization, and reliability. He received his B.S. in Engi-
neering Physics from the University of Oklahoma in 1997 and his PhD
in Electrical and Computer engineering from the University of Califor-
nia, Santa Barbara in 2003. He has designed, developed, and matured
AlGaN/GaN HEMT technologies for RF applications from L-band to Q-
band at Northrop Grumman and TriQuint Semiconductor (now Qorvo).
Robert also developed the first JEDEC qualified AlGaN/GaN HEMTs
for 600 V power switching applications at Transphorm where he served
as Director of Device Engineering. Robert has authored numerous jour-
nal articles related to AlGaN/GaN HEMTs and a book chapter on new
materials for high power RF applications. He is a senior member of IEEE,
and an adjunct professor at the Ohio State University.
xix
Symbols
SYMBOL DESCRIPTION
arg[ ] argument or phase of a E energy

complex number E[φ, m] incomplete elliptic inte-
as location of vertex s of a gral of the second kind
polygon E[m] complete elliptic integral
βi exterior angle φi of a of the second kind
polygon divided by −π F [φ, m] incomplete elliptic inte-
cn[ ] Jacobi’s elliptic function gral of the first kind
cn F force vector
C capacitance per unit F force per unit length vec-
length tor
CI circle of inversion G Green’s function
χe electric susceptibility G0 portion of Green’s func-
[[χe ]] electric susceptibility tion that satisfies Pois-
tensor son’s equation
D, D electric flux density vec- GL portion of Green’s
tor function that satisfies
da infinitesimal area Laplace’s equation
ds, |dz| infinitesimal length GD Green’s function for
dv infinitesimal volume Dirichlet boundary con-
δ[ ] Dirac delta function ditions
0 free-space dielectric con- GN Green’s function for
stant Neumann boundary con-
r relative dielectric conditions
stant of a linear material Γ circulation
dielectric constant of a Γ[ ] Gamma function
linear material, r 0 Im[ ] imaginary part of a com-
[[]] permittivity tensor plex
√ value
E, E electric field intensity j −1
vector κth thermal conductivity
xxi
xxii Symbols
K[m] complete elliptic integral q charge per unit length

of the first kind q enc total charge per unit
K 0 [m] complementary com- length inside a closed
plete elliptic integral of surface
the first kind q∞ net charge per unit
λ charge density per unit length at infinity
length r polar magnitude
µ0 permeability of free rI radius of the circle of in-
space version
M, M dipole moment per unit Re[ ] real part of a complex
length value
np number of curvilinear Res[ ] residue
squares around a con- ρ charge density per unit
ductor volume
ns number of curvilinear ρf free charge density per
squares between two unit volume
conductors ρb bound charge density
n̂ unit normal vector per unit volume
ψf lux dielectric flux R, Rij reflection coefficient for
P, P polarization vector a ray of flux density vec-
Pother polarization vector that tor and a planar bound-
does not depend on elec- ary
tric field σ charge density per unit
PE polarization vector that area
depends on electric field σf free charge density per
Φ complex potential func- unit area
tion V + jΨ σb bound charge density
φi exterior angle of a poly- per unit area
gon sn[ ] Jacobi’s elliptic function
φi,∞ exterior angle of a poly- sn
gon for a vertex at infin- θs angle of line formed by
ity vertices as and as+1 of
ψ f lux flux per unit length a polygon and the real
Ψ imaginary part of the positive axis
complex potential θ polar angle
Π[n, φ, m] incomplete elliptic inte- t̂ unit tangential vector
gral of the third kind T, Tij transmission coefficient
Π[n, m] complete elliptic integral for a ray flux den-
of the third kind sity vector and a planar
q electronic charge boundary
Symbols xxiii
V electrostatic potential (a×b)·k̂ 2D cross product of a

W work and b
W work per unit length Im[a∗ b] 2D cross product of a
z complex number x + jy and b
z∗ complex conjugate of z ∇ gradient vector operator
zc center of the circle of in- 2 ∂z∂ ∗ gradient vector operator
version ∇2 Laplace operator
|z| magnitude of z 4 ∂
2
Laplace operator
H ∂z∂z ∗
Z Cartesian axis perpen- integral around a closed
dicular to the x-y plane contour in the positive
2 F1 [ ] Gauss’s hypergeometric direction (counterclock-
function wise)
a·b
R
scalar product of a and integral around a closed
b contour C in the neg-
Re[a∗ b] scalar product of a and ative direction (clock-
b wise)
CHAPTER 1
Functions of a Complex
Variable
Although originally misunderstood and dismissed [4], complex numbers

are now commonly used to simplify many areas of analysis. Examples
include, using contour integration and the residue theorem to evaluate
integrals, using complex notation for sinusoidal functions (also known as
phasor notation) to obtain the AC steady state response circuits from
algebraic equations instead of solving differential equations, and using
conformal mapping to transform the geometry of a problem into a geo-
metric form that can be solved or has already been solved. We use the
complex representation of 2D vectors and exploit many features of ana-
lytic functions to simplify analysis in later chapters. In this chapter, we
review complex numbers, complex variables and functions of a complex
variable. Fundamental concepts that are required to analyze and solve
2D electrostatic problems is the focus.
1.1 COMPLEX NUMBERS AND VARIABLES

A general complex number can be written as
z = x + jy (1.1)
√
where x and y are real numbers and j = −1. In this notation, x is
referred to as the real part of z or Re[z] and y is the imaginary part of z
or Im[z]. For two complex numbers to be equal, their real and imaginary
parts must be equal.
Geometrically, real numbers can be viewed as points on a one-
dimensional number line and complex numbers can be viewed as points
1
2 2D Electrostatic Fields: A Complex Variable Approach
in a plane (commonly referred to as the z-plane, x-y plane, or complex

plane). The horizontal axis represents the real part of the complex num-
ber and the vertical axis represents the imaginary part (see Fig. 1.1).
With this geometric view of complex numbers, z = x + jy represents
a number located at (x, y) in the z-plane. Therefore, real numbers are
complex numbers confined to the Real or x-axis and imaginary numbers
are complex numbers confined to the Imaginary or y-axis of the z-plane.
FIGURE 1.1 Geometric representation of a complex number z in the complex plane.
Armed with the geometric view of complex numbers, addition and

subtraction of complex numbers coincides with addition and subtraction
of (x, y) points
(x1 , y1 ) ± (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 ± x2 , y1 ± y2 ),

(1.2)
z1 ± z2 = x1 ± x2 + j (y1 ± y2 )
Addition can be performed geometrically by using the parallelogram rule

as shown in Fig. 1.2(a). Lines from the origin to the two points to be
added are drawn and form half of the parallelogram. The parallelogram
is completed by drawing the two remaining lines (dashed lines in Fig.
1.2(a)). The sum of the two complex numbers is located at the corner of
the parallelogram opposite to the origin.
The polar representation of complex numbers is also easily under-
stood geometrically. To transform z into polar representation, the same
formulas to transform Cartesian coordinates x and y into polar coordi-
nates r and θ are used
x = r cos[θ] , y = r sin[θ] (1.3)

Functions of a Complex Variable 3
and
x2 + y 2 , θ = arg[z] = tan−1 [y/x]
p
r= (1.4)
This allows expressing z as
z = x + jy = r (cos[θ] + j sin[θ]) (1.5)
The argument (or phase) of the complex number is given by θ. Using

Euler’s formula
ejθ = cos[θ] + j sin[θ] (1.6)
polar representation of complex numbers can also be written as
z = rejθ (1.7)
The mechanics of multiplying complex numbers is easiest seen in

polar representation as
z1 z2 = r1 r2 ej(θ1 +θ1 ) = x1 x2 − y1 y2 + j (x1 y2 + y1 x2 ) (1.8)
Thus, the distance from the origin of the two points are multiplied and
their angles are added. Since division is just multiplication by the recip-
rocal of a number, we have
z1 r1 j(θ1 −θ2 ) x1 x2 + y1 y2 y 1 x 2 + x 1 y2

= e = 2 2 +j (1.9)
z2 r2 x2 + y2 x22 + y22
To produce a geometric diagram of complex multiplication, the two

points to be multiplied (z1 and z2 ) are plotted on the plane and lines
from the origin to the points are drawn (see Fig. 1.2(b)). Then a tri-
angle is created with vertices located at the origin, z = 1, and z1 . This
triangle is then rotated about the origin so the side that coincided with
the x-axis (side A) now lies along the line connecting z2 to the origin.
The rotated triangle is then scaled until the length of side A equals the
length of z2 . The new location of z1 (labeled z3 in Fig. 1.2(b)) on the
rotated and scaled triangle is the value of z1 multiplied by z2 .
The distance of the point z from the origin is the magnitude (or mod-
ulus) of z and coincides with the definition of r in polar representation.
The magnitude of z can be calculated with (1.3) or as
q
|z| = (z ∗ ) z = r (1.10)
where z ∗ = x − jy is the complex conjugate of z. When taking the

FIGURE 1.2 Geometric representation of (a) addition and (b) multiplication of two
complex numbers in the z-plane.
complex conjugate of an expression, j is replaced by −j everywhere in

the expression. In polar representation, z ∗ = re−jθ showing that the
magnitude of z is not changed by taking the complex conjugate, but the
angle is now negative. Geometrically, the point z ∗ is located at the mirror
image with respect to the x-axis of point z as shown in Fig. 1.3(a). The
real and imaginary parts of a complex expression f can be written in
terms of the expression itself and its complex conjugate f ∗ as
1 1
Re[f ] = (f + f ∗ ) , Im[f ] = (f − f ∗ ) (1.11)
2 2i
Several properties of |z| are summarized in (1.12). We only prove the
generalized triangle inequality (1.12.4) as the other properties are easily
verified.
|z| = |z ∗ | = |−z| (1.12.1)
|z|2 = z 2 (1.12.2)
|z1 z2 | = |z1 | |z2 | (1.12.3) (1.12)
n n
zi ≤ |zi |
P P
(1.12.4)
i=1 i=1
Before proving the generalized triangle inequality, we first prove the tri-
angle inequality. Let z1 and z2 represent two complex numbers. Expand-
ing |z1 + z2 |2 gives
|z1 + z2 |2 = (z1 + z2 ) (z1 + z2 )∗ = |z1 |2 + |z2 |2 + 2Re[z1 z2∗ ] (1.13)
Using the easily verified inequality
Re[z1 z2∗ ] ≤ |z1 z2∗ | = |z1 | |z2 | (1.14)

gives
|z1 + z2 |2 ≤ |z1 |2 + |z2 |2 + 2 |z1 | |z2 | = (|z1 | + |z2 |)2 (1.15)
Taking the square root of both sides gives the triangle inequality
|z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 | (1.16)
Extending the triangle inequality to more than two complex points is
easily done by replacing z2 with a sum of complex points. For example,
replacing z2 with z2 + z3 in (1.16) gives
|z1 + z2 + z3 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 + z3 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 | + |z3 | (1.17)
where (1.16) was used on |z2 + z3 | to produce the final inequality. This
approach can be extended to any number of points giving the generalized
triangle inequality (1.12.4).
FIGURE 1.3 Geometric representation of (a) the complex conjugate of a complex

number and (b) the unit circle in the complex plane.
Multiplying a complex number z0 by ejθ1 results in a pure rotation

of z0 by θ1 . For example, let
z1 = x1 = x1 ej0 (1.18)
Multiply z1 by ejπ/2 gives
z1 ejπ/2 = jx1 (1.19)
Therefore, an imaginary number is a real number rotated by π/2 in
the complex plane. The computation of j n is easily performed now as
j n = ejnπ/2 with the values of
j 1 = j, j 2 = −1, j 3 = −j, j 4 = 1 (1.20)
These values are easily remembered as the locations where the unit cir-
cles intersects the real and imaginary axes as shown in Fig. 1.3(b).
1.2 CONJUGATE COORDINATES

Consider a general function
f [x, y] = u[x, y] + jv[x, y] (1.21)
where u and v are real functions of x and y with partial derivatives that
exist and are continuous. To express f in terms of complex variables, we
use what are known as complex conjugate coordinates (or just conjugate
coordinates) by replacing x and y with
x= 1
2 (z + z ∗ ) , y = − 12 j (z − z ∗ ) (1.22)
In general, the function f depends on both z and z ∗ . Later, mathemat-

ical operators are developed in terms of conjugate coordinates which
require z and z ∗ to be treated as independent variables. Thus, general
functions of a complex variable in some books use notation that reflects
this dependence such as f [z, z ∗ ] to distinguish them from functions that
depend only on z or only on z ∗ . Other books use the simplified nota-
tion f [z] to represent a general function of a complex variable even if it
depends on z ∗ . This simplified notation is used throughout this book.
1.3 ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS

Again consider a general function of a complex variable
f [z] = f [x, y] = u[x, y] + jv[x, y] (1.23)
where u and v are real functions of x and y with partial derivatives that
exist and are continuous. Under these conditions, the differentials of u
and v are
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v
du = dx + dy, dv = dx + dy (1.24)
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
Now we can write the differential of f as
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v

df = du + jdv = +j dx + +j dy (1.25)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
The partial derivative terms in (1.25) can be re-written as
∂f ∂u ∂v ∂f ∂u ∂v
= +j , = +j (1.26)
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y
allowing the differential of f to be written as

∂f ∂f
df = dx + dy (1.27)
∂x ∂y
analogous to a real function. Our goal is to express any restrictions for
f to be analytic in terms of z. To accomplish this, we use conjugate
coordinates. Re-writing (1.27) in terms of dz and dz ∗ by replacing dx
and dy with
dx = 1
2 (dz + dz ∗ ) , dy = 1
2 (dz − dz ∗ ) /j (1.28)
gives
1 ∂f ∂f ∂f ∂f

∗
df = −j dz + +j dz (1.29)
2 ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
Defining the operators [1]
∂ 1 ∂ ∂ ∂ 1 ∂ ∂

= −j , ∗
= +j (1.30)
∂z 2 ∂x ∂y ∂z 2 ∂x ∂y
allows writing (1.29) in a form similar to (1.27) as
∂f ∂f
df = dz + ∗ dz ∗ (1.31)
∂z ∂z
In terms of conjugate coordinates, a necessary condition for an analytic
function is that it only depend on z [3]. In order for f to be independent
of z ∗ , we have the condition
∂f 1 ∂f ∂f

= +j =0 (1.32)
∂z ∗ 2 ∂x ∂y
Substituting (1.26) into (1.32) and setting the real and imaginary parts
equal to zero leads to the requirements
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= , =− (1.33)
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
The requirements of (1.33) are known as the Cauchy-Riemann (C-R)

equations. Any function of a complex variable f = u + jv (where u and
v are real functions of x and y with partial derivatives that exist and
are continuous) that obeys the C-R equations at z0 is analytic at z0
and has a complex derivative that exist at z0 .
It should be clear that the sum of two analytic functions is also an

analytic function as each term obeys the C-R equations. Now consider
a function g = r + js which is an analytic function of w = u + jv. The
C-R equations in terms of u and v are
∂r ∂s ∂r ∂s
= , =− (1.34)
∂u ∂v ∂v ∂u
If w is an analytic function of z = x + jy, then we can multiply
(1.34) by the first equation of (1.33) to obtain
∂r ∂s ∂r ∂s
= , =− (1.35)
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
Thus g is also an analytic function of z = x + jy.
1.4 REAL AND IMAGINARY PARTS OF ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS

Analytic functions have special properties. One of these special proper-
ties is the ability to determine the imaginary part of an analytic function
from its real part and vice versa. There are several methods for deter-
mining the imaginary part from the real part of an analytic function,
but we use the algebraic method given in [6]. Let u[x, y] represent the
real part of an analytic function f [z]. Then the full analytic function (to
within an arbitrary constant) is
z + z1∗ z − z1∗

f [z] = 2u , − (f [z1 ])∗ (1.36)
2 2j
where u[x, y] is defined at z1 = x1 + jy1 . As an example, let u[x, y] = x

represent the real part of a complex function g[z]. Since u[x, y] is defined
at z = 0, we choose z1 = 0. Using (1.36), we have
g[z] = z − (g[0])∗ (1.37)
Since u[0, 0] = 0, then (g[0])∗ = −jC0 where C0 is an arbitrary real

constant. The final form for g[z] is
g[z] = z + jC0 (1.38)
The constant C0 would need to be determined from other information.

We use this method in future chapters to determine the complex poten-
tial function when the electrostatic potential is known.
1.5 TAYLOR SERIES

The need to represent a function as an infinite series or to approximate
a function as a finite polynomial often occurs. The infinite series rep-
resentation and the finite polynomial approximation of a function are
known as Taylor series and Taylor polynomials, respectively. In order to
determine the Taylor series representation of an analytic function f [z],
we first assume f [z] has derivatives of all orders at z = z0 (to be proven
later) and can be represented by an infinite series of the form
∞
f [z] = c0 + c1 (z − z0 ) + c2 (z − z0 )2 + · · · = cn (z − z0 )n
X
(1.39)
n=0
where cn are in general complex constants. Successive differentiation of

(1.39) and evaluating at z = z0 gives
f [z0 ] = c0 , f 0 [z0 ] = c1 , f 00 [z0 ] = (2 · 1) c2 , f (n) [z0 ] = n!cn (1.40)
where f (n) [z0 ] represents the nth derivative of f with respect to z eval-
uated at z = z0 . With the coefficients determined, the infinite series can
be written as ∞
f (n) [z0 ]
(z − z0 )n
X
f [z] = (1.41)
n=0
n!
and is called the Taylor series for f [z] at z0 . The mth order Taylor
polynomial approximation of f is a polynomial made up of the first m
terms of the Taylor series. When z0 = 0, the Taylor series and polynomial
are also called the Maclaurin series and polynomial for f .
Convergence of the infinite series for values near z0 (radius of con-
vergence greater than zero) is required in order for (1.39) to be valid.
In the complex plane, the radius of convergence is simply the distance
from the center of the Taylor series expansion (z0 ) to the nearest singu-
larity (location where f [z] does not exist) or branch point [5]. Branch
points are encountered when dealing with multi-valued functions in the
complex plane.
1.6 MULTI-VALUED FUNCTIONS

The concept that functions of a complex variable can be viewed as
mapping points in one complex plane (z-plane) into points in another
complex plane (w-plane) is helpful when discussing single valued func-
tions and functions that are multi-valued (also known as multifunctions).
Whether a function is single valued or multi-valued is then dependent

on how the function maps the points of one complex plane into the other
complex plane. Single valued functions are functions that have only one
w value for each value of z. Multifunctions are functions that have more
than one w value for each value of z.
An example of a single valued functions is w = z 2 . To test if w = z 2
is single valued or multi-valued, we specify the same point in the z-plane
two different ways
z = rejθ and z = rej(θ+2π) (1.42)
Evaluating z 2 for the two representations in (1.42) gives
w = r2 ej2θ and w = r2 ej2(θ+2π) = r2 ej2θ (1.43)
which are the same points in the w-plane. An example of a multifunction

√ √
is w = z. Evaluating w = z for the two representations in (1.42) gives
√ √ √
w= rejθ/2 and w = rej(θ+2π)/2 = − rejθ/2 (1.44)
which are clearly different points in the w-plane.

A multi-valued function can be viewed as a collection of single valued
functions with each member called a branch of the function. Therefore,
restricting a multifunction to a single branch results in a single valued
function. The line along which the multifunction becomes discontinuous
√
is called a branch line (or a branch cut). For the multifunction w = z,
restricting z to a θ range of θ0 ≤ θ < θ0 + 2π results in only one w value
for every z value and a branch line exist along the θ = θ0 line.
In addition to a branch line, there is a branch point defined as a
point that when encircled once by a closed loop in the z-plane results in
a contour with different start and end points in the w-plane. Using the
√
multifunction example w = z, we draw two small closed loops (only
want to encircle one branch point with the loop) in the z-plane and a
determine the mapping of these closed loops in the w-plane (see Fig.
1.4). The first loop C1 does not encircle the origin in the z-plane. The
mapping of C1 in the w-plane is also a closed loop and therefore none of
the points enclosed by C1 in the z-plane are branch points. The second
loop C2 encircles the origin in the z-plane. The mapping of C2 in the
w-plane has different start and end points. Therefore, a point enclosed
by C2 in the z-plane is a branch point. To determine which point is
the branch point, a couple of properties of branch points are now given
FIGURE 1.4 Mapping of small closed loops in the z-plane into the w-plane for
√
w = z. Loop C1 does not enclose a branch point since it has the same start and
end points in the w-plane. Loop C2 has different start and end points in the w-plane
√
since it encircles the origin (a branch point for w = z) of the z-plane.
without proof. First, the value of f [z] at the branch point is common to
all branches of f [z]. Second, branch points exist at the start and end of
branch cuts. The only point contained in loop C2 that gives the same
value for all branches is z = 0. Thus, z = 0 is a branch point. The second
√
branch point for w = z is z = ∞. This can be confirmed by making
√
a change in variable of z = 1/z1 , so that w = 1/ z1 . Performing the
same loop analysis between the z1 -plane and w-plane shows the origin
of the z1 -plane is a branch point confirming z = ∞ as a branch point
√
for w = z. It is important to note that branch points are a property
of the function and independent of the branch lines used. Branch lines
are not unique and do not even need to be lines.
The complex logarithm function
w = ln[z] (1.45)
is a multifunction with an infinite number of branches. Each branch
is separated from the others by multiples of 2πj with branch points of
z = 0 and z = ∞. To make ln[z] single valued, the restriction 0 ≤ θ < 2π
(branch line along the positive real axis) or −π < θ ≤ π (branch line
along negative real axis) is commonly used. Unless stated otherwise, we
place the branch line along the positive real axis for the ln[z].
In general, branch points and lines for an arbitrary multifunction
can be complicated. Often, knowing a function is a multifunction and
the location of the branch lines are enough to perform proper analysis.
With mathematical software, this can be accomplished with a surface
or contour plot of the imaginary part of the function. A discontinuity
in the surface or contour indicates the location of a branch line. Since
branch lines are not unique, plotting the function should be performed
even if the branch lines have been chosen without the use of software.
This allows confirming that the branch lines used by the software are
the same as the chosen branch lines. Surface plots of the imaginary parts
√
of w = z and w = ln[z] are shown in Fig. 1.5. The discontinuity in
the surface plot along the negative real axis shows that the software
has placed a branch line along the negative real axis for both of these
functions. Since branch lines start and end on branch points, the branch
points are z = 0 and z = ∞ as previously determined. Let
√
FIGURE 1.5 Surface plots of (a) Im z and (b) Im[ln[z]]. The discontinuities in
the surface plots correspond to branch lines for each function.
h p i
w = sin−1 [z] = −j ln jz + 1 − z2 (1.46)
A surface plot of the imaginary plot of (1.46) is shown in Fig. 1.6 (a).
Two discontinuities corresponding to two branch lines are observed in
the surface plot. One branch line occurs along the real axis for x > 1
and the other along the real axis for x < −1. Thus, the two finite branch
points are z = ±1. For the next multifunction, let
w = ln[z + 1] − ln[z − 1] (1.47)
A surface plot of the imaginary plot of (1.47) is shown in Fig. 1.6 (b).
A single discontinuity along the real axis for −1 < x < 1 corresponding
to a branch line is observed. Thus, branch lines do not always extend to
infinity and in this case, the two branch points are z = ±1.
1.7 2D VECTORS AND VECTOR OPERATORS

In physics and engineering, quantities that are described by both mag-
nitude and direction are called vector quantities. Quantities that are
FIGURE 1.6 Surface plots of (a) Im sin−1 [z] and (b) Im[ln[z + 1] − ln[z − 1]]. The

discontinuities in the surface plots correspond to branch lines for each function.
independent of direction are called scalar quantities. Examples of scalar

quantities include temperature, speed, distance, and mass. Examples of
vector quantities include force, electric field, velocity, and acceleration.
From these two lists, we see speed is a scalar, but velocity is a vector.
Both describe how fast an object is moving, but velocity would also
provide the direction the object is moving. Vector equations and mathe-
matical operations are used throughout the field of electromagnetics. In
this section we learn how 2D vectors and vector operators are represented
in the complex plane.
Let g represent any 2D vector. In Cartesian coordinates, g can be
written as
g = gx x̂ + gy ŷ or g = (gx , gy ) (1.48)
where x̂ is a vector with a magnitude of one (a unit vector) in the x-
direction and ŷ is a unit vector in the y-direction. From Section 1.1,
complex numbers can also be used to represent (gx , gy ) and are there-
fore another way of representing a 2D vector. In complex notation, g is
written as
g[z] = gx + jgy (1.49)
This leads to the rule that a 2D vector in Cartesian coordinates can
be converted to complex notation by dropping x̂ and replacing ŷ with
j. Additionally, complex notation does not use bold letters for vector
quantities.
Vectors can also be written in terms of their magnitude and direction.
In this notation, vector g is
g = |g|ĝ (1.50)
where ĝ is a unit vector parallel to g. Converting magnitude and direc-

tion notation into complex notation is easiest done in polar representa-
tion of complex numbers as
g = |g|ejθg (1.51)
where θg is the angle between the positive x-axis and vector g
θg = tan−1 [gy /gx ] (1.52)
In general, the ejθ term gives the vector its direction in complex notation
and can represent any unit vector in 2D with the appropriate choice of
θ.
In addition to complex notation for vectors, we also need to develop
complex notation for vector operators. We start with the gradient oper-
ator ∇ that acts on a scalar function V to produce a vector
g = ∇V (1.53)
where in Cartesian coordinates

∂ ∂
∇= x̂ + ŷ. (1.54)
∂x ∂y
In complex notation, the gradient and the complex conjugate of the
gradient are written as
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
∇=∇= + j , ∇∗ = −j (1.55)
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
Comparing (1.55) to (1.30) allows obtaining the expressions for ∇ and
∇∗ in terms of conjugate coordinates as
∂ ∂
2 ∗
= ∇, 2 = ∇∗ (1.56)
∂z ∂z
The 2D dot product and cross product of two vectors can also be
represented in complex notation. Let the complex functions f and g
represent vectors f and g given by
f = ux̂ + v ŷ or f = u + jv
(1.57)
g = sx̂ + tŷ or g = s + jt
In Cartesian coordinates, the 2D dot product and cross product of f
and g are defined as
f · g = us + vt, f × g = ut − vs (1.58)
Performing the complex multiplication
f ∗ g = (us + vt) + j (ut − vs) (1.59)
and comparing to (1.58) gives
f ∗ g = f · g + j (f × g)
or (1.60)
f · g = Re[f ∗ g] , f × g = Im[f ∗ g]
In both 2D and 3D, the dot product of two vectors is a scalar. In 3D, the
cross product of two vectors produces another vector that is perpendicu-
lar to the plane defined by the two vectors. In 2D, both vectors lie in the
complex plane and therefore, the cross product should produce a vector
perpendicular to the complex plane. Since this third dimension does not
exist in 2D, the definition given by (1.58) for the 2D cross product is
used instead and the 2D cross-product is a scalar. In 3D notation, the
2D cross product is
(f × g)2D = k̂ · (f × g)3D (1.61)
where k̂ is a unit vector that points in the positive Z direction as shown

in Fig. 1.7 (a). The 2D cross product is also the signed area of a paral-
lelogram defined by the two vectors (Fig. 1.7 (b)). In other words, the
area of the parallelogram defined by the two vectors is the magnitude of
the 2D cross product, but the area can be positive or negative. Positive
area corresponds to a 3D cross product that is parallel to k̂ and negative
area corresponds to a 3D cross product that is anti-parallel to k̂.
Graphical representation of the dot product and 2D cross product
for two vectors f and g in the complex plane is shown in Fig. 1.8 (a).
Rotating vector f ∗ g by −π/2 as shown in Figure 1.8 (b) also rotates the
triangle in Fig. 1.8 (a) by −π/2. From Fig. 1.8 (b) it is easily seen that
Im[f ∗ g] = Re[f ∗ (−jg)] (1.62)
but −jg is g rotated by −π/2. This allows the 2D cross product to be

recast in dot product form as
Im[f ∗ g] = (f × g)2D = (f · n̂g |g|)2D (1.63)
where n̂g is a unit vector normal to g pointing in the direction of g

rotated by −π/2.
FIGURE 1.7 (a) 3D view of f and g with the direction k̂ defined. (b) Parallelogram
defined by f and g.
The dot product and cross product of two vectors can also be ex-
pressed in terms of their magnitudes and the angle between them. First
we write the polar representation of vectors f and g as
f = |f | exp[jθf ] , g = |g| exp[jθg ] (1.64)
Performing the complex multiplication f ∗ g and using (1.60) gives the

alternative dot and cross product formulas
f · g = |f | |g| cos[θg − θf ] , f × g = |f | |g| sin[θg − θf ] (1.65)
From (1.65) it is seen that the dot product of two vectors is zero if the
vectors are perpendicular to each other (θf = θg ± π/2) and the cross
product of two vectors is zero if the two vectors are parallel (θf = θg ) or
anti-parallel (θf = θg + π) to each other.
The dot product of a vector with length one (a unit vector) and the
gradient of a scalar function provides the rate of change of the scalar
function in the direction of the unit vector. Let ŝ be the unit vector
and f be the scalar function. We can obtain the derivative of f in the
direction of ŝ as
∂f ∂f

= ∇f · ŝ = Re 2 ejθs (1.66)
∂s ∂z
where θs defines the direction of ŝ.
The dot product of the gradient operator and a vector is called the
divergence of the vector. The cross product of the gradient operator and
a vector is called the curl of the vector. Letting ∇ = f in (1.60) allows
FIGURE 1.8 (a) Graphical representation showing the dot product and 2D cross
product of vector f and g in the complex plane. (b) Geometric justification for the
dot product representation of the 2D cross product (1.63).
computing the divergence and curl of g as the complex multiplication

∂g
∇∗ g = 2 = ∇ · g + j (∇ × g)
∂z (1.67)
or
∇ · g = Re[∇∗ g] , ∇ × g = Im[∇∗ g]
Another operator that is frequently seen in electrostatics is the dot prod-

uct of the gradient operator with itself known as the Laplacian operator
∇2 . In Cartesian coordinates the Laplacian operator is
∂2 ∂2
∇2 = ∇ · ∇ = + (1.68)
∂x2 ∂y 2
In terms of conjugate coordinates, the Laplacian operator is
∂2
∇2 = ∇∗ ∇ = 4 (1.69)
∂z∂z ∗
The mathematics of complex variable functions is equivalent to 2D
vector operations and manipulations. Translating from complex notation
to vector notation is typically performed with the use of (1.60). One
source of possible confusion when translating from complex notation to
vector notation is a scalar quantity vs. a vector that is parallel to the
real axis. Since scalar quantities and vectors have different symbols in
vector notation, no confusion occurs. In complex notation, this is not the
case. As an example, let g be a real function (Im[g] = 0) and consider

the expression
∂g
2 ∗ (1.70)
∂z
Assuming g is a vector that is parallel to the real axis and using
(1.60) to translate complex notation to vector notation gives
∂g ∂g ∂g
2 = ∇ · g + j (∇ × g) = +j (1.71)
∂z ∗ ∂x ∂y
Assuming g is a scalar gives
∂g ∂g ∂g
2 = ∇g = +j (1.72)
∂z ∗ ∂x ∂y
The final answer is independent of the assumption on what type of quan-
tity (scalar or vector) g is, but the translation to vector notation is very
different. Unfortunately, the only way to tell the difference between a
scalar and a vector parallel to the real axis in complex notation is through
the physics.
1.8 LINE INTEGRALS

Line integrals are integrals where a function is evaluated along a defined
path. In the complex plane, line integrals are typically called contour
integrals. The line integral of a real function f along a contour C1 is
defined as Z q
f [x, y] ds, ds = dx2 + dy 2 (1.73)
C1
Converting a line integral into a definite integral is done by determining

the parametric forms of x, y, and ds. Let t be the parametric variable.
Then we have x[t], y[t], and
q
ds = dt (dx/dt)2 + (dy/dt)2 (1.74)
In parametric form, (1.73) is
Z t2
f [x[t] , y[t]] (ds/dt) dt (1.75)
t1
The line integral depends on the direction. If we let A and B represent

the end points of the contour C1 , then
Z B Z A
f [x, y] ds = − f [x, y] ds (1.76)
A B
C1 C1
FIGURE 1.9 Definition of different vectors in the line integral of a vector. (a) Di-
rection along contour C is from A to B and (b) direction along contour C is from
B to A.
In electromagnetics, the line integral of the normal or parallel com-

ponent of a vector along a contour is often needed. The line integral of
the normal component of a vector F along a contour C1 has the form
Z
F · n̂ ds (1.77)
C1
where n̂ is a unit vector normal to the path. If the component of F

parallel to C1 needs to be evaluated, then the line integral has the form
Z
F · t̂ ds (1.78)
C1
where t̂ is a unit vector parallel to the path. The definition of the unit
vector normal (n̂) and tangential ( t̂) to C1 for the two possible directions
along C1 are shown in Fig. 1.9. In complex notation, ds, t̂, and n̂ are
ds = |dz| , t̂ = dz/ |dz| , n̂ = −jdz/ |dz| (1.79)
Using (1.60) and (1.63), vector line integrals for the normal and par-
allel components along a path in the complex plane have the compact
notation Z Z Z
∗
F dz = F · t̂ ds + j F · n̂ ds (1.80)
C1 C1 C1
An upper bound on the magnitude of a line integral can be obtained

for a finite contour if the integrand f [z] exist over the entire contour C.
Contour integration in summation form is given by
Z n
X
f [z] dz = lim f [ξi ] ∆zi (1.81)
n→∞
C i=1
FIGURE 1.10 Definition of ∆zi and ξi for the summation approximation of a contour
integral.
where ξi is a point on the contour between zi and zi+1 (see Fig. 1.10).
An accurate estimate of the contour integral can be obtained without
passing to the limit if ξi are the midpoints between zi and zi+1 [5].
Evaluating the magnitude of the contour integral in summation form
gives
Z n
X
f [z] dz = lim f [ξi ] ∆zi
n→∞
C i=1
n Z (1.82)
X
≤ lim |f [ξi ]| |∆zi | = |f [z]| |dz|
n→∞
i=1 C
The inequality used in (1.82) is the generalized triangle inequality. Let-

ting fM equal the maximum value of |f [z]| on C provides another in-
equality that may be easier to evaluate
n
X n
X
lim |f [ξi ]| |∆zi | ≤ fM lim |∆zi | = fM L (1.83)
n→∞ n→∞
i=1 i=1
where L is the length of the contour

n
X Z
L = lim |∆zi | = |dz| (1.84)
n→∞
i=1 C
Combining the inequalities gives

Z Z
f [z] dz ≤ |f [z]| |dz| ≤ fM L (1.85)
C C
Thus the magnitude of the line integral must be less than the length of
the contour times the maximum magnitude of f [z] on the contour.
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actions. If, however, he should neglect to do so, a judgment shall be
rendered by the court in favor of the plaintiff, without prejudice to the
rights of the minors to have the matter reviewed, when they shall
become of lawful age. If the party who made the claim should lose
his case when the minor has reached his majority, he shall be
compelled to restore to the minor, or to his relatives, or to any one
who may have a right to it, whatever property he obtained under the
judgment aforesaid, along with any income it may have produced,
and any profits which may have accrued from its possession; and he
shall be compelled to pay ten solidi in addition, because he has
prosecuted a claim which was not valid in law. Where a guardian
desires to defend any action brought against his ward in court he
shall have full authority to do so; but if the rights of the ward should
be affected, or his property impaired or lost through his neglect, the
guardian shall afterwards be compelled to make restitution.
THE GLORIOUS FLAVIUS RECESVINTUS, KING.
IV. Guardians shall have no Right to Exact from Wards in
their Charge any Instruments in Writing whatever.
As minors are unable to care for themselves or their property, it
has been wisely provided by the laws that they should be subjected
to the authority of guardians, and that their business should be
transacted for them for a stated number of years. For the reason,
however, that certain guardians, by means of either persuasion or
threats, defraud those whose interests it is their duty to carefully
protect, and compel them to enter into agreements that they will not
demand an accounting of their property, or exact bonds or other
written instruments from their wards, by means of which they seek to
prevent inquiry into their actions: therefore, that our solicitude for the
rights of such wards may the better appear in all matters where such
rights are involved, we hereby decree that the following law must be
strictly observed, to wit: that in the case of such wards, even when
they have passed the age of fourteen years, where the guardian or
guardians who had charge of their persons and property shall be
found to have caused the execution of any bond or written
instrument of any description, which enures to the benefit of said
guardians or any person designated by them, then such bond or
instrument shall be void, and of no force whatever in law.
When the time shall come that he who has been under
guardianship shall have the right to assume the management of his
own affairs, the guardian shall give a complete account of the care of
his ward’s property, in the presence of a priest or a judge, and shall
receive from his former ward a full discharge from all obligations; so
that, all restraint being removed, the said ward may come into full
possession of his property, and have the right to dispose of it at his
pleasure. But if it should happen that, while the guardianship is in
force, the ward should be attacked by a dangerous illness, and
should wish to dispose of his property by will, he can do so, provided
he has completed his tenth year, according to the provisions of a
former law.
If the guardian, while living or dying, should give any of the
property belonging to his ward to his own children, or to any persons
whomsoever, and no account of the same was made to the wards,
according to the terms of the inventory which was made at the time
the guardianship was accepted, and proof of this should be legally
established, those who received said property from the guardian
shall make full restitution to the wards. All wards shall have the
benefit of this legal remedy, except where, by the lapse of time, and
having passed the age of fifteen years, their rights shall be
extinguished by law.
TITLE IV.—CONCERNING FOUNDLINGS.
I. Where Anyone Casts Away, or Abandons, a Freeborn Child, he shall

Serve as its Slave.
II. Where a Male or Female Slave shall be proved to have Cast Away a
Child, with, or without the Knowledge of his or her Master.
III. What Compensation for Support anyone shall Receive for the Bringing up
of a Child committed to his Care by its Parents.
I. Where Anyone Casts Away, or Abandons, a Freeborn

Child, he shall Serve as its Slave.
If anyone, induced by compassion, should rescue, and care for a
child, of either sex, who has been abandoned, and such child, after
having been brought up, should be acknowledged by its parents;
where the latter are freeborn persons, they shall either give a slave,
or the price of one, as compensation for the service performed. If
they should neglect to do this, compensation shall be made by order
of the judge of the district; and the parents who have been guilty of
such wickedness shall be condemned to perpetual exile. Where he
who casts away the child has not sufficient property to redeem it, he
shall serve as its slave; and he whom the pity of others has
preserved, shall enjoy complete freedom. It shall be lawful for the
judge both to prosecute and impose sentence for this crime
whenever committed.
II. Where any Male or Female Slave shall be Proved to have

Cast Away a Child, with or without the Knowledge of his or her
Master.
If a slave, of either sex, in order to defraud his or her master,
should expose and abandon their own child, without the knowledge
of said master, and anyone should bring it up, the latter shall be
entitled to receive the third part of its value; but, under such
circumstances, the master must swear or prove that he was ignorant
that his slave had abandoned the child. If, however, it should be
shown that the master was aware of the fact, the child shall become
the slave of him who reared it.
III. What Compensation for Support anyone shall Receive for
the Bringing up of a Child committed to his Care by its Parents.
If anyone should accept from its parents a little child to be reared,
he shall receive as compensation one solidus every year, until the
child has reached the age of ten; but he shall be entitled to no further
compensation after it has completed its tenth year, because after
that time the services of the child should be sufficient to pay for its
support. And if he who seeks to take the child again should be
unwilling to pay this sum, it shall be held in slavery by him who
reared it.
TITLE V. CONCERNING SUCH PROPERTY AS IS VESTED BY THE LAWS OF
NATURE.
I. Concerning the Disinheriting of Children; and What Disposition Parents

should make of their Property.
II. What Part of her Dowry a Woman has a Right to Bequeath.
III. What Property Parents should Bestow upon their Children, at the Time of
their Marriage.
IV. Concerning Children Born of Different Parents; and What Distinctions
Parents may Make in the Disposition of their Estates.
V. Concerning such Property as Children may have Acquired during the
Lives of their Parents.
I. Concerning the Disinheriting of Children; and What

Disposition Parents should make of their Property.
As soon as we have ascertained that any unlawful acts have
been committed, it behooves us to prevent, by legal measures,
similar occurrences in the future. For many persons living reckless
lives, squander their property upon strangers, either on account of
riotous living, or through the unwise counsel of others, and, as a
result of this, leave their inoffensive children or grandchildren weak
and penniless; for those cannot be of any benefit whatever to the
community upon whom the duty of labor has not been enjoined by
the example and virtues of their parents. And, in order that, under
such circumstances, the rights of the community may not be
sacrificed, or children or grandchildren be deprived of the benefits of
that natural affection which should be bestowed upon them, the law,
by which a father or mother, or grandfather or grandmother, have the
right to give their property to a stranger, should they wish to do so, or
a woman to dispose of her dowry in any way that she pleases, is
hereby abrogated; and we decree that the following more equitable
law shall be observed by all, to wit: that neither parents nor
grandparents shall have the absolute right to dispose of all their
property, nor that children nor grandchildren shall, through an unjust
will, be deprived of the inheritance of their parents and grandparents;
therefore, any father or mother, grandfather or grandmother, who
wish to bestow any of their property upon their children or
grandchildren, must observe the following rule, viz: that in the
bestowal of said gifts upon their children or grandchildren they do not
exceed the third part of their property; nor shall it be lawful for them
to transfer any of their property to any stranger, unless they should
not have any legitimate children or grandchildren living.
The following, however, we decree shall be observed, as being in
accordance with the dictates of reason: that if the father or mother,
grandfather or grandmother, should decide to bequeath, by any
instrument in writing, any portion of the third part of their property, as
aforesaid, to their children or grandchildren, in compliance with the
laws governing inheritances, all such proceedings shall be forever
inviolable; and whatever bequest concerning said property may be
made, shall have full and uncontrovertible validity. Nor shall it be
lawful for the child or grandchild who has received any of the said
third part of the estate from their parents, to claim anything more,
unless they should prove to be entitled to it by some former bequest
of their parents or grandparents.
If those having children or grandchildren, should wish to bestow
anything upon the Church, or upon freedmen, or upon anyone else,
they shall have the right to dispose of the fifth part of what remains,
after the said third part has been reserved. The authority of such
persons to dispose of the said fifth part is indubitable; but, in such
cases, either the third part of the property which is to be bequeathed
to the children, or the fifth part which is to be otherwise disposed of,
as aforesaid, must be separated from the remaining property, and a
proper estimate made of the same. But whatever anyone has
received through the generosity of the king, shall, under no
circumstances, be included in the estimate of either the third or the
fifth parts of the estate aforesaid; for, according to another law,
whatever anyone has acquired through the royal bounty shall be
absolutely at his disposal.
It has been already provided that children and grandchildren
cannot be disinherited by their parents for any trifling offence. The
grandfather and grandmother, as well as the father and mother, shall
have the right to chastise and restrain their children and
grandchildren, as long as they remain members of the family. And if
a son or daughter, grandson or granddaughter, should attempt to
inflict any serious injury upon their parents or grandparents; that is to
say, if he or she should give any of them a blow with the fist; or a
kick; or strike them with a stone, or with a scourge, or with a whip; or
should insolently seize any of them by the foot, or by the hair, or
even by the hand; or be guilty of any shameless assault upon them;
or should publicly accuse them of crime; then, any child or
grandchild convicted of such an offence, shall receive fifty lashes
with the scourge, in the presence of the judge, and shall forfeit all
claim to the inheritance of its grandparents or parents, should the
latter so desire. But if, repenting of its conduct, it should implore the
pardon of those whom it has offended; and, through the love of its
parents, it should be again received into favor, and designated as an
heir; it shall not be deprived of its inheritance, or be accounted
infamous, on account of the punishment which it has received.
FLAVIUS CHINTASVINTUS, KING.
II. What Part of her Dowry a Woman has a Right to Bequeath.
For the reason that many women to whom the privilege was
granted of disposing of their dowries as they pleased, have been
found to have bestowed them upon persons with whom they were
living illegally, to the injury of their children or grandchildren;
therefore, we declare it to be both necessary and proper that those
for the rearing of whom the marriage was celebrated, should receive
some benefit from said property. In pursuance whereof we decree
that, if any woman has children or grandchildren, and should wish to
bestow a gift upon the Church, or upon freedmen, or upon any other
person or persons; she shall not have the right to dispose of more
than the fourth part of her dowry in this manner. Three fourths of it
shall be left, without question, to her children or grandchildren,
whether there be one, or many of them. On the other hand, a wife
shall have full power to dispose of her entire dowry, in any way she
pleases, when she leaves no legitimate children or grandchildren.
Nevertheless, it shall not be lawful for any woman who has married
two husbands, or more, to give the dowry she has received from one
husband, to the children or grandchildren of another; but the children
and grandchildren born in a certain line of descent shall, after the
death of their mother, have the entire dowry given by their father or
grandfather.
III. What Property Parents should Bestow upon their
Children, at the Time of their Marriage.
Wherever wrong is done by parents to the interests of their
children it must be remedied by law. Therefore, because the duplicity
of parents sometimes prompts them to deprive their children of what
they have given them at the time of their marriage, we hereby
declare such acts to be void; and decree that the following law shall
hereafter be observed forever, to wit: that if any property should be
transferred to any person, either by writing, or in the presence of
witnesses, at the time of his or her marriage, excepting such as is
usually given in the way of ornaments or clothes, as a marriage gift,
whether said property consists of slaves, lands, vineyards, buildings,
clothing, or jewels, presented by the parents to the children, either at
the time of the marriage, or after it, the said children shall have full
power to dispose of such property as they wish, with this exception:
that, after the death of their parents, the inheritance shall belong to
the children exclusive of what said parents have previously given to
them according to law, and an equal distribution of said inheritance
shall be made among the heirs; so that a son or daughter shall have
full power to dispose of what they received from their parents at the
time of their marriage, according to the provisions aforesaid.
After the death of the parents, an inventory shall be made, and
the property which was donated at the time of the marriage shall be
appraised, and the other heirs shall receive an equivalent in value to
the amount of said property; and all shall then share equally in the
remainder of the estate of the parents.
IV. Concerning Children Born of Different Parents; and What
Distinctions Parents may Make in the Disposition of their
Estates.
If a man marries several wives, and has children by all of them,
and any of his sons or daughters should die intestate, his or her
brothers or sisters shall be entitled to the estate, provided the
decedent left neither children nor grandchildren; and said heirs shall
have a right to claim it after proving that they are descended from the
same father and mother. Where there are children by one father and
by different mothers, those only who are descended from the same
father have a right to an equal division of the property belonging to
him. With regard to those who are sprung from one mother and
different fathers, we prescribe the following regulations, to wit: that if
a woman should have children by different husbands, only those
brothers and sisters who are the children of the same father and
mother shall have a right to the inheritance, descending either in the
paternal or maternal line from such as have died intestate, or without
offspring or descendants. As it has been established by a former law
that the grandchildren shall not be deprived of the third part of the
estate of their grandparents, it shall be lawful for the grandsons and
granddaughters who have lost either of their parents, to share
equally with their paternal or maternal uncles in the estates of their
grandfathers and grandmothers; that provision only of said law
remaining valid, by which it was decreed that parents and
grandparents may bestow their property upon their children and
grandchildren, or may give away what they please to a stranger.[22]
V. Concerning such Property as Children may have Acquired

during the Lives of their Parents.
Any son who, while his father and mother are living, acquires any
property, either through the favor of the king, or through the
generosity of his patron, shall be entitled to absolute control of the
same, and shall have the right to sell, or give it away to any one he
chooses, as has already been provided by our laws; nor can his
father or mother claim any of said property while the son is living.
Where, on the other hand, a son obtains property, not through royal
generosity, but by his own labor, or during some public expedition;
should he be living with his father at the time, the latter shall be
entitled to the third part of said property, and the other two-thirds
shall belong to the son.
BOOK V.
CONCERNING BUSINESS TRANSACTIONS.
TITLE I. ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS.
I. Concerning Donations to the Church.

II. Concerning the Preservation and Restoration of Property Belonging to the
Church.
III. Concerning Sales and Gifts of Church Property.
IV. Concerning Church Property in Charge of Those Devoted to the Service
of the Church.
V. Concerning the Repairs of Churches, and Divers Other Matters.
VI. Concerning the Arbitrary Conduct of Bishops.
VII. Emancipated Slaves of the Church, who are still Bound to Render it
Service, shall not be Permitted to Marry Persons who are Freeborn.
THE GLORIOUS FLAVIUS RECESVINTUS, KING.

I. Concerning Donations to the Church.
If we are compelled to do justice to the merits of those who serve
us, how much greater reason is there that we should care for the
property set apart for the redemption of our souls and the worship of
God, and preserve it intact by the authority of the law. Wherefore, we
decree that all property which has been given, either by kings, or by
any other believers whomsoever, to houses devoted to Divine
worship, shall eternally and irrevocably belong to said churches.[23]
II. Concerning the Preservation and Restoration of Property

Belonging to the Church.
We are of the opinion that it vitally concerns the interests of our
kingdom, to provide by our laws that the temporal rights of the
church shall be protected. Therefore, we hereby decree, that, as
soon as a bishop has been consecrated, he shall straightway
proceed to make an inventory of the property of his church in the
presence of five freeborn witnesses; and to this inventory the said
witnesses shall affix their signatures. After the death of a bishop, and
as soon as his successor has been consecrated, the latter shall
require a second inventory of the church property to be made; and if
it should appear that said property had, in any way, been diminished,
then the heirs of said bishop, or those to whom his estate was
bequeathed by will, shall make up the deficiency. If a bishop should
sell any of the property of the church, his successor shall lay claim to
that property, along with all its rents and profits, and restore it to the
church, after having returned the price paid for it to the purchaser,
and no reproach shall attach to such proceedings. And we hereby
decree that this law shall be observed in every respect by priests
and deacons, as well as by bishops.
ANCIENT LAW.
III. Concerning Sales and Gifts of Church Property.
If a priest or bishop, or any other member of the clergy, should
sell or give away any of the property belonging to the church, without
the consent of the other ecclesiastics, we declare that such a
transaction shall not be valid, unless said sale or donation should
have been made in accordance with the holy canons.
IV. Concerning Church Property in Charge of Those Devoted

to the Service of the Church.
Where heirs of a bishop or of other ecclesiastics, who have
placed their sons in the service of the church, obtain lands or any
other property through the generosity of the clergy, and then return
to the laity, or abandon the service of the church whose lands or
other property they hold, they shall at once forfeit all such
possessions. And this provision must also be observed by all the
clergy holding ecclesiastical property, even though they have held it
for a long time; for the reason that the canons have so decreed. The
widows of priests or of other ecclesiastics, who have devoted their
sons to the service of the church, solely through gratitute to the
latter, shall not be deprived of any property possessed by the
fathers, which was originally derived from the church.[24]
FLAVIUS EGICA, KING.
V. Concerning the Repairs of Churches, and Divers Other
Matters.
The different regulations established in former times by the Holy
Fathers concerning ecclesiastical affairs shall be still observed, so
far as they are consistent with the interests of the church. As
antiquity, which has been the cause of the destruction of many lofty
buildings, has not spared the houses of God; it is eminently proper
that such of the latter as are in danger of destruction should be
repaired. As a result of this necessity it has been made a source of
reproach to our organization, that the greed of certain priests has
caused their parishes to be oppressed by repeated forced
contributions; and that many churches have been impoverished
under pretence of repairs. Consequently it has been decreed and
confirmed by our Council that the third part of the ecclesiastical
revenues, which the ancient canons have set apart for that purpose,
shall be used for the repairs of churches, whenever required. And
when churches are to be repaired, it is better to learn this fact from
the worshippers themselves, and the repairs should then be made
under the personal care and direction of the bishop. For, although
according to the provisions of the ancient canons, every bishop has
the right to reserve for himself the third part of the revenues of his
diocese, if he should desire to do so; so, also, he had no right to
exact from the parish churches, by means of arbitrary proceedings,
the remaining two-thirds of the said revenues; nor was he at liberty
to give away any of such property to anyone by way of
compensation for services performed. We deem it necessary to
decree that a single priest shall never have charge of more than one
church at a time; nor hold any other office; nor by ecclesiastical
authority act as guardian; nor, in any way, have charge of the
property of wards; and any congregation which possesses ten
pieces of property is entitled to a priest, but such as have less than
ten shall be united with other churches. And if any bishop should
disregard this our regulation, and should hereafter venture to
disobey it, he shall expiate his offence by two months’
excommunication.[25]
THE GLORIOUS FLAVIUS WAMBA, KING.
VI. Concerning the Arbitrary Conduct of Bishops.
God, the just Judge, who loves right eternally, does not wish that
justice should be subject to time, but rather that time should be
governed by the principles of equity. God himself is the
personification of justice, and to him should be given whatever is
bestowed by the faithful upon the church through motives of
devotion; for God, as mediator, accepts the vows of every true and
sincere worshipper. And vows should never be renounced which are
known to have proceeded from, and been confirmed by, a sense of
justice; and, therefore, he commits a fraud upon God who unjustly
takes from him his property. He also violates the rules of justice who
corruptly interferes with the vows of others. While, as has been said,
God is justice, what madness is it for anyone to remove from God’s
possession any property under the claim of prescription, alleging that
he has held it for thirty years? For many rash bishops, prompted by
avarice, are in the habit of bestowing upon their cathedral churches,
or upon various individuals, or paying out as wages for labor
performed, the donations that have been given to their dioceses by
the faithful, and, in this way, they not only break the vows of the
donors, but are also guilty of sacrilege, in that they thereby defraud
the Church of God; for it has been long established that to defraud
the church is sacrilege. And when they are urged to make restitution,
they decline to do so, because their predecessors acted in the same
manner; or refuse to make amends, because they claim to have held
the property in question for thirty years. Thus they attempt to
maintain their cupidity and rapacity by right of prescription; and
instead of at once making reparation for their fault, they attempt to
confirm and legalize it by the operation of time. He must be
considered a person of great impiety who asserts such a claim, and
acknowledges that, for thirty years, he has done injury to God, and
refuses to make amends for the injury after that period has elapsed.
Therefore, since these most iniquitous abuses are defended
under a pretence of justice, and as we are not concerned with the
past, but with the future, we shall now proceed to make regulations
applicable to the time of our own reign. For the reason that,
hereafter, all temptation to avarice may be removed, we hereby
decree that it shall not be lawful for a bishop to appropriate any
property belonging to the churches of his diocese; or, if any has
already been appropriated, to allege that he is entitled to the same
on account of his possession for thirty years; but, whenever the facts
have been established, he must make restitution at once. As, in
order that a long period may pass without a claim being made, the
nobility sometimes are guilty of such oppression of ministers of the
church that the latter do not dare to assert their rights against such
eminent persons, concerning property which has been appropriated
by the latter, and lest the voice of the despoiled church remain
forever silent, we decree that hereafter, it shall be lawful, where this
offence has been admitted by the parties or detected by anyone, in
any place, that the claim shall be instituted with all possible speed in
the following manner, to wit: that the heirs of the founders of the
church shall act as prosecutors, if they are present; but, if they
should not be present, and even if they should be, but are unwilling
to act, then the governor of the province, or the governor of the city,
or the deputy of either of them, or anyone else who has legal
cognizance of the matter, shall have the right to act as accuser and
prosecutor.
Where any bishops who, in past times, have committed the
offences hereinbefore mentioned, and have been in adverse
possession of church property for thirty years, and declare that they
hold said property by the right of prescription; such persons we leave
to the justice of God, for we decline to pass judgment upon them.
But whoever, up to the time when this law is promulgated, shall not
have had possession of such property for the space of thirty years,
shall be compelled to restore it intact to the church, but no penalty
shall be required of them. And where any bishop, who from the day
of the adoption of this law, should appropriate anything given by the
faithful to the churches of God, and should use such property for his
own benefit, or for that of his cathedral church, or should bestow any
of it upon any person whomsoever, his act shall not be confirmed by
any lapse of time; and, according to the above-mentioned decree,
whenever he shall have been convicted of the commission of such
acts by anybody, he shall be compelled to restore the property which
he took, along with lawful amends out of his own possessions, to
that church which has been defrauded. If he should not have the
means to make full restitution out of his own property, on account of
his abuse of authority, he shall undergo the penalty of
excommunication prescribed by the canon of the eleventh Council of
Toledo; that is to say, if the property that was appropriated was worth
ten solidi, he shall purge himself of guilt by twenty days of penance.
If the value of the property appropriated should be greater or less,
the proportion of days to be passed in penance shall always be
doubled; and he also shall undergo a similar penalty who retains
possession of any property taken from a diocesan church, which has
been appropriated by his predecessor.
Any judge who neglects to carry out the provisions of this law, or
delays the proceedings without just cause, or does not notify the king
that he may take cognizance of the affair, shall be liable to the same
penalty as the bishop who committed the offence, and shall pay said
penalty out of his own property to the church whose cause he
neglected to decide. This law not only applies to property which has
been bestowed upon minor and diocesan churches, but to that in
which all assemblies included under the general name of churches
are concerned; that is to say, monasteries and convents of men and
women.
We also think it proper to add the following provisions to this law:
that all bishops who ordain priests and rectors in the churches of
their dioceses shall give them instructions concerning the rights of
the churches to which they are ordained; that is to say, if any bishop
should have in his keeping any document defining the rights of any
church in his diocese, he shall show it to the rector of that church, so
that the latter may be familiar with the rights of said church, as well
as with the documents conferring the same, and not be ordained in
ignorance of them, and, what is worse, through the wickedness and
duplicity of the bishop, the will of the benefactor of the church be not
publicly known. It is also decreed that priests and rectors shall not
only have the opportunity to inspect such documents, but shall also
be entitled to copies of the same, confirmed under the hand of the
bishop, to enable them to direct the affairs of the church committed
to their care without any uncertainty, and to enforce the rights to
which it is justly entitled. Given and confirmed in the name of God, at
Toledo, on the tenth day of the Kalends of January, in the fourth year
of our reign.
THE GLORIOUS FLAVIUS WAMBA, KING.
VII. Emancipated Slaves of the Church, who are still Bound
to Render it Service, shall not be Permitted to Marry Persons
who are Freeborn.
Great confusion of lineage results where inequality of rank
causes degradation of offspring; for what is derived from the root is
inevitably found in the fruit of anything. For how indeed can he bear
a title of honor, whose parents are bound by the obligation of
servitude? We refer to this matter because many of the slaves of the
church are set free, but nevertheless do not enjoy absolute liberty;
for the reason that they are still bound to serve the church from
which they deduce their origin; and who, contrary to natural laws,
contract marriages with freeborn women, and seek to have freeborn
children who, in fact, are not so; and thus what ought to enure to the
public good, becomes in fact a burden to it, both in respect to person
and property; as whatever children are born from such an infamous
marriage, following the position inferior in rank, from birth become
the property of the church, along with all their possessions.
Wherefore, that such insolent conduct may be put an end to
hereafter, we decree by this law, that if a slave of any church, while it
is still entitled to his services, should be freed, and accept his liberty
from the priest, he shall not be permitted to marry a freeborn woman.
Those, however, who have been freed in the regular manner, and
are absolutely exempt from all service to the church by the Canon
Law, shall have the right to marry freeborn women, and shall be
entitled to claim all honor and respectability for their offspring.
But if any of those set free, who are still under the dominion of
the church, should venture hereafter to marry any freewoman; as
soon as the judge shall be apprised of the fact, both parties shall be
scourged three times, as has been provided in a former law
concerning freemen and slaves, and the judge shall cause them to
be immediately separated; and where they are unwilling to be
separated, each shall remain in the condition in which he or she was
previously, and any children born of them shall become slaves to the
king.
Whatever property has been bestowed by any free person upon
any freedman, together with such property as a child of either sex
sprung from them can acquire, possess, or waste, shall belong
entirely to the heirs of said free person at his death; and, if such
heirs should be lacking, it shall become the lawful possession of the
king, to be disposed of absolutely at his pleasure. This law shall not
only apply to men, but also to women; that is to say, where either a
freedman or a freedwoman owing services to the church should be
so bold as to marry a freeborn person.
The following exception shall be observed in the execution of this
law, to wit: whoever shall be born of such parents within thirty years
of its promulgation, shall not follow the condition of that parent who is
bound to give service to the church, but shall be free, along with all
the property inherited from his or her parents, both noble and
plebeian. Given and confirmed at Toledo, on the twelfth Kalends of
January and the fourth year of our reign.
TITLE II. CONCERNING DONATIONS IN GENERAL.
I. A Donation Extorted by Violence is Void.

II. Concerning Royal Donations.
III. Concerning Property Given to a Husband or a Wife by the King.
IV. Concerning Property, in Addition to the Dowry, Given to a Wife by her
Husband.
V. Concerning Property Given to a Husband by his Wife; and Where a Wife
has been Convicted of Adultery.
VI. Concerning Property Donated Verbally, or Conveyed by Instruments in
Writing.
VII. Concerning Gifts Bestowed upon One Another by Husband and Wife.
ANCIENT LAW.
I. A Donation Extorted by Violence is Void.
A gift extorted by force and fear has no validity whatever.
II. Concerning Royal Donations.

Donations conferred by royalty upon any person whomsoever,
shall belong absolutely to him to whom they are given; so that he
who is thus honored by the royal munificence shall have the power
to dispose of any property derived from such a source in any way
that he chooses. If he who received such gifts should die intestate,
the donations aforesaid shall belong to the legal heirs in regular
succession, according to law, and the royal favor can in no way be
infringed upon; because it is not fitting that the will of the prince
should be interfered with, where the recipient of royal bounty has not
been guilty of crime.
III. Concerning Property Given to a Husband or a Wife by the

King.
We especially decree that a wife shall be entitled to no part of
any property presented by the king to her husband, unless the latter
should bestow a portion of it upon her by way of dowry. And,
likewise, should the gift be made to a wife, her husband shall have
no right to any of it; nor can he lay claim to it after her death, unless
his wife should give or bequeath it to him.
ANCIENT LAW.
IV. Concerning Property, in Addition to the Dowry, given to a
Wife by her Husband.
If a wife should, at any time, in addition to her dowry, accept from
her husband property acquired by him as a gift, or by profligate
conduct, or the proceeds of claims collected by him, she shall have
the absolute disposal of said property until the day of her death,
according to the terms of the will of her husband, even though there
be children born of that marriage. She shall have the power to
expend or use the income of such property, just as the testator has
designated by will; and, during her lifetime, she shall enjoy
unhampered possession of all such property, the income of which
shall be used for her expenses. But if the testator should not make
any special disposition of said income, his children shall have the
right to said property after his death; and, upon no occasion, shall his
wife be allowed to alienate any part of it, excepting the income.
Where there are no children by said marriage, the wife shall have full
control of all property given her by her husband, according to the
terms of his will. But if she should die intestate, the said property
shall revert to her husband if he is living, and if he should not be
living, it shall belong to his heirs. And we decree that the same rule
shall apply to husbands who, at any time, have received gifts of
property from their wives.
ANCIENT LAW.
V. Concerning Property given to a Husband by his Wife; and
Where a Wife has been Convicted of Adultery.
If a husband should give any property to his wife, and she, after
his death, should remain chaste, or should marry another husband,
she shall have the power of disposing of the property given her by
her first husband according to the terms of his will, if she should
have no children. If she should die intestate and without children, the
property shall revert to her husband if he is living, and if not, it shall
belong to his heirs. But if she should have been convicted of
adultery, or other meretricious conduct, she shall lose any property

Full Ebook of 2D Electrostatic Fields A Complex Variable Approach 1St Edition Robert L Coffie Online PDF All Chapter

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Full Ebook of 2D Electrostatic Fields A Complex Variable Approach 1St Edition Robert L Coffie Online PDF All Chapter

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2D Electrostatic Fields: A Complex

Variable Approach 1st Edition Robert L.

Functions of One Complex Variable I 2nd Edition John B

Primary Mathematics 3A Hoerst

A Friendly Approach to Complex Analysis 2nd Edition

Topics in Complex Analysis 1st Edition Joel L Schiff

A New Approach to Joyce Robert S. Ryf

Family Violence From a Global Perspective A Strengths

A Reluctant Saint 1st Edition Tricia Fields

Disruptive Technologies and the Language Classroom A

and by CRC Press

© 2022 Robert L. Coffie

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Library of Congress Control Number: 2021940927

ISBN: 978-0-367-76975-8 (hbk)

Typeset in Latin font

Access the Support Material: https://www.routledge.com/2D-Electrostatic-Fields-A-Complex-Vari-

Chapter 1 Functions of a Complex Variable 1

Chapter 3 Line Charges 91

Chapter 4 Conformal Mapping I 137

4.6 Inversion of a Point 144

Chapter 5 Conformal Mapping II 167

5.11 Polygons with Both Vertices at Infinity 190

Chapter 6 Case Studies with Conformal Mapping 241

6.5.9 Infinite Depth Assumption 289

Chapter 7 Other Fields of Physics 311

Appendix A Differentiating an Integral 333

Appendix B Dirac δ -Function 335

Appendix C Elliptic Integrals 339

Appendix D Jacobi’s Elliptic Functions 343

Appendix E Gamma and Beta Functions 345

Appendix F Gauss’s Hypergeometric Function 349

Appendix G Dilogarithm and Trilogarithm Functions 353

In the fields of engineering and physics, analytic solutions are often

evaluation. Now, elliptic and hypergeometric functions are built-in func-

the solutions posted at the books website. A short conformal mapping

Robert Coffie is the Founder and President of RLC Solutions, a semicon-

arg[ ] argument or phase of a E energy

K[m] complete elliptic integral q charge per unit length

V electrostatic potential (a×b)·k̂ 2D cross product of a

Although originally misunderstood and dismissed [4], complex numbers

1.1 COMPLEX NUMBERS AND VARIABLES

in a plane (commonly referred to as the z-plane, x-y plane, or complex

FIGURE 1.1 Geometric representation of a complex number z in the complex plane.

Armed with the geometric view of complex numbers, addition and

(x1 , y1 ) ± (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 ± x2 , y1 ± y2 ),

Addition can be performed geometrically by using the parallelogram rule

x = r cos[θ] , y = r sin[θ] (1.3)

z = x + jy = r (cos[θ] + j sin[θ]) (1.5)

The argument (or phase) of the complex number is given by θ. Using

The mechanics of multiplying complex numbers is easiest seen in

z1 z2 = r1 r2 ej(θ1 +θ1 ) = x1 x2 − y1 y2 + j (x1 y2 + y1 x2 ) (1.8)

To produce a geometric diagram of complex multiplication, the two

where z ∗ = x − jy is the complex conjugate of z. When taking the

complex conjugate of an expression, j is replaced by −j everywhere in

|z1 + z2 |2 = (z1 + z2 ) (z1 + z2 )∗ = |z1 |2 + |z2 |2 + 2Re[z1 z2∗ ] (1.13)

Using the easily verified inequality

Re[z1 z2∗ ] ≤ |z1 z2∗ | = |z1 | |z2 | (1.14)

FIGURE 1.3 Geometric representation of (a) the complex conjugate of a complex

Multiplying a complex number z0 by ejθ1 results in a pure rotation

1.2 CONJUGATE COORDINATES

f [x, y] = u[x, y] + jv[x, y] (1.21)

In general, the function f depends on both z and z ∗ . Later, mathemat-