1

Perception is –

the way we see the world around us, the way we interpret what we see.
2 Selection
Factors Related to Stimuli
• Size
• Intensity
• Repetition
• Novelty
• Familiarity
• Contrast
3 Selection
Factors Related to Perceiver
• Needs and Wants
• Interests
• Tendencies (Self-concept)

4 Factors/Biases
• Stereotype
• Projection
• Preoccupation
• Mental Set
• Halo Effect
• Beliefs, Needs, Wants, Concerns
• Perceptual Defense
• Primacy Effect
• Recency Effect

5 Stereotypes
“Tendency to perceive a person belonging to a particular group or category in a certain way.”

6 Stereotypes based on:

• Religion or Community
• Physical Characteristics
• Role
• Demographics (Gender, Age, etc.)

• Over-Dependence

• Independence

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 • Interdependence/Mutual Dependence
8
Preferences - How people prefer to be

 Based on Carl Jung’s theory of personality types

 Personality type or style in terms of individual’s preference in 4 pairs of dimensions (bipolar

dimensions)
oIntroversion – Extraversion
oIntuition – Sensing
oThinking – Feeling
oPerceiving - Judging

9 16 Personality Types
ISTJ ISFJ INFJ INTJ
ISTP ISFP INFP INTP
ESTP ESFP ENFP ENTP
ESTJ ESFJ ENFJ ENTJ

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• NEED may be defined as “biological or psychological motive condition that serves to direct an
individual towards a certain goal” (Zimbardo, 1979).

11 Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory

• Self- actualization
• Esteem
• Social
• Safety
• Physiological

12 Alderfer’s ERG Theory

• Growth

• Relatedness

• Existence

13 McClelland’s Theory
• Need for Achievement

• Need for Power

• Need for Affiliation

2
 Need for Affiliation
14 Need for Achievement
“Desire to exceed some standards of behavior; to excel; to succeed.”

15 Need for Power

“Desire to dominate, influence, or command; desire to have impact, and to control others; desire to
make others behave the way they would not have behaved otherwise.”

16 Need for Affiliation

“Desire to establish friendly relations with others; to be a part of group; to be accepted by a group

17 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

1 Motivators
• Responsibility
• Achievement
• Advancement or Growth
• Challenge
• Recognition
• The Work Itself
2 Hygiene Factors
• Working Conditions
• Supervision
• Interpersonal Relations
• Salary
• Job Security
• Policies and Administration

18 J. S. Adam’s Equity Theory

• Equity
Person’s Output/Input = Other’s Output/Input

• Inequity
Person’s Output/Input  Other’s Output/Input
Person’s Output/Input  Other’s Output/Input

19 Managing Inequity
• Change the outputs
• Change the inputs
• Change the referent person
• Leave the situation

3
 • Distorting perception of self’s input and output
• Distorting perception of other’s input and output

20 Vroom’s Expectancy/Valence Theory

Person will be highly motivated if (s)he perceives a strong relationship between:

• Effort and performance

• Performance and rewards/Outcomes

• Rewards and satisfaction of personal goals

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Norms
– Positive or Negative
Cohesiveness
– High or Low
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When we are passive, we hold back (do not express) and fail to present our thoughts and feelings,
or we express ourselves in a roundabout way.

When we are aggressive, we lash out verbally or physically, directly or indirectly in the attempt to
overpower/dominate others or put them down.

When we are assertive, we stand up for ourselves and express our thoughts and feelings directly,
openly, and honestly in a way that expresses respect for Own as well as Other’s needs and feelings.

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• Empathy
• Listening actively
• Self-awareness
• Expressing own feelings assertively without attacking the other person
• Persuasion
• Coping with criticism