A Course in

A School Curriculum

Prepared by
Dr Howida Mostafa A. Masoud
Professor of TEFL
In
Curricula & Instruction department

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 Table of Content

Unit Content Page

Concepts of School
Unit 1 3
Curriculum

Unit 2 Educational Objectives 13

Unit 3 The Curriculum Content 32

Unit 4 Teaching Strategies 44

Teaching and
Unit 5 60
Learning Activities

Unit 6 Evaluation 66

Steps of Designing a
Unit 7 80
Curriculum

Unit 8 Practical Applications 106

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 Unit (1)
Concepts, Definition and Purpose
Of School Curriculum

Definition
Curriculum is a standards-based sequence of planned
experiences where students practice and achieve proficiency
in content and applied learning skills. Curriculum is the
central guide for all educators as to what is essential for
teaching and learning, so that every student has access to
rigorous academic experiences. The structure, organization,
and considerations in a curriculum are created in order to
enhance student learning and facilitate instruction.
Curriculum must include the necessary goals, methods,

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materials and assessments to effectively support instruction
and learning.
Goals
Goals within a curriculum are the standards-based
benchmarks or expectations for teaching and learning. Most
often, goals are made explicit in the form of a scope and
sequence of skills to be addressed. Goals must include the
breadth and depth to which a student is expected to learn.
Methods
Methods are the instructional decisions, approaches,
procedures, and routines that teachers use to engage all
students in meaningful learning. These choices support the
facilitation of learning experiences in order to promote a
student’s ability to understand and apply content and skills.
Methods are differentiated to meet student needs and
interests, task demands, and learning environment. Methods
are adjusted based on ongoing review of student progress
towards meeting the goals.
Materials
Materials are the tools selected to implement methods and
achieve the goals of the curriculum. Materials are
intentionally chosen to support a student's learning.
Material choices reflect student interest, cultural diversity,
world perspectives, and address all types of diverse learners.

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Assessment
Assessment in a curriculum is the ongoing process of
gathering information about a student’s learning. This
includes a variety of ways to document what the student
knows, understands, and can do with their knowledge and
skills. Information from assessment is used to make
decisions about instructional approaches, teaching
materials, and academic supports needed to enhance
opportunities for the student and to guide future
instruction.

There is not a unique definition of the term “Curriculum” as

it depends on the various prospects of the different
educational and philosophical schools; the desired
objectives; and the development of information around the
learners’ psychology, growth, human nature and the nature
of knowledge.
Curriculum is defined as a set of syllabuses that is given by
an educational institution and a set of concepts, facts, skills
that is introduced to the students to study in the different
branches of human knowledge.
Curriculum is a plan or a programme designed to educate
the students during their stay at schools and to help them to
arrive at certain educational aims and goals. It is the process

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of translating the objectives into behavioural situations and
experiences through which students pass by and learn from
their results.

Basically, we can classify the concept of curriculum

according to the particular philosophy adopted by the
Educational system. Therefore, there is a Traditional
concept of curriculum and a Modern concept of curriculum.

Traditional Concept of Curriculum

Traditional curriculum is typically the Teacher-cantered

delivery of instruction on certain topics to a classroom of
learners. Success is often measured by proficiency of
memorization and extensive testing of knowledge and skills
comprehension. Traditional curriculum can be seen in the
long-established, in-person, classroom style of learning used
in most schools. Its primary techniques are oral instruction,
reading and reciting facts. It is a passive way of learning that

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involves listening, reading, taking notes and studying either
individually or in groups.

Modern Concept of Curriculum

Modern curriculum is seen to be the totality of all the

learning activities to which we are exposed during study, i.e.
classroom experiences, laboratory, library, play grounds,
school building, study tours, associations with parents and
community. Now, it is more than the text-books and more
than the subject matter selected for a particular class. It
refers to achievement of learners’ objectives; hence it is in
the form of learning experiences, suitable for their age,
ability and aptitude. According to modern curriculum,
experiences for the learner in and out of school are
considered important and learner cantered workbooks and
learning materials are of importance. Teacher provides

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minimal guidance to learners and students develop cognitive
and affective domains and psychomotor skills. Effective
membership in society is expected.

In short, curriculum is a series of potential experiences, set

up in educational institutions for the reason of disciplining
the learners in desirable ways of thinking of the concerned
society. It is a path by following which we can reach a
specified destination. Furthermore, it is considered to be a
series of learning opportunities which are planned and
carried out by a teacher and pupils working together.

Different Types of School

Curriculum

Most people often assume that curriculum refers to a simple

and straightforward lesson plan or course outline, but in
reality, it is much more complicated and dynamic. Mastering
these complexities is critical for an educator who wants to

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 make an impact in students’ lives. Learn more about the
eight types of curricula below.

 Written Curriculum
This is what is formally put down in writing and
documented for teaching. It refers to a lesson plan or
syllabus written by teachers. This kind of written
curriculum needs to be pilot tested or tried out in sample
schools to determine its effectiveness. These materials can
include an educator’s instruction documents, films, text and
other materials they need. Another example is the one
written by curriculum experts with the help of subject
teachers to develop a plan that meets specific goals and
objectives.

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 Taught Curriculum
This is about the implementation of the written curriculum.
Whatever is being taught or an activity being done in the
classroom is a taught curriculum. So, when teachers give a
lecture, initiate group work, or ask students to do a
laboratory experiment with their guidance, the taught
curriculum is demonstrated. This curriculum contains
different teaching and learning styles to address the
students’ needs and interests. This type of curriculum refers
to how teachers actually teach. This is a less predictable and
less standardized type of curriculum because how an
educator delivers material can vary from one to the next. It
can also change based on the types of tools a teacher has at
their disposal. This can include experiments,
demonstrations and other types of engagement through
group work and hands-on activities. Taught curriculum is
extremely critical for students in special education or those
who require another kind of specialized support.
 Assessed Curriculum
An assessed curriculum is also known as a tested
curriculum. It refers to quizzes, tests and other kinds of
methods to measure students’ success. This can encompass a
number of different assessment techniques, including

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 presentations, a portfolio, a demonstration as well as state
and federal standardized tests.
 Supported Curriculum
A supported curriculum involves the additional tools,
resources and learning experiences found in and outside a
classroom. These include textbooks, field trips, software and
technology, in addition to other innovative new techniques to
engage students. Teachers and other individuals involved
with the course are also a component of the supported
curriculum.

 Hidden Curriculum
A hidden curriculum is not planned, but it has a significant
impact on what students learn. This type of curriculum is
not always communicated or formally written down and
includes implicit rules, unmentioned expectations, and the
norms and values of a culture. A hidden curriculum is often
challenging for students from different backgrounds or
cultures, who can struggle to adjust or feel negatively judged.
A hidden curriculum can also be influenced by how money,
time and resources are allocated within a school.

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 Excluded Curriculum
The excluded curriculum is also known as the null
curriculum. It refers to what content is not taught in a
course. Often an educator or curriculum specialist believes
that a certain skill or concept is less important or does not
need to be covered. Sometimes what is left out, intentionally
or unintentionally, can shape students as much as what is
included. For example, students might not be taught about
an ongoing debate among experts in the field or not
encouraged to think critically about a text.

 Learned Curriculum
A learned curriculum refers to what students walk away
with from a course. This includes the subject matter and
knowledge they learned from a course, but it can also include
additional changes in attitude and emotional wellbeing.
Teachers need to shrink the gap between what they expect
students to learn and what students actually do learn.

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Purpose of the Curriculum
1. It both creates and reflects culture and identity
On a broad level, a curriculum reflects the national culture
in which a school operates. Different countries have
different expectations of their students, even if teaching
practices are similar. But it can also reflect and define the
culture at the school level as well.

2. It keeps up with a changing world

A good curriculum is never a one-and-done initiative.
Revisiting it regularly allows you to not only review how
things are going, but also make room for new topics that are
relevant today. Students will benefit in major ways from the
latest information and from having emphasis placed on the
skills that are really needed in today’s world.

3. It makes learning and teaching consistent

Curriculum is essentially a series of activities and learning
outcome goals related to each subject. It serves as a great
map, outlining where you need to go and how to get there. A
well-crafted curriculum serves as a reference to ensure that
you’re on the right track. Its components are designed to

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develop concepts, from a basic level to increasingly complex
topics or skills. Internal consistency happens when students
inside schools can expect to walk away with the same set of
skills, whether their teacher is an expert in the profession or
learning the ropes.

4. It opens the doors for collaboration

Having regular discussions about curriculum creates
opportunities to get all stakeholders involved: teachers,
administration, parents and communities. Getting input
from everyone will help identify where you’re strong and
what gaps you need to address. It also gives teachers a
platform over which they can share best practices,
knowledge and resources with each other. It should be
regularly revisited and updated to reflect the current needs
of students and society at large. These updates and changes
are the results of collaboration and research.

5. It saves schools money

Textbooks aren’t cheap, but they’re commonplace because
they’re convenient as they provide a pre-built progression of
knowledge that’s hard to ignore for busy teachers. With a
strong curriculum in place, schools can break away from an
over-reliance on textbooks and take a more active and
dynamic role in choosing better and cheaper texts.

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6. It helps teachers align
Alignment aims to bring greater coherence or efficiency to a
curriculum, program, initiative, or education system. A good
curriculum also connects teachers from across grade levels
and subject areas to look at the big picture of student
learning. Teachers can work together to plan a progression
of topics. Curriculum assists teachers to reinforce
knowledge over time and make sure that students are
prepared for what’s coming next. It provides a clear path for
students to progress from one grade to another.

7. It provides measurable targets

The goals for each subject area aren’t just for students as
they’re also for teachers. We have goals set out in the
curriculum for what we need to teach in a given year, and
our students have goals for what they need to learn. Clearly,
there’s a lot of overlap there; shared goals make it easier for
instructors to align their teaching methods with students’
academic needs to ensure that they succeed. Data matters. If
you aren’t setting specific goals around how your students
are learning, how will you determine whether your
curriculum is successful? That’s why a good curriculum sets
measurable outcomes and tracks progress throughout the
year. Teachers get a better view of what’s happening in the

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 classrooms, students know where they stand and parents are
kept up-to-date.

Helpful Links
 https://www.classcraft.com/blog/why-is-curriculum-important/
 https://www.google.com/search?q=images+of+written+curriculum
 https://simplyeducate.me/2015/01/07/types-of-curriculum/
 https://coreaxis.com/insights/blog/learning-paths-vs-
 https://www.magadhuniversity.ac.in/download/econtent/pdf/Co
Traditional%20and%20Modern..pdf

I. Complete the following statements:

1. A curriculum is defined as ……………………….……………
2. A hidden curriculum is ……………whereas a supported one is………..
3. Some of the values of curriculum are…(1),….(2)…., (3)….…& (4)…

4. A curriculum reflects………………………………………...

5. Curriculum assists teachers to……………………………..

6. The old concept of curriculum is…………………………..
7. The new concept of curriculum is…………………………
II. Make a comparison between:

 Null curriculum & Learned curriculum

 Written curriculum & Assessed curriculum
 Traditional and modern concepts of curriculum.
III. If you’re a teacher, choose one type of curriculum referring to your
justifications for your choice.

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 Unit (2)
Elements of Curriculum

Curriculum plays an important role in an educational

system. The teaching activities are planned or designed by
the teacher in view of four components- teaching – learning
objectives, teaching content or subject matter, teaching
methods and evaluation of learning outcomes. Curriculum
depends upon level of students, need of the society and the
nation. Nature of content is therefore very important
factors. These factors are essential in identifying the
objectives of teaching – learning. Several types of teaching
objectives are attained by the same content. The specific
objectives are realized by organizing specific teaching tasks
and activities.

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Thus there are four elements of curriculum, which are
essential and interrelated to each other:
1) Curriculum Aims and Objectives;
2) Curriculum Content or Subject Matter;
3) Curriculum Experience: instructional teaching and
learning activities; and
4) Curriculum Evaluation.

I. Educational Objectives

Educational objectives are the first main element of

curriculum construction. Properly constructed education
objectives represent relatively specific statements about
what students should be able to do following instruction.
Setting the objectives of the curriculum is the most
important element. Objectives are derived from the culture
and philosophy of the society and its religion, customs, needs
and traditions

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 An Educational Aim: is defined as the statements and items
that describe the desired changes and outcomes through
going in a certain education programme.
An Educational Aim: is also the purpose which the
learning/teaching process seeks to achieve using different
methods and techniques in the form of changes in the
learners’ behaviours.

Functions for stating Curriculum Aims:

The statement of educational aims and objectives has several
benefits:
 Educational aims and objectives form the framework of the
curriculum and determine the competencies and skills
which are expected from the students to demonstrate as a
result of acquiring educational experiences.

 Help teachers to design the course, the content, the

methods and the evaluation.

 Communicate the educational intent of the course to the

students and to colleagues.
 Help to identify the resources needed to undertake the
teaching process.

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 Provide a basis for evaluation of the course and a basis for
quality assurance.

 Identify what teachers intended to do and also what

students will be able to do or what they have learnt as result
of different learning/teaching experiences.

Classifications of the Educational Objectives

Generally speaking, there are two basic classifications of the
objectives: one is vertical and the other is horizontal.

 A. Vertical classification of the objectives

Objectives in this classification range from the general
statements to the specific ones, from the broad and wide
statements to the narrow ones, from the complex statements
to the easy and simple ones and from the abstract statements
to the concrete ones. Therefore, objectives are divided into
educational aims, goal, specific objectives and behavioural
objectives.

Aims
They are very broad, abstract, wide, general and complex.
They can not be translated to specific educational situations
or classroom practices. They are related to the culture and
philosophy of the society and are not only the responsibility

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 of the educational institutions but all other institutions like
the mosque, church, mass- media means, museums, and
exhibitions. They need a long time to be achieved and reflect
prospect of the society. They are the overall learning
outcomes sought to be achieved. For example:

Aims of Education in Egypt

 To develop the individual in the various levels of education
culturally, scientifically, and nationally, and also the
affective, intellectual, social, behavioural, health, and
physical domains.

 To develop the Egyptian citizen who believes in “God” and

his country, values the good, the right and humanity.
 To realize democracy in education through providing an
adequate amount of formal education to all individuals.
 To meet the requirements of comprehensive development
in Egypt.
 To develop and innovate educational plans and programs
in the light of new trends in education.
 To provide the skilled and well-trained technical and
administrative cadres who are able to accelerate the
incorporation of production, investment and technical
development.

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 To direct education towards the achievement of
comprehensive development.
 To put forward a coherent policy for teacher education,
which meets the pupils’ needs and provides stability for
teachers.
 To apply the concept of long-life education through
expanding the barriers between formal and non-formal
education and provide individuals with various
opportunities.

Goals:
The goals are narrower, less abstract, less broad, more
specific, more concrete and nearer to the educational reality
than the educational aims. Goals can not be translated into
educations situations but can guide curriculum planners
when stating the specific or the behavioural objectives. They
can work as objectives for each educational stage e.g. Basic
education, secondary or university.
Goals of the University stage:
 To encourage reading and research.
 To provide the society with specialized technicians and
experts in all domains.

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 To build an individual equipped with original knowledge,
methods of research and lofty ideals.
 To build an individual enabled to build and support his
society, make a good future for the country and serve the
humanity.
 To provide the individuals with experiences and activities
to face the future.
 To develop the neighbouring local societies, and study
their problems so as to provide practical solutions for them.
 To plant the first seeds of scientific research.

Specific Objectives
Specific objectives represent the third level of the general
educational objectives which is directly related to the
educational reality. They can be translated into real and
specific educational practices and situations inside the
classroom. They are specific statements setting out what is
intended that students will be able to do as a result of the
educational experiences. They can be stated for different
subjects, e.g. Arabic, English, French ..etc.

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Specific Objectives of teaching EFL
 To understand a particular speech in a specific scope
that is related to familiar texts.
 To associate written words to sounds taking into
consideration good pronunciation.
 To demonstrate ability to follow a melody or a rhythm.
 To use knowledge of sound-letter relationship to decode
unfamiliar words.
 To write letters, words, numbers and phrases following
principles of good handwriting.
 To read different texts with understanding.
 To classify items according to certain given criteria.
 To identify individual words in connected discourse.
 To identify names of different objects in the foreign
language.
 To demonstrate ability to perfect their work in the
foreign language.

Behavioural objectives
A Behavioural objective is a statement that describes the
expected performance of the learners after completing a
certain programme. It is the smallest unit of the lesson
which can be measured, observed and achieved during the
specific time of the period.

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 Purpose and Function of Behavioural Objectives
 Guide for the teacher relative to the design of instruction
 Guide for the teacher for evaluation/test design (e.g.
written tests,
 Guide for the learner relative to learning focus and self-
assessment.
 Enhances possibility to create focused independent
learning materials.
 Makes teaching more directed and organized.
 Communicates to colleagues what you are teaching thus
enhancing collaboration and teamwork with colleagues.
 Helps facilitate those situations in which we want students
to demonstrate competency (The objectives can be specified
in such as way as to specify competency.)
 Helps bridge the gap between vague, but relevant, and
important, institutional goals and actual instruction
 Provides visibility and accountability of decisions made by
teachers and learners.
 Provides feedback to learners as objectives are
accomplished.
In summary, behavioural objectives should ideally contain

the following elements (SMART):

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 An indication of who is to perform the desired behaviour.
 A precise statement of the specific terminal behaviour that
the learner is to perform. This will indicate what s/he will
actually do and will comprise an action verb and its objects
(list the events, identify the causes or write an essay).
 Reference of the standard that will be used to evaluate the
success of the product of the performance.

B. Horizontal classification of the objectives

Bloom’s Taxonomy is one of the most important and famous
classification systems of the educational objectives. The intent
of Bloom and his colleagues was to develop a classification
framework for writing educational objectives. They divide the
educational objectives into three main domains and they
divide the three domains into subdivisions, starting from the
simplest behaviour to the most complex.

These domains are:

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Cognitive: mental skills (Knowledge)
Affective: growth in feelings or emotional areas (Attitude)
Psychomotor: manual or physical skills (Skills)
The cognitive domain

The cognitive domain involves knowledge and the

development of intellectual skills. This includes the recall or
recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns, and
concepts that serve in the development of intellectual

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abilities and skills. There are six major categories, which are
listed in order below, starting from the simplest behaviour to
the most complex. The categories can be thought of as
degrees of difficulties. That is, the first one must be
mastered before the next one can take place.
1. Knowledge
It involves the recall, remembering and recognition of facts,
terminology, methods, criteria, theories, generalisations.
Examples
 To write letter “H”.
 To say the meaning of the word “good”.
 To point to a picture.
2. Comprehension
This refers to the type of understanding such that one knows
what is being communicated and can be make use of the
material without necessarily building up links with other
materials or reaching the core. It also demonstrates that the
students have sufficient understanding to recognize and
arrange the material mentally.
Examples
 To rearrange the sentences under the correct pictures.
 To finish the sentences.
 To match the sentences with the pictures.

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  To give examples of the different uses of the auxiliary
verbs.
3. Application
This refers to use knowledge studied earlier in new different
situations. Use a concept in a new situation or unprompted
use of an abstraction. Applies what was learned in the
classroom into novel situations in the work place.
Examples
 To write sentences using the present perfect tense.
 To ask questions using WH type.
4. Analysis
This refers to the breakdown of a unit into its constituent
elements in a way that shows the relations between ideas
expressed. This includes analysis of elements, relations and
organisational principles. This may include the
identification of parts, analysis of the relationship between
parts, and recognition of the organizational principles
involved. Learning outcomes here represent a higher
intellectual level than comprehension and application
because they require an understanding of both the content
and the structural form of the material.
Examples
 To analyse the sentence into its main elements.
 To sum up the text

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  To write the main idea of the lesson.
5. Evaluation
Make judgments about the value of ideas or materials or
methods knowing how far they are suitable for their
purposes and objectives. The judgments are to be based on
definite criteria. These may be internal criteria
(organization) or external criteria (relevance to the
purpose) and the student may determine the criteria or be
given them.
Examples
 To evaluate a piece of art.
 To express one’s point of view on the author’s language and
writing style.
 To write down the merits and demerits of being a teacher.
 To determine the strengths and weaknesses of teaching
English.
6- Create
This refers to the ability of collecting and putting all the
elements together again to make up a new material and
reach to a suggested plan for work. Put parts together to
form a whole, with emphasis on creating a new meaning or
structure. Learning outcomes in this area stress creative
behaviors, with major emphasis on the formulation of new
patterns or structure.

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Examples
 To write a composition about the feast using the following
words.
 To rearrange the sentences to make a meaningful story.
 To provide a new product/outcome.

The Affective Domain

The affective domain is the emotional side of the human

behaviour. This domain includes the manner in which we
deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values,
appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. The
five major categories listed the simplest behaviour to the
most complex
1. Receiving

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The fundamental level and the development of affectivity
begin with receiving. Learners must be aware of the
environment surrounding them, be conscious of situations,
people, phenomena, and objects and they should also be
willing to receive and tolerate a stimulus. It also refers to the
level of the learners’ awareness willingness to hear, selected
attention and aptitudes of a particular matter.
Examples: Listen to others with respect. Listen for and
remember the name of newly introduced people.

2. Responding
This level refers to the learners’ acceptance and agreement
or rejection and refusal of a certain matter. Learning
outcomes may emphasize compliance in responding,
willingness to respond, or satisfaction in responding
(motivation). Learners are willing to respond voluntarily
without compulsion, and then receive satisfaction from that
response.
Examples: Participates in class discussions; Gives a
presentation; Questions new ideals, concepts, models, etc. in
order to fully understand them.

3. Valuing
The worth or value a person attaches to a particular object,
phenomenon or behaviour. It ranges from simple acceptance

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to the more complex state of commitment. Valuing is based
on the internalisation of a set of specified values, while clues
to these values are expressed in the learners’ overt behaviour
and are often identifiable. Values take on the features of
beliefs or attitudes as they are internalised. In this level the
learners could feel and see that the particular behaviour or
phenomenon has a great value and this happens as a result
of the learners’ own appreciation of that value.
Examples: Is sensitive towards individual and cultural
differences (value diversity); Shows the ability to solve
problems; Proposes a plan to social improvement and
follows through with commitment.

4. Organizing Values
This refers to the level in which the learners acquire
different and various values throughout their interactions
with the society, culture and life. Therefore, they start to
build up a particular system of these values and arrange
them according to their own points of view. Learners
organize the values into a system of beliefs, determining
interrelationships among them and establish a hierarchy of
values within the system. The emphasis is on comparing,
relating, and synthesizing values.

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Examples: Accepts professional ethical standards. Creates a
life plan in harmony with abilities, interests, and beliefs;
Prioritises time effectively to meet the needs of the
organization, family, and self.

5. Characterization by a Value Complex

This level is considered the highest level of the affective
domain. Learners become characterized by and understand
themselves in terms of their value system. They act
consistently in accordance with the values they have
internalised and integrate beliefs, ideas, opinions and
attitudes into a total philosophy. Has a value system that
controls their behaviour. The behaviour is pervasive,
consistent, predictable, and most importantly, characteristic
of the learner.

Examples: Cooperates in group activities (displays

teamwork); Revises judgments and changes behaviour in
light of new evidence; Values people for what they are, not
how they look and Shows self-reliance when working
independently.

The psychomotor domain

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This level requires the learners to learn the different skills
which depend on the physical movements of the human body.
The psychomotor domain includes physical movement,
coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas. Development
of these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of
speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in
execution. The five major categories listed the simplest
behaviour to the most complex: This domain has five main
levels.
1. Imitation
It refers to observing and patterning behaviour after
someone else.

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Example: Copying a work of art. This refers to imitating a
certain movement or asset of movements after precise
observation.
2. Manipulation
It refers being able to perform certain actions by following
instructions and practicing. This refers to following certain
instructions to execute particular movements.
Example: Creating work on one's own, after taking lessons,
or reading about it.
Key words: to operate, to manipulate, to try out, to
execute…..,etc.
3. Precision: This level refers to increasing the speed of
performing the different movements and they reach to high
levels of precision and perfection.
Refining, becoming more exact. Few errors are apparent.
Example: Working and reworking something, so it will be
"just right."
4. Articulation
This refers to executing a series of movements but it
requires articulation among them. It is about coordinating
a series of actions, achieving harmony and internal
consistency.

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 Example: Producing a video that involves music, drama,
colour, sound, etc; Or the articulation of the movements of
the hand and the eye when writing.

5. Naturalization
This refers to having high level performance become
natural, without needing to think much about it. In this level
the performance of the movements becomes mechanical,
automatic and routine. e.g. typewriting.

Helpful Links
 https://www.google.com/search?q=elements+of+curriculum&
 https://www.patnauniversity.ac.in/e-
content/education/MEd24.pdf

I- In the light of what was said earlier, which of the following

statements of educational intentions are objectives and
which are aims.
 To encourage young people to understand the significance of
maintaining good health and physical fitness.

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 To further the learners’ understanding of the concept of
freedom by giving them chances to practise it.
 To provide opportunities to develop an appreciation of
beauty in literature, art and music.
 To introduce the major elements of religion to the class.
 To analyse the various parts of a popular daily newspaper.
 To enable students to differentiate between aims and
objectives.
 To develop interests and skills so that leisure time may be
used purposefully.
 To give learners practice in the use of the different tenses.
 To demonstrate differences between verbs and nouns.
 To identify the new difficult words in the text.
 To extend the students’ knowledge of the range and variety of
seashore life.
 To develop the students’ skills in the use of noun clauses.
 To acquire skills in writing lesson notes to meet the needs of
different teaching situations.
 To state the reasons for specifying learning unit objectives.
 To explain in one paragraph of reasonable length why they
study English.
 To give the students practice in formulating behavioural
objectives.

38
 To write few sentences using the present perfect tense.
 To translate a text.
 To sum up the main idea of the lesson.
 To provide different solutions of a problem.
 To choose the correct answer.
 To write a composition on a specific theme.
 To rearrange sentences to construct a meaningful story.
 To write a paragraph entitled “Traffic at rush hour” which
shows differences between similes and metaphors.

2. Using the following action verbs, frame ten behavioural

objectives:
Identify distinguish Interpret order Describe
Name Evaluate locate Apply construct

3. In the light of what was said earlier, frame ten

behavioural objectives using the cognitive domain with its six
levels (knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis,
synthesis and evaluation)

4. Using the affective domain, frame ten behavioural objectives?

5. Using the psychomotor domain, frame five behavioural objectives?

39
 Unit (3)
The Curriculum Content

The Content
The content is the second element of the curriculum which
should be taken into account when stating to design any
curriculum. The process of choosing the content becomes
very difficult as a result of the great increase of knowledge
and the rapid technological development.

Definition of the Curriculum Content

Curriculum content simply means the totality of what is to
be taught in a school system. The content component of

40
 teaching learning situation refers to the important facts,
principles and concepts to be taught. These contents must be
in line with the learning experiences and there must be clear
cut objective to be achieved by the end of each respective
lesson. It can be in form of knowledge, skills, attitude and
values that learners are exposed to. Content involves subject
matter drawn on the basis of problems, themes or topics
cutting across traditional subjects. The content could be
defined as all the educational activities, experiences, general
principles, concepts, facts, definitions, explanations, and
theories which are considered to be sufficient to achieve the
desired educational objectives. The purpose of this content is
to execute the target educational tasks both perfectly and
cleverly.
 There are certain factors facilitating the process of choosing
the content such as:
 Clarity of the objectives.
 Awareness of learners’ needs and inclinations.
 Understanding the nature of the subject-matter as for
its structures, its suitability for learner’s standards.
 Understanding the elementary prerequisites of the
society.
 Concentrating on the functional side of the knowledge.

41
 Then the following criteria should be taken into
consideration
 Validity

The content of the curriculum is valid if it promotes the

outcome that it is intended to promote. It is also the
authenticity of the subject matter or content selected, to
make sure the topics are not obsolete (outdated), for this to
be achieve, there should be a regular check on the
curriculum content and replace it if necessary. This refers to
the link between the content and the objectives of the
curriculum; or how far the content could achieve the stated
objectives.
 Significance

The content is significant if it is selected and organized for

the developed of learning activities, skills, processes and
attitude that will help in solving the problem of the country.
It also develops the three domain of learning namely
cognitive, affective and psychomotor skills and considers the
cultural aspect of the learners particularly, if your learners
come from different cultural background and races then the
content must be cultural sensitive. The significance of the
content aims at making sure the chosen content is crucial
and necessary for the target cognitive domain. Could this
content help to solve problems?; Does it have wide

42
 applications in that domain?, Does this content have a role
in presenting the integration of the human experience in the
different cognitive fields?

 Self-Sufficiency
This criterion helps learners attain maximum self-
sufficiency at the most economical manner or content
selection. This is done when the students or learners are
given the chance to experiment, observe and carry out field
study.

 Utility
This is the usefulness of the content in solving problems now
and in future. It is more important in skill or procedural. It
refers to knowledge that learners can put what they have
learnt into practice life activities. This means to choose from
the subject or the cognitive domain what is more useful for
the learner to solve his problems whether in the present time
or in the future.
 Learnability
The content should be what the students can learn and
should be within their experience. Teachers should apply
theories on psychology of learning in order to know their
subject are presented, sequenced an organized to maximize
the learning capacity of the students. This means to adapt

43
 the content to be suitable for learners’ competencies and
abilities and to facilitate their interaction with it.
In addition to the above criteria, we should put into
consideration the:
 Learners’ attitudes, interests and needs;
 Learners’ motivation and aptitudes; and
 the suitability of the content to the mental, linguistic and
physical abilities of the growth stage of the target learners.

 Consistency with Social Realities

When choosing and shaping the content, we should put into
great consideration the society’s needs, problems, issues
which are classified as its top priorities. This means that
content should be chosen based on the fact that they relates
to our present social needs economic and political situation.
Content must be acceptable to the culture and belief system
of the people.

Textbook Content Analysis

44
Great consideration and alertness have been put on “content
analysis process” as a trial to overcome the difficulties of the
learning process. Content analysis technique is considered
as one of the scientific research methods which are
commonly used in the field of studying communication
materials. This technique aims at identifying the subject’s
directions which is being analysed. Content analysis is the
technique most precious to classify the content of any school
textbook.

Content analysis can be a powerful tool for examining trends

and patterns in documents. Additionally, content analysis
provides an empirical basis for monitoring shifts in public
opinion. It simply means doing a word-frequency count. The
assumption made is that the words that are mentioned most
often are the words that reflect the greatest concerns. While
this may be true in some cases, there are several
counterpoints to consider when using simple word frequency
counts to make inferences about matters of importance

Content analysis is one of the most important techniques

which assists in investigating how far the textbook includes
the suitable language skills and how far the language used is
suitable in dealing with the linguistic content. It is a
systematic, replicable technique for compressing many

45
 words of text into fewer content categories based on explicit
rules of coding and a research technique for the objective
and quantitative description of the manifest content of
communication.

Functions of Content Analysis Technique:

 Helps teachers to understand the included material and
determine how far it is appropriate to the target pupils.
 Helps to assess the appropriateness of the attractive layout
of the targeted textbook and to describe the values and ethics
included and see how far they are based on religious beliefs
and how far they satisfy pupils’ psychological needs.

 Helps to determine the best methods and the most

effective learning /teaching aids when presenting the
material.

 Enables researchers to sift through large volumes of data

with relative ease in a systematic fashion.

 Can be a useful technique for allowing us to discover and

describe the focus of individual, group, institutional, or
social attention.

 Provides an empirical basis for monitoring shifts in public

opinion.

46
 Allows inferences to be made which can then be
corroborated using other methods of data collection.

 Helps to describe the dominant attitudes in the content i.e it

helps to determine the attitudes appear within the content.

 Matches the scientific content in textbooks with the

educational objectives.

Characteristics of Content Analysis Technique

 Is applied according to certain procedures and precise
scientific methods which help the analyser to plan for
analysis and present it in an objective form.
 Give great consideration to the content of the target material
aiming at inferring judgements and making predictions from
them.
 Seek to describe the manifested content of the scientific
material.
 Results of the content analysis should allow for
generalization.
 It should be objective and to match the curricular
requirements.
 The verbal material is the target on this analysis which is
expressed through the repetition of words within a certain
sequence (science, maths, language,…etc).

47
 Other Characteristics
 Objectivity
To have an objective analysis must be done on the basis of
explicitly formulated rules, which would enable individuals
to come to the same results from the same document.

 Systematic
Is the one in which the inclusion and exclusion of content or
categories is done according to the defined criteria of
selection.

 Generality
Means that the findings must have theoretical relevance in a
sense that it has to go beyond the descriptive information
about the content
 Reliability
To make valid inferences from the text, it is important that
the classification procedure be reliable in the sense of being
consistent. Different people should code the same text in the
same way. Reliability problems usually grow out of the
ambiguity of word meanings, category definitions, or other
coding rules. Yet, it is important to recognize that the people
who have developed the coding scheme have often been
working so closely on the project that they have established
shared and hidden meanings of the coding.

48
 Validity
It is important to recognize that a methodology is always
employed in the service of a research question. As such,
validation of the inferences made on the basis of data from
one analytic approach demands the use of multiple sources
of information. If at all possible, the researcher should try to
have some sort of validation study built into the design

Units of content analysis

As content analysis seeks to quantitatively describe the
different elements of the content, therefore, it is necessary to
divide it into units or sets of certain elements to be able to
study each one.
Generally, there are five main units in content analysis;
Word: It is the smallest unit of the content analysis units. It
might refer to a certain meaning, or a particular concept, or
a particular symbol or a certain character.

Theme: This unit is considered as the greatest and most

important of all other units. It is also considered as one of
the basic fundamentals in analysing attitudes, values and
beliefs.
Character: Researchers resort to this kind of units, which
concentrates on imaginative and historical characters, when
analysing drama, stories, films and episodes.

49
Item: It is the natural unit of the commercial material
which researchers use to introduce the materials to their
audience whether readers, viewers or spectators.
Space and Time scales:
They are materialistic scales researchers used to identify the
space occupied by the published material in books,
newspapers and the period of time spent by the broadcast
material in the radio, TV or the cinema.

When analysing the content of the school textbook, the

whole textbook is considered the unit of analysis as that

content covers the period of time which the whole year or the
semester spends. The main purpose of analysing the school
textbook is to limit and determine knowledge and
information, skills, attitudes and the values included within
the textbook for teaching. Others resort to analysing school
textbooks for other objectives like evaluating the textbook,
getting rid of points of shortages and weakness and judging it
by using a sound scientific method aiming at improvement
and development.
But in relation to units of analysing textbooks, what is the
unit of analysis? Is it words? or sentences? or paragraphs?;

50
 or chapters?; Or the whole textbook? This is decided
according to the specific purpose of analysis.

Importance of the school textbook:

 A means of conveying knowledge and achieves the
objectives of the curriculum.
 An individual communication means as everyone can
speed or slow his reading.
 A wallet for knowledge as the printed words remain and
the students can go back to them at any time and in any
place.
 It is cheap comparing with the radio, TV and films.
 Easy to distribute and use for both students and teachers.
Functions of the School Textbook
School textbooks introduce to the students:
 The scientific knowledge of concepts, facts and
generalizations in an organized and standardized form
which enable them to understand.

 Self-learning opportunity according to their circumstances

and capacities.

 Graphs, illustrations, photographs besides the printed

material. This gives them the chance to benefit from these
means individually.

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 Presenting the subject in a scientific method suitable for
both the teacher and the learner.

 Directions and suggestions concerning the main scientific

concepts that should be acquired and the skills that should
be developed.

Categories of content analysis:

There general and specific sets of content analysis. These
are the sets that concentrate on Bloom’s Taxonomy of the
educational objectives which teachers broadly use. They are:

 The cognitive sides: facts, theories, concepts, principles,

laws and regulations and designs.

 The affective part: attitudes, interests, values,

inclinations.

 The skilful side such as: the mental skills: inferring,

deduction; the artistic and the manual skills: handwriting,

colouring, using the lab instruments; the scientific skill:
measuring, interpreting, setting the hypotheses and design
the experiments.

 General Information
 Title of the book
 Author
 Publisher

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  Date of Publication
 Edition
 Stage

 Layout of the Textbook:

 Size of the book
 Extent
 Grammarage
 Number of parts of the textbook
 Number of pages of the textbook
 Number of series of the textbook
 Components of the textbook

 Colour of the wrap (cover)

 The specific and specialized categories:

These are the sets that concentrate on subjects individually.
Sets in the English language teaching are:
 Semantics: Vocabulary, Idioms and Proverbs
 Syntactic structures: Simple sentences, compound
sentences, Complex sentences, Conditional sentences
&Tenses
 Phonology: Consonants, Vowels,
 Morphology: Singular/Plural, Gender and Possessives
 Linguistic Skills: Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing

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 Functions: E.g. Apology, Invitation, Thanking etc.
 Theme/ Topic: *Trips *space *Habits

Helpful Links
 https://hyattractions.wordpress.com/2016/12/07/the-meaning-of-
curriculum-content
 https://www.academia.edu/35433764/selection and Organiztion of
Curriculum content
 https://www.iejme.com/download/the-method-of-the-content-
selection- pdf
 https://uwaterloo.ca/centre-for-teaching-excellence/teaching-
resources/teaching-tips/planning

I. Complete the following Statements:

1. Integration refers to the relationship……………………………

2. Validity means……………………………………………………….…

3. Content and learning experience are organized into…and…..

4. Some of the criteria of organizing learning experience and content

are……1……..…2….….3……….…..4…………5…………
5. Some of the criteria for selecting learning experience are

…1……..…2….……….3……….…..4…………5……………
6. In learnability, we should put into

consideration…………..…1..,…2…………and…………...3…

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7. Some of the criteria for choosing the content are

….1…………………………....2………………and………………….3.
8. The content is defined as …………………………………………..

9. Significance means……………………………………………………

10. Consistency with social realities refers to…………………………

11. A Textbook is……………………………………………………………

12. Some of the elements of content analysis are…..1……2…….and 3……

13. Functions of textbook content analysis….1…….2……3……..and …4...

II. Write on the following topics:

 Criteria for choosing the content
 Criteria of organizing learning experience
 Integration between learning experiences and content
 Value of organizing the content
 Ways of organizing the content

III. According to the above criteria, Choose a textbook in

any stage and figure out the elemnts of its content analysis.

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 Unit (4)
Teaching Strategies

Teaching strategies
Teaching strategies is the third element of the curriculum
elements. They are perceived as methods and techniques
that a teacher will use to support their pupils or students
through the learning process. Teaching strategies, also
known as instructional strategies, are methods that teachers
use to deliver course material in ways that keep students
engaged and practicing different skill sets. A teacher may
select different teaching strategies according to unit topic,
grade level and the level of expertise of the learner, the stage
in the learning journey, class size, and classroom resources.

Types of Teaching Strategies

There are many kinds of teaching strategies that can be
applied in the language teaching process

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 Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a process for generating multiple
ideas/options in which judgment is suspended until a
maximum number of ideas have been generated.
Brainstorming is a group creativity forum for general ideas.

Importance of brainstorming for the students

 Helping students to solve problems;
 Helping students to benefit from the ideas of others through
the development and build on them;
 Helping the cohesion of the students and building
relationships among them and assess the views of others.
 Actively involving learners in higher levels of thinking
 Promoting peer learning and creates synergy;
 Promoting critical thinking; and
 Helping groups reach consensus.
 Demonstration
Demonstration means performing an activity so that
learners can observe how it is done in order to help prepare
learner to transfer theory to practical application. Moreover,
demonstration strategy involves the teacher showing
learners how to do something
The advantageous of demonstration
 Help people who learn well by modeling others;

57
 Promote self-confidence;
 Provide opportunity for targeted questions and answers;
 Allow attention to be focused on specific details rather than
general theories.

 Games
Games are used to bring competition, participation, drills,
and feedback into the learning experience as a motivator and
opportunity for application of principles. Carefully planned
uses of games in the classroom (e.g., for practicing certain
verbs, tenses, questions, locatives, etc.) add some interest to
a classroom.
The advantageous of Games
 Actively involves learners;
 Can add or regenerate motivation;
 Promotes team learning and collaborative skills;
 Provides a challenge that can lead to confidence in knowing
and expressing the material;
 Provides feedback; and
 Can create a “fun” learning environment.

 Independent Study
Independent study is a teaching strategy designed to
enhance and support other instructional activities. Learning
activity is typically done entirely by the individual learner (or

58
 group of learners) using resource materials. It may be done
using computer/web-based technology. It is an
individualized learning experience that allows students to
select a topic focus, define problems or questions, gather and
analyze information, apply skills, and create a product to
show what has been learned.
The advantageous of independent study
 Fosters independent learning skills;
 Allows learners to progress at their own rate; and
 Enhances other learning experiences.

Teaching Methods

There is no single "BEST WAY" to teach as it differs

according to the nature of the material itself, the number of
the students, the school’s equipment, the subject matters
and the teacher himself and his educational attitude.
Teaching method is the mechanism that is used by the teacher

59
to organize and implement a number of educational means
and activities to achieve certain goals. Teaching techniques
are the means that reflect the success of the learning process
and the competencies of the teacher.

The most successful teaching methods are those who have

proven track record of success in employ the maximum
number of the above criteria's, while each of them engages
students in different ways, each has its advantages
depending on the information they teach. Knowing the
differences between these methods will help to select the
technique that is best for particular class of study, and to
define a particular teaching style. The criteria for measuring
good teaching are the amount and the quality of learning the
students get.

Teaching method can be defined as the general procedures

which the teacher implements in a certain instructional
situation. Teaching methods is generally the technique the
teacher may use to transmit knowledge and information to
the students. It depends on the content and the educational
and instructional objectives that are required to be achieved.
The question teachers must address is which methods are
best employed during the different stages of the teaching and
learning process and then design curriculum to meet their

60
final objectives/goals and use a combination of methods. It is
imperative that teachers provide a “safe” learning
environment, treat language learning as a “social” process
where comprehensible input is a must when expecting
comprehensible output.

Kinds of Teaching Methods

There are different kinds of teaching methods which achieve
different purposes.

 Lecturing
It is one of the teaching method in which the teacher is the
main roller, learners represent the passive elements, while
the speaker represents the active one. He delivered a
prepared talk or verbal presentation to an audience on
outline of points to cover in one batch. Audience
participation is minimal and usually confined to a brief
question-and-answer session after the talk. The teacher here
has the most dominant role as he is responsible for
conveying a large amount of theoretical knowledge to the

61
students. He is the key figure in the classroom. He always
lectures, explains grammatical structures, conducts drills,
gives examples and leads the whole- class discussion whereas
students are listening. Students in this method are just
recipients of the knowledge and do not have any active roles.
Large numbers of students inside the classrooms force the
teachers to rely on the recitation method in most of the
subjects. There is little interaction between the students and
the teacher. We might call the relationship between the
teacher and learners in this method superior-subordinate
relationship.
Strengths
• Save time and efforts.
• Suitable for detailed subject like history, literature… etc.
• Presents factual material in direct, logical manner.
• Contains experience which inspires.
• Stimulates thinking to open discussion.
• This method is economical and useful for a large group of
students.
• Material can be covered in a structured manner and the
teacher has a great control of time and material.
Weakness
• Boring for learners.
• Concentrate on information rather than learners.

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 • Experts are not always good teachers.
• Audience is passive.
• Learning is difficult to gauge.
• Communication in one way.
• Do not differentiate between learners

 Discussion & Dialogue method

It is the method of dialogue and discussion by using

questions and answers to reach specified fact. This method
goes to Greek philosopher Socrates, when he used the
method to make his followers reach the truth. This method
depends on three elements:

The Sender, The Receiver, and The Message. The message

represents the subject of dialogue, while the sender can be
the receiver and vice versa at the same time. Discussion is
different according to its aim. Some discussion could be
closed around teaching subjects, or could be free to go

63
around general subjects related to human life, or human
problems. Discussion and dialogue represent ides trial
between learners and between learners and teacher. This
method depends on the participation of the students with
their teachers in the discourse. It helps the learners to be
more active and increase his motivation to think. It helps
students to become communicatively competent. They
initiate communication, freely negotiate meanings, express
ideas and opinions.

The teacher’s role in classrooms ranges from facilitator of

the communication process, organizer of resources,
counsellor and group process manager. It helps the students
to state the objectives referring to the knowledge, skills,
concepts and attitudes under the teacher’s supervision. The
teacher’s role is so effective as first introduces the topic for
discussion clearly, keeps the discussion moving by
encouraging all students to take part, helps the students to
evaluate their progress and tries to sum up and put together
all the ideas, issues and conclusions which the students
reach. The teacher should have an indication of the precise
activities that will be taking place in the classroom and the
times at which they will be taking place including setting

64
target for whole class, individual and group work which
challenge pupils and ensure high levels of pupil interest.
Aims of discussion and dialogue
• This method tends to increase the self-confidence among
the students.
• Increase the ability of proving and convincing.
• Increase the tendency for the subject of study.
• Increase the focusing and concentrating.
• Organize the thinking process.
• Discover errors and correcting them.
• Make students more active and powerful and helps
interpreting information and makes it clear and
understandable.
• Provoke thinking within dialoguers, which let them
criticise their answers and the answers of the others.

Strengths
• Suitable for all subjects of study. Subjects that are more
suitable to be taught by discussion and dialogue; are those
which related to social studies and social problems like;
smoking, revenge, drug addiction and alcoholic.
• Pools ideas and experiences from group.
• Effective after a presentation, film or experience need to be
analyzed.

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• Allows everyone to participate in an active process.
• Provide enthusiastic and enjoyable atmosphere among
participants.
• Participants gain communication and interaction skills,
especially expressing and talking skills.
• Treats well the differences among learners.

Weakness
• Need time and efforts (time consuming).
• Need skills in questions construction and in question
throwing.
• Not suitable for detailed topics (can get out of the track).
• Few people can dominate (other may not participate).
• Not practical with more than 20 people.
• Class may get out of order

Problem-solving Method

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Problem is unwanted situation faces a person or a number of
persons. This new situation is due to a change in the
processes of work or because of external factors. This
situation needs to be solved or corrected, but before we start
the process of solving we should know what causes the
problem, what has been changed, and what the consequences
are, then we propose suitable solutions that lead to correct
the situation or to reach an acceptable result. The students’
role in this method is so active. They are expected to interact
with one another and learning becomes a co-operative, joint
effort and no longer an individual endeavour.

According to this method, students are engaged in an

authentic, meaningful and communicative situations and
experiences rather than analysing and memorizing
grammatical concepts and vocabulary. Students seek to
reach to knowledge and information through their
interaction with the educational experiences and with the
help of the teacher. They advocate interactive and
purposeful activities, which promote communication. Most
of the educational situations and experiences introduced in
this method are real problems which the students try to
reach solutions. Through dealing with these problems,
students acquire a lot experiences which influence their

67
behaviours. It helps students to think logically through the
stages in relation to the time available.

The teacher helps the students in identifying clear objectives

and content, appropriate to the certain situations and the
pupils being taught, and specifying how these will be taught
and assessed; setting appropriate expectation of their
learning, motivation and presentation of work and providing
clear structure of the problems. Teaching through problem
solving is not always easy, since many of us taught by
remembering facts, whether or not they were related to each
other, or whether or not we were interested in the subject. In
fact, many teachers may say that problem solving in their
practical subject area is not possible, not helpful, or only
possible in limited part of the subject matter.

We learn through the model of solution that involves:

• Understanding the problem and what has been changed.
• Categorise it depending on our past experience and
experimentations with the help of the historical information
(historical problems, solutions, results ... etc).
• Compares between expected results and the aims.
• External criticism.
• Comparing with similar situation.

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Characteristics
• Motivate student toward learning, problem will be a
challenge for research and investigation, to discover
unknowns.
• Student can learn by exposing to many concepts through
the process of solution.
• Students learn though their works wither their
assumption is correct or not.
• The cheerful feeling, which provided when the solution is
achieved.
There are certain steps that should be followed when
applying problem-solving methods such as:
 Limiting the problem clearly and accurately.
 Presenting different solutions of the problem.
 Choosing the most appropriate solution.
 Applying the solution.
 Evaluating the solution and the results.

Discovery method

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It is a kind of method where the students discover the
materials by themselves without being taught by the teacher
before. Discovery method is where learners construct their
own knowledge by experimenting with a domain, and
inferring rules from the results of these experiments. The
basic idea of this kind of method is that because learners can
design their own experiments in the domain and infer the
rules of the domain themselves they are actually
constructing their knowledge. Because of these constructive
activities, it is assumed they will understand the domain at a
higher level than when the necessary information is just
presented by a teacher or an expository learning
environment.
Discovery means from nothing to get something which they
never know before. It emphasizes on the students’ full
participation through observation, classification,
measurement, prediction, determination, and inferring until
they discover their own concept.

The Principles of Discovery Method

1. In discovery learning, students are active. Learning is not
defined as simply absorbing what is being said or read, but
actively seeking new knowledge.

70
2. Students are engaged in hands-on activities that are real
problems needing solutions. The students have a purpose for
finding answers and learning more.

3. The focus shifts from the end product, learning content, to

the process, how the content is learned.

4. The focus in discovery learning is learning how to analyze

and interpret information to understand what is being
learned rather than just giving the correct answer from rote
memorization. Process-oriented learning can be applied to
many different topics instead of producing one correct
answer to match one question that is typically found in
content-oriented learning.

5. Discovery learning pushes students to a deeper level of

understanding. The emphasis is placed on a mastery and
application of overarching skills.

6. Failure in discovery learning is seen as a positive

circumstance.
7. An essential part of discovery learning is the opportunity
for feedback in the learning process Student learning is
enhanced, deepened, and made more permanent by
discussion of the topic with other learners. Without the
opportunity for feedback, learning is left incomplete.

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 8. Incorporating all of these differences, discovery learning
provides for deeper learning opportunities. Learners
internalize concepts when they go through a natural
progression to understand them.

9. Discovery learning is a natural part of human beings.

People are born with curiosities and needs that drive them
to teach. Infants learn to talk by discovery. They listen to
others around them talk, mimic sounds,

Strengths
In general, Discovery Learning method may have several
advantages
1. Helps students to improve and enhance the writing skills
and cognitive processes.

2. The gained knowledge is very personal and powerful

because can strengthen the understanding and retention

3. Allows the students develop rapidly and in accordance with

own pace.
4. Helps the students to direct their own learning activities

involving their wits and their own motivation.

5. Helps students reinforce the concept of writing skill itself,

because they have a confidence in collaboration with others.

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6. This method is centred on students and teachers alike

participate actively state the ideas. Even the teachers can act
as a student, and as a researcher in the discussion part.

7. Encouraging students to think and formulate their own

hypotheses
8. Increasing the level of awards to the students and providing

decisions that are intrinsic.

9. Students learn to utilize various types of learning
resources.
10. It can develop their individual talents and skills and try

putting together the pieces of language they have discovered.

Weaknesses
1. This method raises the assumption that there is a readiness

of mind to learn. The students who have low intelligent, will

have difficulty in thinking or expressing abstract or
relationships between concepts, written or oral, and finally
will cause frustration.

2. This method is not efficient to teach many students, because

it will take a long time to help them find a theory or solving

other problems.

3. Teacher and students who usually applied the old method

will be difficult to understand the new concept in the new

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 method. Consequently, the teaching learning process does
not run

4. Teaching discovery is more suitable for developing

understanding, whereas to develop aspects of concepts, skills
and overall emotional still have less attention.

5. In some disciplines , such as Science, it still lack of facilities

for measuring ideas expressed by the students.

6. Not provide opportunities to the students to find and

discover the material of lesson they like because it has been

pre-selected by the teacher.

Online Teaching Method

Information technologies changing the human's live and.
Teaching occurs outside a traditional classroom using
internet. As the way of learning changed, the way of teaching
is also changed, tutors here should demonstrate other type of
competency that reflect his knowledge, skills, attitudes and
context of performance, and this competency should be
validated by one of the available ways that goes through a

74
 certification process that consider all factors that tutors may
need to the competency.
Strengths
 Students can participate in classes from anywhere in the
world, provided they have computer and internet connection.

 Online learning is efficient; unlike face-to-face classes,

there is a time and space for students to thinks, discusses,
responds, and solve.

 Online learning allows a dynamic interaction between

tutor and students and among themselves.

 Resources and ideas are shared; continuous synergy will

be generated through the learning process results in high
quality dialogue and learning.

 Within an online discussion, students actively participate

by answering discussion questions made by their classmates'
building on what other have said and become actively
engaged in what they are studying and what they need. As
part of the learning experience, students discover the
collaborative effort involved in the learning process.

 In the online environment, discriminating factors, such as

age, race, gender, disabilities are absent. The focus of

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 attention is on the content of discussion and the ability of
contribution to the learning process.

 Students have an open access to resources and materials

that may be located anywhere in the world.
 Self-direction and critical thinking is a result of the online
interactive learning environments, the tutor or facilitator
and students collaboration to create dynamic learning
environments.
Weakness
 Online teaching need students who are able to access the
online learning environment such as computer and internet.

 Students and facilitators must have the knowledge of using

computer and how to navigate and use the internet.

 As technology is intended to be the tools used in the

learning process, this tools should be trusted, available and
maintained all the time.

 Online students' have more responsibility in controlling

his rules, well organized, self-motivated and possess a high
degree of time management skills in order to keep up to the
pace of the online learning process, therefore online
education is not appropriate for younger dependant learner

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 who have difficulty assuming responsibilities requested by
the online paradigm.

 Successful instructors in traditional teaching are not

always be successful in online instruction.

 Instructor must be adequately prepared to functions in the

virtual classroom, and communicate well in writing and in
the language in which the course is conducted.

Complete the following statements

1. The term strategy refers to……………….…………………………

2. Some of the principles of effective teaching strategy

are…1….2……
3. Brainstorming is a process………………………..…………………

4. Demonstration means………………………….……………………

5. Teaching method is……………………………………………………

6. In lecturing, the teacher……………………………………...………

7. The dialogue method depends on three elements……………....

1………………………2……………………and……………….3…….

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 Unit (5)
Teaching and Learning Activities

The instructional activity is the mental and physical effort

which the learner could implement to achieve an objective.
Therefore, the teacher is in charge of choosing the
educational activities which can apparently assist in
achieving the educational objectives. Teachers should select
learning activities that meet the needs of their students,
modifying or replacing learning activities. Differences
among methods of teaching influence the choice of different
kinds of learning and teaching activities in the classroom.

Teaching activities that focus on, for example, grammatical

accuracy may be quite different from those that focus on

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 communicative skills. Differences in activity type in methods
may also involve different arrangements and groupings of
learners. The role of instructional activity within a method
will reflect decisions concerning the primary goals of the
instructional materials (to present content, to facilitate
communication among learners or to enable learners to
practice content without the teacher’s help), the form of the
materials (textbook, audio-visual, computer software) and
the relation of materials with other sources. Classroom
activities are often designed to focus on completing tasks.

Teaching and learning activities are classified according to

different criteria such as:
Number of the participants (small, big groups or
individuals);
Place of carrying out the activity (inside the classroom or
free activities outside the classroom, proximity of reality;
The senses used in the activity (Auditory, Visual, Vocal,
Kinaesthetic); and objectives (to get information, or to
develop skills, or to achieve affective objectives or to
construct concepts and generalizations).

Functions of Teaching and Learning activity

 Develop the learner’s positive attitudes;

79
 Link theory with application;
 Develop the learner’s cognitive skill;
 Develop the communicative skills;
 Learn how to make plans and working with a team.
 Allow learners to progress at their own rates of learning.
 Allow for different styles of learning.
 Provide opportunities for independent study and use.
 Help teachers to develop language mastery in learners.
 Supply the content for communication.
 Facilitate the acquisition of a large vocabulary within the
classroom.
 Help to cultivate and enhance learners’ interest in
understanding and learning the foreign language.

Criteria for choosing instructional activities

Ensure that the unit offers a range and a variety of learning
activities that:
 Cater for individual differences.
 Clearly relate to learning outcomes.
 Provide student centred activities that introduce new
material/concepts.
 Provide opportunities for teacher modelling.
 Engage students in purposeful tasks.
 Encourage independence.

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 Challenge students and encourage them to take risks.
 Utilise readily adaptable resources - or provide them
through the use of Internet web sites.
 Try to integrate Web sites and ICT into your unit as
closely as possible.
 Make sure you give details of how that site can be used in
the unit.
 Linkage of the instructional activity with other elements of
the curriculum.
 Linkage of the instructional activity with learners’ needs
and interests.
 Its suitability to learners’ aptitudes and abilities.
 Continuity and Comprehensiveness of all the cognitive
levels.

Teaching and Learning Materials

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The purpose of utilising teaching and learning resources in
class is to assist the teacher with the presentation and
transmission of educational content and the achievement of
educational objectives, whilst aiding the students in
acquiring knowledge and profiling different abilities and
values. Whether or not these teaching and learning
resources will achieve their purpose, role and numerous
duties, it all depends, first and foremost, on their correct use
within the educational process. Teaching and learning
resources have their own value and a different impact on
individuals. For example, viewing a photograph or painting
can evoke different memories and emotions or encourage
creativity in an individual.

Therefore, we can list the following examples of

common goals:
1. Student motivation,
2. Developing creativity,
3. Evoking prior knowledge,
4. Encouraging the process of understanding, decoding,
organising and synthesising the educational content, logical
thinking and reasoning, communication and interaction.

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 5. Contributing to the development of different skills and the
acquisition of values of students, as well as the retention of
desirable knowledge, skills and attitudes.

6. Should primarily be stimulating and informative, easily

accessible and should contribute to the clarity and quality of
teaching and learning.

Importance of the Teaching/Learning Aids

Teaching aids help the teacher in the teaching process,
therefore the teacher should introduce them to the students
and get their attention to the significance and message which
these aids carries. Teaching aids help in:
 Making the lesson easier to comprehend as it presents the
object itself not a symbol;
 Creating the need for learning with the students;
 Increasing the students’ motivation and anxiousness to
learn the materials;
 Integrating the experience and knowledge as they depend
on using the five senses;
 Verifying techniques of reinforcement which lead to
maintain the correct responses;
 Giving the verbal learning more scientific and realist
feature;
 Creating a shared understanding of the concepts and texts;

83
 Modifying the learners’ behaviours and building new
attitudes;
 Organizing and arranging learners’ ideas and concepts;
 Verifying the learning and teaching techniques to cope with
individual differences.
Criteria for using teaching Aids:
 To be suitable for the learners’ ages, intelligence level and
their previous experiences;
 To cope with the purpose we seek to achieve from using
them;
 To have a strong link with the studying materials;
 To lead to increasing learners abilities of observation,
imagination, contemplation , collecting data and scientific
thinking;

 To be in a good condition;
 To cope with the scientific and technological development
of the society.

Helpful Links
 https://www.urbandaleschools.com/policy/article- -
 https://www.ped.muni.cz/cphpjournal/520132/06.pdf
 https://teaching.charlotte.edu/sites/teaching.charlotte.edu/files/me
 https://thirdspacelearning.com/blog/teaching-strategies/
 http://studylecturenotes.com/different-types-of-teaching-strategies/
 https://study.com/teach/instructional-strategies.html

 https://www.google.com/search?q=cartoon+images+of+teaching

84
 Unit (6)
Evaluation

Evaluation
The evaluation process is considered as one of the most
important element of curriculum construction. Evaluation is
a qualitative and quantitative estimation of a certain
phenomenon which aims at making judgements about it and
treating any shortages. It can play a formative role by
guiding self-improvement through diagnosis and
prescription. It can also act as an incentive and in
operationalising what is wanted, it can help to clarify the
goals of pre-service courses. Evaluation is a critical process
of analysing the classroom teaching of student teachers,
assessing their competence, and developing strategies to help
them improve their teaching. The process of evaluation is
closely related to objectives. We test learners’ skills in order
both to establish what they know or what they can do and to

85
assess how successful we have been in our teaching in adding
to their achievement. Evaluation is used as a tool for raising
standards by informing teaching, setting targets and
identifying individual success and underachievement.
Differences among test, measurement, assessment and
evaluation
A test is a group of questions which the learners are asked to
answer orally or in paper-and pencil.
Measurement
Measurement is the process of measuring learners’
performance of particular aspects and is presenting through
scores. Therefore, it is the quantitative estimation of a
certain aspect. It is more comprehensive and generalized
than a test. It simply means determining the attributes or
dimensions of an object, skill or knowledge. We use common
objects in the physical world to measure, such as tape
measures, scales and meters. These measurement tools are
held to standards and can be used to obtain reliable results.
When used properly, they accurately gather data for
educators and administrators. Some standard
measurements in education are raw scores, percentile ranks
and standard scores.
Assessment

86
One of the primary measurement tools in education is the
assessment. Teachers gather information by giving tests,
conducting interviews and monitoring behaviour.
Assessment can be defined as the process of gathering the
data and fashioning them into interpretable form for
decision-making. It involves collecting data with a view of
making valve judgment about the quality of a person, object,
group or event. The assessment should be carefully prepared
and administered to ensure its reliability and validity. In
other words, an assessment must provide consistent results
and it must measure what it claims to measure.
Evaluation
Evaluation is the process of using the measurements
gathered in the assessments. Teachers use this information
to judge the relationship between what was intended by the
instruction and what was learned. They evaluate the
information gathered to determine what students know and
understand, how far they have progressed and how fast and
how their scores and progress compare to those of other
students. It is the process of using the given data and
information to make certain decisions concerning learners’
performance or the curriculum. Evaluation is a broader
term than the Measurement. It is more comprehensive than
mere in-clusive than the term Measurement. It goes ahead of

87
measurement which simply indicates the numerical value. It
gives the value judgement to the numerical value. It includes
both tangible and intangible qualities.

Evaluation refers to procedures of gathering data on the

dynamics, effectiveness, acceptability and efficiency of a
program for the purpose of decision making. Basically,
evaluation addresses whether the goals and objectives of a
programme are being attained that whether the programme
is effective. In addition, evaluation may be concerned with
how teachers, learners and materials interact in classrooms
and how teachers and learners perceive the programme’s
goals, materials and learning experiences. Evaluation is a
way of identifying the students’ skills and of assessing their
competencies and qualities as a whole to be good teachers.

Types of Evaluation

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 There are different kinds of Evaluation such as formative,
summative, diagnostic and follow up evaluation.
 Diagnostic Evaluation
Before creating the instruction, it’s necessary to know for
what kind of students you’re creating the instruction. Your
goal is to get to know your student’s strengths, weaknesses
and the skills and knowledge they possess before taking the
instruction. This type of evaluation aims at diagnosing and
determining learners’ abilities, competencies and aptitudes
and the types of experiences they already have. Based on the
data you’ve collected, you can create your instruction.
Therefore, it should precede the process of carrying out the
instruction to ensure its effectiveness and suitability.

 Formative Evaluation
Formative assessment is used in the first attempt of
developing instruction. The goal is to monitor student
learning to provide feedback. It helps identifying the first
gaps in your instruction. Based on this feedback you’ll know
what to focus on for further expansion for your instruction.
Formative evaluation is undertaken during the school
attachment and it provides feedback on past students’
performances which helps to identify strengths and
weaknesses. Regular formative assessment provides a means

89
 of measuring students’ progress and a framework for setting
target for future development and it also helps in the
summative one which occurs at the end of each placement.
The formative evaluation enables the policy- makers and
developers to clarify the learning objectives of the program
in the light of qualitative data about the ways in which
teachers interpreted them and the problems they had in
utilising them as a basis for teaching.
 Summative Evaluation
Summative assessment is aimed at assessing the extent to
which the most important outcomes at the end of the
instruction have been reached. But it measures more: the
effectiveness of learning, reactions on the instruction and
the benefits on a long-term base. The long-term benefits can
be determined by following students who attend your course,
or test. You are able to see whether and how they use the
learned knowledge, skills and attitudes. The summative
evaluation is the more formal summing up of progress to
date which happens at the end of a school placement or at
the end of the course when pass/fail decisions have to be
made. The summative evaluation measures the success of
the curriculum in achieving the program developers'
objectives as these had been clarified through the formative
evaluation process.

90
 Characteristics of Good Evaluation
 Validity: to cope with the objectives of the curriculum;
 Integration: to link and integrate with other tools used in
evaluation.
 Comprehensiveness: to evaluate all the expected
instructional outcomes such as achievement, skills....etc;
 Continuity: evaluation should be a continuous process to
make sure that the objectives of the curriculum are achieved
 Balance: sometimes the evaluation program might
concentrate on the learners and ignore the curriculum itself.
But, there should be a balance between them so that part of
the programme is directed to learners’ evaluation and the
other part is directed to the evaluation of the curriculum, its
objectives, content, teaching-learning activities and tools of
evaluating it.
 Use of various appropriate means: Evaluation has various
purposes and objectives. It does different functions and
includes various sides. Therefore, it is necessary to verify
evaluation techniques to cope with these functions and sides.
 Evaluating unintended outcomes: some unintended
outcomes might emerge when applying the curriculum.
Those outcomes are not included in the curriculum plan
when designing it. Therefore, evaluation helps to bring those

91
 outcomes into surface for curriculum designers to think how
to plan for them.

Functions of Evaluation:
 Evaluation could act as a motive for some learners to learn
and make use of their capacities to enhance the level of their
achievement and performance.

 Could help to identify points of strength and weakness and

help learners to discover their abilities and self-
improvement.

 Could help teachers to identify students’ standards and their

interaction with the curriculum which helps in guiding
them.

 Could help schools to revise their objectives and how far the
curriculum is suitable to achieve these objectives.

 Could help schools to divide students to suitable groups.

 Could help in identifying the quality of applying the
curriculum.
 Could help to identify students with special needs.
 Could provide data and information on the curriculum and
the school to clarify what is going on inside the schools and
its effect on students.

92
 Could help to make decisions related to the curriculum that
are based on sound bases and real information.

 Could help to assess the quality of planning, ways of working

and use of resources within the institution.

 Could help to assess the extent to which the content of the

curriculum meets or likely to meet the objectives set by
curriculum designers.

 Could contribute to raising standards and promoting

inclusion among the targeted learners.

Tools of Evaluation:

There are many tools of evaluation such as tests (essay and

objective) to collect evidences of the student’s achievement;
self-report techniques (questionnaires, surveys, attitude
scales and interviews) to collect evidences of students’
interests, attitudes and skills and observation techniques

93
 (checklist, rating scale) to assess the performance of the
student teacher inside the classroom.

 Tests
As far as teachers are concerned the most commonly used
tool is tests. A test, in plain and simple words, is a method of
measuring a learner’s ability or knowledge in a given area.
There is a set of techniques, procedures, and test items
which constitute an instrument of some sort. It requires
some performance or activity on the part of either the tested
or the tester. The test has the purpose of measuring. Some
measurements are rather broad while others are quantified
in precise terms.
Kinds of Tests
There are many kinds of tests, each with a specific purpose,
a particular criterion to be measured. Tests are classified
according to different bases such as:
 What the test measure (proficiency and achievement tests);
 How to answer the test (oral and paper-and –pencil tests),
 Methods of applying the test (individual-type and group-type
tests) and teacher-made tests (essay and objective tests).
 Proficiency tests

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 A proficiency test is not intended to be limited to any course,
curriculum or a single skill. Proficiency tests have
traditionally consisted of standardized multiple-choice items
on grammar, vocabulary, reading comprehension, aural
comprehension and sometimes of a sample of writing. A
rather typical example of a standardized proficiency test is
the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL).
 Achievement tests
An achievement test is related directly to classroom lessons,
units or even a total curriculum. Achievement tests are
limited to particular material covered in a curriculum
within a particular time frame.
Oral and paper-and –pencil tests
In oral tests students are asked to answer the questions
orally without using a written format. Paper-and –pencil
tests require learners to answer in a written format.
Strengths
 Keeping track of students’ attention.
 Helping the teacher to identify students’ standards.
 Providing immediate feedback.
 Achieving learners’ active interaction and getting their
attention in educational situations.
 Estimating students’ ability for oral expression.

95
  It is considered as a basic element in questioning skill,
verbal interaction and educational evaluation.
Weaknesses
 Not objective in estimating students’ answers.
 Some students have difficulty to put the items together
quickly to answer the given questions.
 Do not represent students’ real achievement level.
 Teachers can not analyse students’ answers.
 Do not give precise results.
Individual-type and group-type tests
Individual-type tests are applied on learners individually e.g.
IQ test. Group-type tests are applied on a group of learners
e.g. achievement tests.
Essay tests
Learners in essay tests write, explain, discuss or interpret
their answers. They use their own style, own utterances, own
statements, own handwriting and own methods of organizing
ideas and information to answer the questions. Learners
spend their time in this test in thinking and writing. There
are a lot of strengths and weaknesses of this kind of tests.
Strengths
 Showing students’ abilities of arranging, organizing and
linking the main ideas when answering the questions.
 Measuring students’ creativity and imagination.

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 Low-cost in printing.
 Suitable for non-educational teachers who have little
experiences in designing objective tests.
 Easy to prepare.
Weaknesses

 Concentrate on recall and memorisation and ignore other

levels like analysis, evaluation, and application.
 Not objective in estimating students’ scores.
 Require great efforts from students to answer.
 Need a long time to correct.
 Need a long time to answer.
 Affected by teachers’ subjectivity and their mode when
correcting.
 Not comprehensive and not representative of the whole
curriculum.
 Require great efforts from teachers to correct.
 Concentrate on measuring and evaluating the cognitive side
rather than the affective or the skilful sides.
Objective tests
In this type of tests learners are asked to put true or false, or
match between two words or sentences, or complete and
finish sentences, or choose the correct answer. There are
different types of objective tests such as, Multiple-Choice,
True-False questions, Rearrange, Matching- questions and

97
 Grouping-questions. These types of question have strengths
and weaknesses.
Strengths
 Do not need a long time to correct.
 Highly valid, objective and reliable.
 Cover many sections and represent a lot of elements of the
content of the curriculum.
 Encourage students to functionalise and apply
information and data to answer the questions of the test.
 Can be corrected by anyone not particularly a professional.
Weaknesses
 Need great effort and time to prepare.
 Encourage guessing and cheating.
 Do not measure students’ abilities for free expression
about their ideas.
 Do not encourage creativity.

 Check List
The Check List is a simple laundry list type of device,
consisting of a prepared list of items. It is easy to construct
and use. This is a two dimensional chart in which the traits
measured are noted in one dimension and the names of the

98
 examinees in the other. The results can be recorded by
putting tick mark against the item.

 Rating Scale
This tool is a check list but a more sophisticated
modification in the check list. We simply record the
presence of a particular variable. There is no provision for
expressing how much that variable is found. In order to
overcome this limitation, each trait can be score on any
number of convenient point each point representing a
particular degree such as good average and poor when it is a
three point scale.

 Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a
series of questions for the purpose of gathering information
from respondents. It is a flexible tool for gathering
Quantitative information. It is possible to cover various
aspects of a broad problem or several problems themselves

99
 through the Questionnaire. It provides a relatively cheap,
quick and efficient way of obtaining large amounts of
information from a large sample of people. It is very easy to
administer and collect the responses using questionnaire.
Questionnaires can be an effective means of measuring the
behaviour, attitudes, preferences, opinions and, intentions of
relatively large numbers of subjects. However, a problem
with questionnaires is that respondents may lie due to social
desirability. Most people want to present a positive image of
themselves and so may lie or bend the truth to look good, e.g.,
pupils would exaggerate revision duration.

 Observation
The observation method is described as a method to observe
and describe the behavior of a subject. As the name suggests,
it is a way of collecting relevant information and data by
observing. In simple words we can say that, observation is a
direct and careful study of a phenomenon through naked eye
to collect real information’s about a problematic situation. It
is also referred to as a participatory study because the
researcher has to establish a link with the respondent and
for this has to immerse himself in the same setting as theirs.

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 This is a systematic observation method where data is
collected as a pre-defined schedule. The specific variable is
used in this method for data collection. There are different
types of observation:

Structured observation method

Structured observations are usually overt as the researcher
explains the aim of the study to the group, so the
participants know they are being observed. Structured
observations are also usually non-participant as the
researcher avoids any direct contact with the group, keeping
a distance (e.g. observing behind a two-way mirror).

Unstructured observation method

Unstructured observation is a form of observation study
where the behaviors of interest and/or the method of
observation are not clearly specified in advance of the study.
The observer simply makes notes on the behavior being
observed. The unstructured observation method is
conducted in a free and open manner without using any pre-
determined objectives, schedules or variables.

Helpful Links
 http://studylecturenotes.com/observation-technique-
definition-es-
 https://www.marketing91.com/observation-method/

101
  https://www.questionpro.com/blog/what-is-a-questionnair
 https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED041829
 https://www.onlineassessmenttool.com/knowledge-
center/assessment-
 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322908173
 https://online.stu.edu/articles/education/educational-
measurement-
 https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/education/evaluation-
in-education-meaning-principles-and-function

I. Complete the following statements

1. Measurement is………………………………………………………
2. Assessment is…………………………………………………………...
3. Evaluation is…………………………………………………………….
4. The process of evaluation is..........................................................
5. Types of observation are..................1..............and...........2...........
6. A questionnaire helps to………………………………………...……
7. Structured observation is……………..whereas unstructured
observation………………………………....
8. Tests are classified according……….............................................

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9. Some of the advantages of objective test
are………………….….1………………..2……………….….3……….
10. Some of the disadvantages of essay test are
…….1……………..….2………………..….3………………..…..

II. Compare between the following items

 Observation & Questionnaire
 Checklist & Test
 Essay & Objective test
III. Write the type of questions under each picture

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 Unit (7)
Curriculum Design

Meaning of Curriculum Design

Curriculum influences the most obvious learning situations

like classroom lessons and workplace training sessions, but
it also influences a variety of less-obvious situations such as
how we learn about products, how we learn from online
tutorials. Curriculum influences how people learn and grow
from very young ages and continues to shape learning
experiences throughout our lives.

Curriculum design is defined as the intentional planning,

organization, and design of learning strategies, processes,
materials, and experiences towards defined learning and/or
performance outcomes. Curriculum design is concerned
with much more than learning materials. In one sense,
curriculum design is creating a holistic plan for the

104
environments where learning happens. This includes
considering the physical, digital, social, and psychological
factors that define the spaces and places where people learn.
Curriculum design is largely concerned with issues such as
what to include in the curriculum and how to present it in
such a way that the curriculum can be implemented with
understanding and success. Therefore, curriculum design
refers to how the components of the curriculum have been
arranged in order to facilitate learning. Curriculum design
is basically defined as a way of organizing that permits
curriculum ideas to function and it refers to the structure or
pattern of the organization of the curriculum.

Six Steps of Curriculum Design

Designing a curriculum isn’t easy. It is a complicated process
that needs to be carefully thought through and involves much
strategic decision making. Curriculum design is a term that is

used to describe the systematic, deliberate, and purposeful

organization of instructional curriculum within a course or
class. To put it another way, it’s a way for teachers to plan
how and what they are going to teach. When a teacher
designs a curriculum, they point out what’s going to be done,
who’s going to do it, and what schedule they are going to
follow.

105
Step 1: Principles and purpose
-Set out the intent of your curriculum
Begin by establishing the curriculum principles. The
curriculum principles should reflect the school’s values,
context, pedagogy and needs. Educational institutions
should be able to explain the purpose or intent of their
principles. In essence, the principles should clarify the
vision for the curriculum. It is believed a broad and balanced
curriculum will equip students with a breadth of knowledge
and skills in all areas of the curriculum.

Step 2: Entitlement and enrichment

–Develop your pupil entitlement:
After clarifying your principles and purpose, you should set
out your pupil entitlement (sometimes known as pupil
offer). Your pupil entitlement should explain how you intend
to broaden your curriculum with educational visits,

106
extracurricular activities and other curriculum
enrichment experiences.

Tip: Consider what your pupils will experience as they move

through school and map these out for each year group. Link
your entitlement to your curriculum principles, where
possible.

Step 3: Breadth and balance

–Create the content of your curriculum:
You now need to arrange your curriculum content into
subject schemes. Begin by looking at the programs of study
and make careful choices about what you will teach, when
and why. Decide which concepts and subject aspects your
curriculum will cover and how they interconnect with other
subjects. You’ll then need to break these down into smaller
component parts, which are the knowledge and skills
objectives that provide building blocks for learning. These
should be carefully sequenced, revisited and built upon
through your curriculum. Schools will need to arrange their
curriculum content into a range of exciting themes and
projects. A school will need to make strategic decisions
about what it covers, how it covers it and in how much depth
to achieve both breadth and balance. These choices and

107
decisions create a school’s curriculum structure or long-
term plan.

Step 4: Teaching narrative

–Plan the delivery of your curriculum:
After creating long-term curriculum plan, teachers need to
plot the narrative of their projects and to provide contexts
for delivering it. A teaching narrative should be vibrant and
cohesive. It should detail the starting point for each project,
and explain how it will develop. For subjects like history, the
national curriculum sets out various contexts that must be
covered, such as the ancient Egyptians. However, for
subjects like art and design, you can create your own
engaging contexts. The teaching narrative within each
project or unit should set out how learning will be delivered.
Crucially, your planning needs to show how the subject
knowledge and skills outlined in your long-term plan will be
taught, revisited and built upon. This process is very
complex and takes time to perfect. However, when
completed, it will set out your medium-term plan, which you
can elaborate on in short-term plans if required.

Step 5: Resources

108
Source high-quality resources to deliver your curriculum:
Schools need to identify the resources required to bring
their curriculum to life and ensure its coherence. A good
curriculum needs good quality resources. Resources include
human resources, practical equipment, environments and
teaching resources. Your curriculum should not be let down
by poor quality or ad-hoc resources. Inadequate resources
will not only dilute the power of your curriculum but can
also cause confusion and even misleading. Sourcing the best
quality resources is vital if you want children’s learning to be
factually correct and ambitious. To make your curriculum
the best it can be, insist on high-quality resources and
practical equipment. Don’t reduce the impact of your
curriculum by accepting anything less.

Step 6: Review and evaluate

–Decide what works well and where there is room for
improvement:
After establishing its curriculum, a school will need to
regularly review its impact on teaching and learning and
make any adaptations or changes needed to improve it
further. It will help to consider the original curriculum
principles and purposes when reviewing, and focus on a
particular area for development in school. You now have an

109
 established curriculum. At this stage, continuing
professional development needs for staff members may be
also identified. For example, the knowledge of subject
leaders might need to improve to make sure that each area of
the curriculum is well taught and supported.

Purpose of Curriculum Design

A teacher needs to design every curriculum with a specific
educational purpose in mind. The main goal is to help the
students learn. However, there are also other reasons to
utilize curriculum design.
For example, if you were to design a curriculum for
secondary school students with both preparatory and
elementary curricula in mind, to help make sure that
learning goals are able to help the student transition from
one grade to the next. If a teacher designs a middle school
curriculum without taking elementary or high school
curriculum into considerations, then the student may not be
able to make a smooth transition as they progress from one
grade to another.

The curriculum design process results in a curriculum

document that contains the following:
• A statement of purpose(s),

110
• An instructional guide that displays behavioral objectives
and content organization in harmony with school
organization,
• A set of guidelines (or rules) governing the use of the
curriculum, and an evaluation plan.
Thus, curriculum is designed to fit the organizational
pattern of the school/institution for which it is intended.
How a curriculum is conceptualized, organized, developed,
and implemented depends on educational objectives.
Whatever design is adopted depends also on the philosophy
of education.

There are several ways of designing school curriculum.

These include Subject-centered, Learner-centered,
integrated, or broad fields (which combines two or more
related subjects into one field of study; e.g., language arts
combine the separate but related subjects of reading,
writing, speaking, listening, comprehension, and spelling
into a core curriculum) and Problem-centered.

111
I. Subject-Centered Design

The subject centered design corresponds mostly to the

textbook written for the specific subject. Subject-centered
curriculum design revolves around a particular subject
matter or discipline. For example, a subject-centered
curriculum may focus on Math, English, Physics or Biology.
You can also find subject-centered designs in large college
classes in which teachers focus on a particular subject or
discipline.

II. Learner- Centered Curriculum Design

Learner-centered curriculum design is meant to empower

learners and allow them to shape their education through

112
choices. Learner-centered curriculum design takes into
consideration the goals, interests, and needs of the student.
To put it another way, it acknowledges that students are
unique and it adjusts to the needs of the students.
Instructional plans in a learner-centered curriculum are
differentiated, giving students the opportunity to choose
assignments, learning experiences or activities.

III. Problem Centered Curriculum Design

Problem-centered curriculum design teaches students how

to look at a problem and formulate a solution. A problem-
centered curriculum model helps students engage in
authentic learning because they're exposed to real-life issues
and skills, which are transferable to the real world.
Problem-centered curriculum, or problem based learning,
organizes subject matter around a problem, real or
hypothetical, that needs to be solved.

113
 I. Complete the following statements

1. There are three main types of curriculum designs. They are

….,……….. and ………..

2. In the subject centered curriculum emphasis is placed on

3. ………,…………,…………and………. can be examples of the

subject-centered curriculum .

4. …………..……is considered one of the disadvantages of the

subject-centered curriculum.

5. The central focus of 'core design' includes …………….………..

6. An advantage of 'problem-centered curriculum ' may include

………………………………………………………………………

7. ………, ……… and …………….…… are methods used when

adopting learner-centered curriculum.

8. One of the disadvantages of learner-centered curriculum

design is……………………………………………………………..……

9. In Problem-centered curriculum the subject matter is

organized around ……………………………………………….…..

10. In learner-centered curriculum design students are involved

in ………………………….…and ………………………………………

114
 11. There are four core principles in problem-based learning
………….., ………….., ………….. and …………..

12. The types of problems to be explored when using problem

centered curriculum may include ………..., …….…..and ……….

13. A learner-centered curriculum design is meant to ……………

14. ………, ……… can ……… be examples of learner-centered
curriculum.
II. Decide whether the following statements are true or false:

1. In subject-centered curricula, students had little choice about

what they study.

2. Subject –centered curriculum is skills focused rather than

knowledge focused.

3. The teacher has the minimum of responsibility and involvement

in the subject centered- curriculum.

4. The subject- centered curriculum is easily standardized.

5. Problem-centered curriculum design allows students to be
creative and innovative.
6. Problem-centered curriculum design decreases the relevance of
the curriculum.
7. When using Problem-centered curriculum learners engage in
collaborative learning.
8. All problems are appropriate for all grades.

115
9. Mastery of content is emphasized in problem-centered
curriculum design.
10. Learner-centered curriculum design neglects learners' needs
and interest.
11. Learner-centered curriculum points out that the more
experience in life a child has the less eager he will to learn.
12. In child-centered design, the child is perceived as a mass of
energy that should be invested.
13. The teacher's role in learner-centered curriculum is to facilitate
students' learning.

Helpful Links
 https://cornerstones--live.s3.eu-west-.amazonaws.com/uploads/of-
curriculum-design.pdf
 http://edugist.org/curriculum-design-definition-purpose-and-types/
 https://hwb.gov.wales/curriculum-for-wales/designing-your-curricul
 https://www.google.com/search?q=principles+of+curriculum+design
 https://www.google.com/search?rlz=1C1RLNS_

116
 Unit (8)
Practical Applications
In the light of the following lessons, state six correct
behavioral objectives representing the different levels of
Bloom's Taxonomy:

117
 Identify the content presented in the following lesson
according to
 The lexical items are .......
 The phonological focus is ....
 The grammatical structures are...........

 The language functions are.......

118
  Suggest three different activities to present the following
lessons.
 Use different objective questions that can measure
students' outputs after studying the following lessons.
 Write down open -ended questions that can assess students'
performance.
 State six different behavioral objectives of the following
lessons.

119
120
121
122
 Referrences
Adekoya, Y. M. & Olatoye R. A. (2011). Effect of Demonstration, Peer-
Tutoring, and Lecture Teaching Strategies on Senior Secondary
School Students’ Achievement in an Aspect of Agricultural
Science. The Pacific Journal of Science and Technology, 12,
320 -332.
Bahaa El-Deen, K. H. (1997) Education and the Future. Dar Al-
Maaref, Cairo, Egypt. In Arabic.
Bilbao, P. P., Lucido, P. I., Iringan, T. C., and R. B. Javier (2008).
Curriculum development. Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing,

Inc.

Brown, H.D. (1994) Principles of Language Learning and Teaching.

3rd Edition. Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Cohen, L., Manion, L. (1994) Research Methods in Education. 4th

Edition. London: Routledge

Hagger et al (1995) Hagger, H., Burn, K. and McIntyre, D. (1995)

The School Mentor Handbook: Essential Skills and Strategies
for Working with Student Teachers. Kogan Page.

Hansen, A. (1998) Mass Communication Research Methods.

MacMillan, Basingstoke.

Howard, j. & Major, J. (2004). Guidelines for Designing Effective

English Language Teaching Materials. Huggarty, L. (1996)
“What is Content Analysis” In Medical Teacher, Vol.18, 99-103.

123
Jessel, J. (2000) Using Information and Communication Technology.
In Herne, S., Jessel, J. and Griffiths, J. (eds) Study to Teach: A
Guide to Studying in Teacher Education. Great Britain,
Biddles, Ltd.

Larsen-Freeman, D. (2000). Techniques and principles in language

teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Mubarak and Education (1999) Mubarak and Education: The National

Project For Developing Education. The Ministry of Education, Book
Sector, Egypt.

Murunalini, T. (2007): Curriculum Development, 1st Ed., Neelkamal

Publications Pvt. Ltd., Sultan Bazar Hyderabad- 500095.

National Center for Educational Research and Development (1996)

Development of Education In Arab Republic of Egypt.
International Conference on Education 45th session from 30
September to 5 October 1996, Geneva.

Richards, J., & Rodgers, T. (2001). Approaches and methods in

language Teaching (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.

Rogers, D. (2014). Assessment Literacy: Building a Base for Better

Teaching and Learning. English Teaching Forum. Weber, R. P.
(1990). Basic Content Analysis, 2nd ed. Newbury Park, CA.

124
‫‪Xu,Y. & Brown,G.T.(2016) Teacher assessment literacy in practice: A‬‬
‫‪reconceptualization. Teaching and Teacher Education 58:149-‬‬
‫‪162‬‬

‫‪Yamtim, V. & Wongwanich, S. (2014). A study of classroom‬‬

‫‪assessment literacy of primary school teachers. Procedia Social‬‬
‫‪and Behavioral Sciences 116 (2014) 2998 – 3004‬‬

‫توصيف مقرر دراسي‬

‫جامعة ‪ /‬أكاديمية ‪. :‬المنيا‪.‬‬

‫الفرقة ‪ /‬المستوى ‪:‬الفرقه االولى‬
‫كلية ‪ /‬معهد ‪.... :‬التربىة‬
‫قسم ‪.. :‬المناهج و طرق التدريس‬
‫‪ -1‬بيانات المقرر‬
‫الرمز الكودي ‪:‬‬
‫اسم المقرر ‪ :‬المنهج المدرسى‬
‫‪CURR‬‬

‫التخصص‪ :‬لغة‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫نظري‬ ‫عدد الوحدات الدراسية ‪:‬‬
‫انجليزية‬

‫ان يكتسب الطالب معلومات عن ماهية المنهج ووسائل التقويم والتنظيمات‬ ‫‪ -2‬هدف المقرر ‪:‬‬
‫المختلفة للمنهج و األنشطة التعليمية‬

‫‪ -3‬المستهدف من تدريس المقرر ‪:‬أن يكتسب الطالب مهارة صياغة األهداف و أن يتعرف على المعايير الخاصة‬
‫بالمحتوى وكيفية وضع العديد من األسئلة المختلفة المستويات‪.‬‬

‫‪125‬‬
 ‫مفهوم المنج‪ -‬مفهوم النشاط التربوى‪-‬مفهوم‬ ‫أ‪ -‬المعلومات‬
‫التقويم‪ -‬مفهوم المحتوى‪-‬معايير إختيار‬ ‫والمفاهيم‪:‬‬
‫المحتوى و األنشطة التربوية و أنواعها‬
‫المختلفة‪-‬مواصفات التقويم الجيد‪-‬أنواع طرق‬
‫التدريس وتنظيمات المنهج‬

‫أن يفرق بين أنواع المناهج‪ -‬أن يتعرف على‬

‫كيفية إختيار المحتوى و األنشطة التعليمية‬
‫ب‪ -‬المهارات الذهنية‪:‬‬
‫المختلفة التى تتناسب و إحتياجات الطالب‪ -‬أن‬
‫يفرق بين األنواع المختلفة للألسئلة و يفرق بين‬
‫التنظيمات المختلفة للمنهج و يحدد مميزات و‬
‫عيوب كل تنظيم‪.‬‬

‫صياغة أهداف مختلفة للمنهج فى مجال‬

‫التخصص‪ -‬وضع أسئلة متنوعة و مختلفة‬
‫جـ‪ -‬المهارات المهنية‬
‫المستويات للمنهج فى مجال التخصص تطبيق‬
‫الخاصة بالمقرر‬
‫إسلوب حل المشكالت و طريقة المشروعات‪ -‬و‬
‫تطبيق مواصفات التقويم الجيد‪.‬‬

‫إكتساب مهارات التعلم التعاونى‪ -‬إختيار وسيلة‬

‫التقويم المناسبة للطالب‪ -‬إختيار طريقة‬
‫د ‪ -‬المهارات العامة ‪:‬‬
‫التدريس المناسبة لقدراته‪.‬‬

‫أنواع المناهج‪ -‬معايير إختيار المحتوى‪ -‬طرق‬

‫التدريس المختلفة‪ -‬األنشطة التربوية و أنواعها‬ ‫‪ -4‬محتوى المقرر‪:‬‬
‫المختلفة التنظيمات المختلفة للمنهج (المواد‬
‫الدراسية المنفصلة‪ -‬النشاط‪ -‬المحورى‪-‬الوحدات‬
‫الدراسية)و أساليب التقويم‪.‬‬

‫المناقشة و الحوار‪ -‬التعلم التعاونى‪ -‬المحاضرة‪-‬‬ ‫‪ -5‬أساليب التعليم‬

‫التغذية الرجعية‪.‬‬ ‫والتعلم‬

‫‪126‬‬
 ‫تدريس األقران و التعلم التعاونى‬ ‫‪ -6‬أساليب التعليم‬
‫والتعلم للطالب ذوى‬
‫القدرات المحدودة‬
‫‪ -7‬تقويم الطــالب ‪:‬‬

‫المشاركة الجادة فى النقاش و الحوار‪ -‬العرض‪ -‬ملف اإلنجاز‪-‬تقويم بنائى فى‬ ‫أ‪ -‬األساليب‬
‫كل محاضرة‪-‬إحتبار اعمال السنة و نهاية الفصل الدراسى‬ ‫المستخدمة‬

‫فى كل محاضرة‪ -‬فى منتصف و نهاية الفصل الدراسى‬ ‫ب‪ -‬التوقيت‬

‫الدرجاتدرجة إختبار نهاية الفصل الدراسى‪ 28 -‬أعمال سنة (‪ 18‬للمشاركة فى كل محاضرة‪5-‬‬

‫جـ‪ -‬توزيع ‪08‬‬
‫لملف اإلنجاز‪ 5-‬لإلختبار فى منتصف الفصل الدراسى‬

‫‪127‬‬