UNIT 2: SECTION 1-CELLS

Cells and organelles

Cells can be Eukaryotic or Prokaryotic
1)Eukaryotic cells are complex and include all animal and plant cells
2) Prokaryotes are smaller and simpler
Structure and function of organelles

Organelle Description Function

Nucleus A large organelle Chromatin is made
surrounded by a from proteins and
nuclear envelope DNA. The pores
(double membrane) allow substances e.g.
which contains many RNA to move
pores. The nucleus between the nucleus
contains chromatin and the cytoplasm.
and often a structure The nucleolus makes
called the nucleolus. ribosomes.
Lysome A round organelle Contains digestive
surrounded by a enzymes . These are
membrane with no kept separate from the
clear internal cytoplasm by the
structure. surrounding
membrane, but can be
used to digest
invading cells or to
break down worn out
components of the
cell.
Vesicle A small fluid filled Transports substances
sac in the cytoplasm, in and out of the cell
surrounded by a (via the cell
membrane. membrane) and
between organelles.
Some are formed by
the Golgi apparatus or
the endoplasmic
 reticulum, while
others are formed at
the cell surface.
Ribosome A very small The site where
organelle that floats proteins are made.
free in the cytoplasm
or is attached to the
rough endoplasmic
reticulum.
Endoplasmic There are two types: Smooth ER
Reticulum (ER) smooth is a system of synthesises and
membranes inclosing processes lipids. The
a fluid filled space. rough ER folds and
the rough ER is processes proteins
similar but covered in that have been made
ribosomes. at the ribosomes.
Golgi apparatus A group of fluid filled It processes and
flattened sacs. packages new lipids
Vesicles are often and proteins. It also
seen at the edge of the makes lysomes.
sac.
Centriole Hollow cylinders Involved with the
containing a ring of separation of
microtubules (tiny chromosomes during
protein cylinders) cell division.
Mitochondrion Usually oval shaped. Site of aerobic
They have a double respiration where
membrane – the inner ATP is produced.
one is folded to form Found in large
structures called numbers in cells that
cristae. Inside is the are very active and
matrix, which require lots of energy.
contains enzymes
involved in
respiration
Prokaryotic cells are simpler than eukaryotic cells (they include
bacteria and blue green algae).
EUKARYOTES
Larger cells 2-200µm diameter
DNA is linear
Nucleus present – DNA inside
nucleus
No cell wall (in animals),
cellulose cell wall (in plants) or
chitin cell wall (in fungi)
Many organelles, mitochondrion
present
Large ribosomes
Example: human liver cell
PROKARYOTES
Extremely small (less than 2.0µm
diameter)
DNA is circular
No nucleus – DNA free in
cytoplasm
Cell wall made of polysaccharide,
but not cellulose or chitin.
Few organelles, no mitochondrion
Smaller ribosomes
Example: E.coli bacteria

Rough ER, Vesicles and Golgi Apparatus are involved with Protein
Transport
1. Proteins are made at the ribosomes
2. Ribosomes on the rough ER make proteins that are excreted or
attached to the cell membrane. The free ribosomes make
proteins that stay in the cytoplasm
3. New proteins produced at the rER are folded and processed (e.g.
sugar chains are added) in the rER.
4. Then they’re transported from the rER to the Golgi apparatus in
vesicles
5. At the Golgi apparatus, the proteins may undergo further
processing (e.g. sugar chains are trimmed or more are added).
6. The proteins enter more vesicles to be transported around the
cell. E.g. Extracellular enzymes (such as disgestive
enzymes)move to the cell surface to be excreted.
Cell Organisation
Similar cells are organised in tissues
Similar cells are grouped together in tissues for example:
1) squamous epithelium tissue is a single layer of flat cells lining a
surface. Squamous epithelium tissue is found at many places,
including the alveoli in the lungs.
2) Xylem tissue is a plan tissue with two jobs – it transports water
around the plant and it supports the plant. It contains xylem vessel
cells and parenchyma cells.
Tissues are organised into organs
An organ is a group of different tissues that work together to perfrom
a particular function.
The leaf is a plant organ made up of the following tissues:
1) lower epidermis – contains stomata (holes) to let air in and out for
gas exchange
2) spongy mesophyll – full of space to let gases circulate
3) Palisade mesophyll – most photosynthesis occurs here
4)Xylem – carries water to the leaf
5)Phloem- carries sugars away from the leaf
6) Upper epidermis covered in a waterproof waxy cuticle to reduce
water loss.
The lungs are an example of an animal organ. they are made up of the
following tissues:
1) Squamous epithelium tissue – surrounds the alveoli (where gas
exchange occurs).
2) Fibrous connective tissue – helps to force air back out of the lungs
when exhaling
3) Blood vessels – capillaries surround the alveoli.
Organs are in systems
Organs work together to form organ systems – each system has a
particular function.
For example, the respiratory system is made up of all the organs,
tissues and cells involved in breathing. The lungs, trachea, larynx,
nose, mouth, and diaphragm are all part of the respiratory system.
Cell cycle and mitosis
The cell cycle is the process that all body cells from multicellular
organisms use to grow and divide.
1) the cell cycle starts when a cell is produced by cell division and
ends with the cell dividing to produce two identical cells.
2) the cell cycle consists of a period of cell growth and DNA
replication, called interphase, and a period of cell division called
mitosis.
3)interphase (cell growth) is divided into three separate growth stages
– G1,S and G2.
Mitosis (the cell cycle starts and ends here.
G1 (the gap phase – cells grow and new organelles and proteins are
made).
Synthesis (cell replicates its DNA, ready to divide by mitosis)
G2 (cell keeps growing and proteins needed for cell division are
made).
Mitosis is used for growth, repair and asexual reproduction
1) mitosis is needed for the growth of multicellular organisms and
repairing damaged tissues.
2) Some organisms (e.g. some plants and fungi reproduce asexually
(without sex) using mitosis. This means any new organism produced
are genetically identical to the original parent organism.
Mitosis is really one continous process, but it’s described as a series
of division stages
-prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
Interphase comes before mitosis in the cell cycle – its when cells
grow and replicate their DNA ready for division.
Interphase – the cell carries out normal functions but also prepares to
divide. The cell’s DNA unravels and replicates to double its genetic
content.
The organelles are also replicated s pot has spare ones and its ATP
content is increased (ATP provides the energy needed for cell
division)
1) Prophase – the chromosomes condense, getting shorter and fatter.
The centrioles start moving to opposite ends of the cell, forming a
network of protein fibres across it called the spindle. The nuclear
envelope (membrane around the nucleus) breaks down and the
chromosomes lie free in the cytoplasm.
2) metaphase – the chromosome (each with two chromatids) line up
along the middle of the cell and become attached to the spindle by
their centromere.
3) Anaphase – The centromeres divide, separating each pair of sister
chromatids. The spindles contract, pulling the chromatids to opposite
ends of the cell, centromere first.
4) Telophase – the chromatids reach the opposite poles on the spindle.
They uncoil and become long and thin again. They’re now called
chromosomes again. A nuclear envelope forms around each group of
chromosomes so now there are two nuclei. The cytoplasm divides and
there are now two daughter cells that are identical to the original cell
and to each other. Mitosis is finished and each daughter cell starts the
interphase part of the cell cycle to get ready for the next round of
mitosis.
Root tips can be stained to observe mitosis

1. Cut the tip from a growing root (e.g. from a broad bean or
garlic). Your root tip should be about 5mm long.
2. Place the root tip in watch glass (a small shallow bowl) and add
a few drops of hydrochloric acid.
3. add a few drops of stain so that the chromosomes become darker
and so easier to see under a microscope. A stain that can be used
is toluidine blue or acetic orecin.
 4. Warm the watch glass (but don’t boil the liquid) by passing it
slowly over a Bunsen burner flame.
5. Place the root tip on a microscope slide and use a mounted
needle to break it open and spread out cells thinly.
6. add a few more drops of the stain then place on a cover slip
7. squash the cover slip down gently
8. warm the slide again as this will intensify the stain
9. now you can see the stages of mitosis under the microscope.

UNIT 2: SECTION 2 – SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

DNA is passed to new offspring by gametes

 Gametes are the male and female sex cells found in all
organisms that reproduce sexually.
 They join at fertilisation to form a zygote, which divides
and develops into a new organism.
 In animals, male gametes are sperm and the female
gametes are ova.
 In plants the male gametes are contained in pollen grains
and the female gametes are contained in the ovules.
 Normal body cells of plants and animals contain the full
number of chromosomes. Humans have two sets of 23
chromosomes – one set from each parent- giving a body
cell a total of 46 chromosomes.
 Gametes contain half the number of chromosomes as a
normal body cell – in humans they contain one set of 23
chromosomes.
Mammalian Gametes are specialised for their function
Sperm cell:
Flagellum (tail) allows sperm to swim towards the ova.
Lots of mitochondria provide energy for tail movement
Nucleus contains 23 chromosomes
Acrosome contains digestive enzymes to break down the ova’s zone
pellucida and enable the sperm to penetrate the egg.
Egg cell:
Follicle cells provide protective coating
Zone pellucida forms the protective layer in which the sperm has the
penetrate
Nucleus contains 23 chromosomes
Egg cells are much larger than sperm cells

Cell division by meiosis

 Meiosis is a type of cell division that happens in the

reproductive organs to produce gametes.
 Cells that divide by meiosis have the full number of
chromosomes to start with, but the cells formed have half the
number.
 Without meiosis , you would get double the genetic material
when the gametes fused.

Stages of meiosis:
1. DNA replicates so there are two identical copies of each
chromosome, called chromatids.
2. DNA condenses to form double armed chromosomes, made
from two sister chromatids.
3. The chromosomes arrange themselves in homologous pairs-
pairs of matching chromosomes (one from each 23 – e.g. both
number 1s)
4. First division – the homologous pairs are separated, halving the
chromosome number.
5. second division- the pairs of sister chromatids are separated.
 6. Four new cells (gametes) that are genetically different from each
other are produced.
Fertilisation
Fertilisation is when male and female gametes fuse

 Fertilisation is the term used to describe the exact moment when

the nuclei of the male and female gametes fuse.
 Since the gametes contain half the full number of chromosomes,
fertilisation creates a cell with the full number of chromosomes
– this cell is called the zygote
 The zygote contains two sets of chromosomes – one set from the
male parent and one set from the female parent
 Combining genetic material from two individuals makes
offspring that are genetically unique.
In mammals, fertilisation occurs in the oviduct

 In mammals, sperm are deposited high up in the female vagina

close to the entrance of the cervix.
 Once there, they have to make their way up through the cervix
and uterus, and into one of the oviducts.
 Once the sperm reach the oviduct, fertilisation may occur: here’s
how it works:
1. Sperm swim toward the ova in the oviduct
2. Once the sperm makes contact with the zona pellucida of
the egg cell, the acrosome reaction occurs – this is where
the digestive enzymes are released from the acrosome.
3. These enzymes digest the zona pellucida, so that the sperm
can move through it to the cell membrane of the egg.
4. The sperm head fuses with the cell membrane of the egg
cell. This triggers a cortical reaction – the egg releases the
 contents of vesicles called cortical granules into the space
between the cell membrane and the zone pellucida.
5. These chemicals from the cortical granules make the zona
pellucida thicken, which makes it impenetrable to other
sperm which ensure the egg is only fertilised by one
sperm.
6. One the sperm enters, the tail is discarded.
7. Nucleus of the sperm fuses with the nucleus of the egg cell
– this is fertilisation.
A zygote is now formed, which has the full number (46) of
chromosomes. It immediately begins to divide by mitosis to develop
into a fully formed organism.
In flowering plants fertilisation occurs in the embryo sac:
1. A pollen grain lands on the stigma of a flower. The grain
absorbs water and splits open.
2. A pollen tube grows out of the pollen grain and down the style
(rod like section that supports the stigma). There are three nuclei
in the pollen tube. One tube nucleus at the tube’s tip and two
male gamete nuclei behind it. The tube nucleus makes enzymes
that digest surrounding cells, making a way for the pollen tube.
3. When a tube reaches the ovary, it grows through the micropyle (
a tiny hole in the ovule wall) and into the embryo sac within the
ovule
4. In the embryo sac, the tube nucleus disintegrates and the tip of
the pollen tube bursts, releasing two male nuclei
5. One male nucleus fuses with the egg nucleus to make a zygote.
This divides by mitosis to become an embryo of the seed.
6. The second male nucleus fuses with two other nuclei called the
polar nuclei at the centre of the embryo sac. This provides the
cell with a large nucleus which divides to become a food store -
called the endosperm for the mature seed.
 7. So a double fertilisation has taken place (two male nuclei have
fused with a female nuclei) this only happens in flowering
plants.
UNIT 2: SECTION 3 – STEM CELLS
Stem cells are able to differentiate into specialised cells

 Multicellular organisms are made up from many different cell

types that are specialised for their function e.g. live cells, muscle
cells, white blood cells.
 All these specialised cell types originally came from stem cells.
 Stem cells are unspecialised cells that can develop into any type
of cell
 Stem cells divide by mitosis to become new cells, which then
become specialised.
 The process by which they become specialised is called
differentiation
 All multi cellular organisms have some form of stem cell
 In humans, stem cells are found in the embryo (where they
differentiate into all the cells needed to form a foetus) and in
some adult cells (where they differentiate into specialised cells
that need to be replaced e.g. stem cells in the bone marrow can
differentiate into red blood cells)
 Ability to differentiate into specialised cells is called potency
and there are two types which need to be known about:
1) totipotency – ability to produce all cell types, including all
the specialised cells in an organism and extraembryonic (cells of
the placenta and umbilical cord)
2) Pluripotency – ability of a stem cell to produce all the
specialised cells in an organism but not extraembryonic cells.
 Totipotent stem cells in humans are only present in the early life
of an embryo – they differentiate into extraembryonic cells and
 pluripotent stem cells. The pluripotent stem cells then
differentiate into specialised cells in the foetus.
Totipotency can be demonstrated in tissue culture
1) Plants also have stem cells – they are found in areas where the
plant is growing e.g. in roots and shoots.
2) All stem cells in plants are totipotent – they can produce all cell
types and can grow into a whole new plant
3) Totipotency can be shown using tissue culture, a method used to
grow a plant from a single cell:
i) A single cell is taken from a growing area on a plant – (e.g. a
root or shoot).
ii) Cell is placed in some growth medium (e.g. agar) that
contains nutrients and growth hormones. Growth medium is
sterile so microorganisms can’t grow and compete with the
plant cell
iii) Plant will grow and divide into a mass of unspecialised
cells. If the conditions are suitable (e.g. if the plant cells are
given the right hormones) the unspecialised cells will
differentiate into specialised cells
iv)Eventually the cells with grow and differentiate into an entire
plant
Tissue culture shows totipotency because single stem cells can
produce all the specialised cells needed for the whole plant.
Stem cells become specialised through differential gene expression
stem cells become specialised because different genes in their DNA
become active (are turned on) – in other words express different genes
(use different genes to make proteins).
1) Stem cells all contain the same genes, but not all of them are
expressed because not all of them are active
2) Under the right conditions, some genes are activated , and some
inactivated
3) mRNA is only transcribed from the active genes
4) mRNA from the active genes is then translated into proteins
5) these proteins then modify the cell – they determine the cell
structure and control cell processes (including the activation of
more genes, which produces more proteins
6) Changes to the cell produced by these proteins cause the cell to
become specialised (differentiated). These changes are difficult to
reverse so once the cell has differentiated, it stays specialised.
example – Red Blood Cells

a) RBCs are produced from a type of stem cell in the bone marrow.
They contain lots of haemoglobin and have no nucleus (to make
room for more haemoglobin)
b) The stem cells produce a new cell in which the genes for
haemoglobin production are activated. Other genes, such as
those involved on removing the nucleus, are activated too. Many
other genes are activated or inactivated, resulting in a
specialised RBC.
Stem cells in medicine
Stem cells can be used to treat some diseases

 Stem cells can develop into any specialised cell, so scientists

think they could be used to replace damaged tissue in a range of
diseases
 Some stem cell therapies already exist. For example, treatment
for leukaemia ( cancer of the bone marrow) kills all the stem
cells in the bond marrow, so bone marrow transplants can be
given to patients to replace them
 Scientists are researching the use of stem cells as treatment for
lots of conditions, including:
Spinal cord injuries – stem cells could be used to repair
damaged nerve tissue
 Heart diseases and damage caused by heart attacks – stem cells
could be sued to replace damaged heart tissue
 People who make decisions about use of stem cells in medicine
and research have to consider the potential benefits of stem cell
therapies:
-they could save many lives – e.g. many people waiting for an
organ transplant may die before a donor organ becomes
available. Stem cells could be used to grow organs for those
people awaiting a transplant
-they could improve quality of life for many people –e.g. stem
cells could be used to replace damaged cells in people who are
blind.
Human stem cells come from adult tissue or embryos
two potential sources of stem cells:

Adult Stem cells Embryonic stem cells

 Obtained from body tissues
of an adult
e.g. bone marrow
 Obtained in a simple, but
painful operation. Donor is
anaesthetised and a needle is
inserted into the centre of a
bone (usually the hip) and a
small quantity removed.
 Adult stem cells aren’t as
flexible as embryonic cells;
they can only develop into a
limited range of cells.
 Obtained from early
embryos
 Embryos are created in a lab
using in virtro fertilisation
(IVF)
 Once the embryos are about
four to five days old, stem
cells are removed from them
and the rest of the embryo is
destroyed.
 Can develop into any type
of cell.
 Obtaining stem cells from embryos from IVF causes ethical
issues because the procedure involves the destruction of an
embryo that’s viable (could be placed in the womb)
 Many people believe that at fertilisation a genetically unique
individual is created and has the right to life
 Some people have fewer objections to stem cells being obtained
from unfertilised embryos – embryos made from egg cells that
have not been fertilised by sperm. This is because the embryos
aren’t viable , they cannot survive past a few days and cannot
produce a foetus if placed in the womb
 Some people think only adult stem cells should be used as this
doesn’t involve the destruction of life but they cannot develop
into any cell.
 The decision makers must take all the views into account when
making important decisions about scientific work that could
save lives.
 To help society make these decisions, regulatory authorities
have been established to consider the benefits and ethical issues.
The work of these authorities include:
o Looking at proposals for research and deciding whether
they should be allowed – this ensures research is carried
out for good reasons and makes sure the same research
isn’t unnecessarily repeated by lots of groups.
o Licensing and monitoring centres involved in embryonic
stem cell research ensures only fully trained staff carry out
the research
o Producing guidelines and codes of practise ensures all
scientists are working in a similar manner. It also ensures
methods of extraction are controlled
o Monitoring developments in scientific research and
advances ensures that any changes in the field are
 regulated appropriately and that all guidelines are up to
date with current scientific understanding
o Providing info and advice to governments and
professionals helps promote the science involved and helps
people to understand why research is important and what
is involved.
UNIT 2: SECTION 4 – VARIATION, EVOLUTION AND
CLASSIFICAITON
Variation
variation in phenotype can be continuous or discontinuous

Continuous variation Discontinuous

This is when the individuals in a
population vary within a range –
there are no distinct categories:
-height
-mass
Skin colour
This is when there are two or
more distinct categories – each
individual falls into only one of
these categories:
sex – male or female
-blood group (A,B,AB or O)

Variation in phenotype is influenced by variation in Genotype

 Individuals of the same species have different genotypes

(different combination of alleles)
 Variation in genotype results in variation of phenotype –
characteristics displayed by an organism. For example in
humans, there are 6 different combinations of blood group
alleles, which can produce one of four blood groups
 Some characteristics are controlled by only one gene – they’re
called monogenic. They tend to show discontinuous variation
e.g. blood type
  Most characteristics are controlled by a number of genes at
different loci – they’re said to be poly genic. They usually show
continuous variation e.g. height.
Variation is also causes variation.
Some characteristics are only caused by genotype (blood group)
most are influenced by both genotype and the environment

Height is polygenic and affected by environmental factors, especially

nutrition. E.g. tall parents usually have tall children, but if the children
are undernourished they won’t grow to the maximum height.
Monoamine Oxidise A (MAOA) is an enzyme that breaks down
monoamines (a type of chemical) in humans. Low levels of MAOA
have been linked to mental health problems. MAOA production is
controlled by a single gene (monogenic) but taking anti-depressants or
smoking tobacco can reduce the amount produced
Cancer is the uncontrolled division of cells that leads to lumps of cells
(tumours) forming. The risk of developing some cancers is affected
by genes, but environmental factors such as diet or smoking can
influence the risk.
Animal hair colour is polygenic, but the environment also plays a part
in some animals. E.g. some artic animals have dark hair in summer,
but white hair in winter. Environmental factors such as decreasing
temperatures trigger this change but it couldn’t happen if the animal
didn’t have the genes for it.

It is difficult to interpret the relative contributions of genes and the

environment

 Data on variation can be hard to interpret because some

characteristics can be affected by many different genes
(polygenic) and environmental factors
 It’s difficult to understand which factors (genes or environment)
are having the biggest effect.
  This makes it hard to draw conclusions about the causes of
variation.
Adaptation and environment
Niche is the role of a species within its habitat

 The niche a species occupies within its habitat includes:

-interactions with other living organisms (those it eats and those
that eat it)
-interactions with the non-living environment (e.g. oxygen it
breathes in, CO2 it breathes out)
 Every species has its own unique niche – a niche can only be
occupied by one species
 It may look like two species are occupying the same niche but
there will be variations
 If two species try to occupy the same niche, they will compete
with each other. One species will be more successful than the
other, until only one species is left.
Organisms can be adapted to their niche in three ways:
Adaptations are features which increase the organisms chance of
survival and reproduction
all species have adaptations that allow them to use the environment in
a way that no other species can – they’re adapted for their niche.
Adaptations can be behavioural, physiological and anatomical:

 Behavioural adaptations: ways an organism acts that increases

the chances of survival and reproduction –e.g. mating rituals
 Physiological adaptations: process inside the body which
increase the chance of survival – e.g. lowered metabolism in
order to hibernate over winter
  Anatomical adaptions: structural features of an organisms body
that increase chance of survival – e.g. large ears to allow heat
loss.
Adaptations become more common by evolution
adaptations become more popular in populations of species because of
evolution by natural selection:
1. Individuals show variation within their phenotypes
2. Predation, disease and competition creates struggle for survival
3. Individuals with better adaptations (characteristics that give a
selective advantage) are more likely to survive, reproduce and
pass on their advantageous adaptations to their offspring.
4. Over time the number of individuals with the advantageous
adaptations increases
5. Over generations, this leads to evolution as favourable
adaptations become more common in the population.
This is an outline of Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural
selection. Over time, this theory became increasingly accepted as
more evidence has been found to support it, and none to disprove it.
Evidence increases a scientist’s confidence in a theory.
Classification
Classification is all about grouping together similar organisms
Taxonomy is the science of classification. It involves naming
organisms and organising them into groups bases on their similarities
and differences. This makes it easier for scientists to identify and
study them.

 There are seven levels of groups (called taxonomic groups) used

in classification.
 Similar orgasms are first sorted into large groups called
kingdoms e.g. all animals are in the animal kingdom
  Similar organisms in that kingdom are grouped into phylum.
Similar organisms from each phylum are then grouped into a
class, and so on, down the levels of the hierarchy.
 As you move down, there are more hierarchies, but fewer
organisms in each group.
 The hierarchy ends with species – the groups that contain only
one type of organism (e.g. humans, E.coli, dogs.

o A species is a group of similar organisms able to

reproduce to give fertile offspring.
All species are given a unique scientific name in Latin to
distinguish them from similar organisms. In this binomial
(two word) system, the first is the genus name and the
second word is the species name – e.g. humans are Homo
sapiens. Giving organisms a standard name allows
scientists to communicate about organisms in a standard
way that minimises confusion – all scientists, in all
countries, will call an organism the same name.
o

 The more similar organisms are to each other, the more groups
they will be in together as you go down the hierarchy.
 Species in the same genus can be very similar, but they are
separate species because they cannot breed together to produce
fertile offspring.
Organisms can be placed in one of five kingdoms based on general
features:
Kingdom Examples Features
Prokaryote (Monera) Bacteria Prokaryotes,
unicellular, no
nucleus, less than 5
 µm
Protoctista Algae, protozoa Eukaryotic cells,
usually live in water,
single celled, or
simple unicellular
organisms
Fungi Moulds, yeast, Eurkaryotic, chitin
mushrooms cell wall, saprotrophic
(absorbs substances
from dead or
decaying organisms)
Plantae Mosses, ferns, Eukaryotic,
flowering plants multicellular,
cellulose cell walls,
can photosynthesise,
contain chlorophyll,
autotrophic (makes
their own food(
Animalia Nematodes (round Eukaryotic,
worms), molluscs, multicellular, no cell
insects, fish, reptiles, walls, heterotrophic
birds , mammals (consumer plants and
animals)

New scientific data can lead to new taxonomic groups

 Species are classified into taxonomic groups based on loads of

things, e.g. what they look like, their physiology and how
related they are
 New data about any of these things can influence how a species
is classified
 New data has to be evaluated by other scientists and if they
agree, it can lead to an organism being reclassified or lead to
changes in the classification structure
 This shows the tentative nature of scientific knowledge
Example – Three Domains vs Five Kingdoms

 A new, three domain classification system has been proposed based on new data
 The new data came from molecular phylogeny
- Phylogeny is the study of the evolutionary history of groups of organisms
-Phylogeny tells us which organisms are related and how closely related they are
UNIT 2: SECTION 5 – RESOURCES FROM PLANTS
Plant cell structure and plant stems

Organelle Description Function

Cell wall A rigid structure that Supports plant cells.
surrounds plant cells.
It’s mainly made
from carbohydrate
cellulose
Middle lamella Outmost layer of the This layer acts as an
cell adhesive, sticking
adjacent plant cells
together. It gives the
plant stability
Plasmodesmata Channels in the cell Allow transport of
wall that link adjacent substances and
cells together communications
between cells
Pits Regions of the cell Allow transport of
wall where the wall is substances between
very thin. They’re cells.
arranged in pairs – the
pit of one cell is lined
up with the pit of
another cell.
Chloroplast A small flattened Site where
structure. It’s photosynthesis takes
surrounded by a place. Some parts of
double membrane, photosynthesis
and also has happen in the grana,
membranes inside and other parts
called thylakoid happen in the stroma (
membranes. These a thick fluid found in
membranes are the chloroplasts)
stacked up in some
parts of the
 chloroplast to form
grana. Grana are
linked together by
lamellae – thin, flat
pieces of thylakoid
membrane.
Amyloplast A small organelle Storage of starch
enclosed by a grains. They also
membrane. They convert starch back to
contain starch glucose for release
granules when the plant
requires it
Vacuole and The vacuole is a The vacuole contains
Tonoplast compartment the cell sap, which is
surrounded by a made of water,
membrane called the enzymes, minerals
tonoplast. and waste products.
Vacuoles keep the
cells turgid – this
stops the plant from
wilting. They’re also
involved in the
breakdown and
isolation of unwanted
chemicals in the cell.
The tonoplast controls
what enters and
leaves the cell.

Different parts of plant stems have different functions

Plant stems are made up of lots of different things – the bits you need
to know are they xylem vessels and sclerenchyma fibres.
Xylem vessels:

 Function is to transport water and mineral ions up the plant, and

provide support.
  They’re very long, tube-like structures formed from dead cells
joined end to end. The tubes are found together in bundles
 The cells are longer than they are wide, they have a hollow
lumen (contain no cytoplasm) and have no end walls
 This makes an interrupted tube, allowing water and mineral ions
to pass up through the middle easily
 Their walls are thickened with a woody substance called lignin
which helps support the plant
 Water and mineral ions move into and out of the vessels through
pits in the walls where there’s no lignin
 Xylem vessels are found throughout the plant but particularly
around the centre of the stem/
Sclerenchyma fibres:

 The function is to provide support

 Like xylem vessels, they are also made from dead cells that run
vertically up the stem.
 The cells are longer than they are wide, and also have a hollow
lumen and no end walls
 Their cell walls are also thicken with lignin and have more
cellulose than other plant cells
 They’re found throughout the stems of plants, particular around
the edge.
Starch, cellulose and fibres
Structures of starch and cellulose determine their functions
Starch – the main energy storage material in plants:

 Cells get energy from glucose. Plants store excess glucose as

starch (when a plant needs more glucose for energy, it breaks
down the starch to release the glucose)
  Starch is a mixture of two polysaccharides of alpha glucose –
amylose and amylopectin:

o Amylose - a long unbranched chain of α glucose. The

angles of the glycosidic bonds give it a coiled structure,
like a cylinder. This makes it compact so it’s good for
storage
o Amylopectin – a long branched chain of α-glucose. Its side
branches allow the enzymes that break down the molecule
get to the glycosidic bonds easily. This means glucose can
be released quickly
 Starch is insoluble in water, which means it doesn’t cause water
to enter cells by osmosis (which would make them swell)
Cellulose – the major component of cell walls in plants:

 Cellulose is made of long, unbranched chains of beta-glucose,

joined by glycosidic bonds.
 The glycosidic bonds are straight so the chains are straight
 Between 50 and 80 cellulose chains are linked together by a
large number of hydrogen bonds to from strong threads called
micro fibrils. The strong threads means cellulose provides
structural support for cells. (e.g. strengthen plant cell walls)
Plant fibres are useful to humans because they are strong

 Plant fibres are made up of long tubes of plant cells e.g.

sclerenchyma fibres are made up of tubes of dead cells
 They are strong which makes them useful for loads of things
e.g. ropes or fabrics like hemp
 They’re strong for a number of reasons:
o The arrangement of cellulose micro fibrils in the cell wall
 The cell wall contains microfibrils in a net like
arrangement
  The strength of microfibrils and their arrangement
gives the plant strength
o The secondary thickening of cell walls
 When some structural plant cells, like sclerenchyma
have finished growing, they produce a secondary cell
wall between the normal cell was and the cell
membrane
 The secondary cell wall it thicker and usually has
more lignin
 The growth of the secondary cell wall is called
secondary thickening which makes plant fibres even
stronger.
We can measure the tensile strength of plant fibres
tensile strength is the maximum load it can take before it breaks.
1. Attach a fibre to a clamp stand and hang a weight from the other
end
2. Keep adding weights until the fibre breaks
3. Record the mass needed to break the fibre – the higher the mass,
the higher the tensile strength
4. Repeat to increase the reliability
5. Use same lengthened fibres
6. Keep all other variables constant – temp, humidity
7. Take safety measures, such as wearing goggles and leave the
area where the weights will fall clear.
Sustainability and plant materials
Sustainable practises don’t deplete resources

 Sustainability is all about using resources in a way that meets

the needs of the present generation without messing it up for
future generations
 To make products sustainably, you have to use renewable
resources
  Renewable resources can be used indefinitely without running
out e.g. plants are renewable because harvested plants can be
regrown. Fossil fuels (e.g. petrol) are not renewable because
once it’s been used there is no more.
 An example of sustainable practise is replacing trees after
logging. Whenever a tree is cut down, a new one is planted to
take its place. When the tree is fully grown, then the process can
begin again – the environment isn’t significantly damaged in the
long run
 Unsustainable practises cannot continue indefinitely - resources
will eventually run out.
 An example of unsustainable resources is the use of fossil fuels
to make oil-based plastics such as polythene.
Using plant fibres and starch can contribute to sustainability
Plant fibres:

 Ropes and fabrics can be made of plastic which is made from oil
or they can be made from plant fibres.
 Plant fibres are more sustainable – less fossil fuel is used up and
crops can be regrown to maintain the supply for future
generations
 Plant fibres are biodegradable – they can be broken down by
microbes, unlike most oil based plastics – which cannot be
broken down and remain in the environment for many years/
 Plants are easier to grow and process (extract the fibres) than
extracting and processing oil. This makes them cheaper and it’s
easier to do in developing countries (less technology and
expertise is needed)
Starch:
 Starch is found in all plants – crops such as potatoes and corn
are particularly rich in starch
  Plastics are usually made from oil, but some can be made from
plant based materials, like starch. These plastics are called
bioplastics.
 Making plastics from starch is more sustainable than from
making them from oil because less fossil fuel is used up and
crops from which the starch has come from can be regrown
 Vehicle fuel is also usually made from oil, but you can make
fuel from starch – e.g. bioethanol is a fuel that can be made from
starch
 Making fuel from starch is more sustainable than making it from
oil because less fossil fuels are used up and the crops can be
regrown.
Plants need water an Inorganic ions
Plants need water and inorganic ions (minerals) for a number of
different reasons. They’re absorbed through the roots and travel
through the plant in the xylem. If there isn’t enough water or
minerals, they plant will show deficiency symptoms such as stunted
growth.

 Water is needed for photosynthesis, to maintain structural

rigidity, transport minerals and regulate temperature
 Magnesium ions are needed for the production of chlorophyll
(pigment needed for photosynthesis)
 Nitrate ions are needed for the production of DNA, proteins
(enzymes) and chlorophyll.
They’re needed for plant growth, fruit production and seed
production.
 Calcium ions are important components in plant cell walls.
They’re required for plant growth.
You can investigate plant mineral deficiencies in the lab
method
 1. Take 30 seedlings of the same plant, same age and same height
and plant in spate pots.
2. Make up the nutrient broth containing all the essential minerals,
but vary the concentration of calcium ions. Make up a broth
with high, medium and low concentration of calcium.
3. Split the seedlings into three groups, each given one of the
broths
4. Record the heights of the plants after 7 weeks. Calculate the
average height
5. Keep all other variables constant – e.g. temp, sunlight, water
Results:
greater the conc of calcium ions, the more the plants grew.
This shows calcium is needed for growth, and when there is a lack,
growth is inhibited.
Drugs testing and drugs from plants
Testing drugs used to be trial and error
Modern testing is more rigorous

 Drug protocols are much more controlled

 Before a drug is tested on live subjects, computers are used to
model the potential side effects
 Tests are also carried out on human tissues in a lab, then they’re
tested on live animals before clinical trials are carried out on
humans
 During clinical testing, drugs undergo three stages of testing:

o Phase 1 – involves testing the drug on a small group of

healthy people – it’s done to test the safe dosage and side
effects and the body’s reaction
o Phase 2 – (if the drug passes phase 1) tested on a larger
group of patients
 o Phase 3 – compared to existing treatments and tested on
lots more patients. Group are split into two. One group
receives new treatment, and one group receives existing
treatment. This allows scientists to tell if the new drug is
better.
Using placebos in a double blind study
 In phase 2 clinical trials, the patients are split
into two groups. ½ given real drug, ½ given the
placebo. Patients often show a placebo effect –
where they show some improvement because
they believe that they are receiving treatment.
The placebo use allows researchers to see if the
drug actually has any affect
 Phase 2 + 3 are usually double blind trials –
neither the patient or the doctor know who’s
been given the real drug. This reduces bias as
the attitudes of the patients and doctors cannot
affect the results.
Some plants have antimicrobial properties
These plants kill or inhibit the growth of microorganisms. Here’s an
example of how to show this:
1. Take extracts from the plant you want to test. To do this you
need to dry and grind each plant, then soak them in ethanol (this
acts as the solvent). The plant should be the same size, so the
extract is the same.
2. Filter off the liquid bit
3. Evenly spread a sample of bacteria onto an agar (nutrient) plate
4. Dip discs of absorbent paper in the extracts. The discs should be
the same size so they absorb the same volume of liquid
5. Include a control disc that has only been soaked in ethanol to
ensure it is not the ethanol or the paper that is inhibiting the
growth.
 6. Place the paper discs on the agar – make sure there is plenty of
space
7. Incubate to ensure growth
8. Where the bacteria can’t grow, there will be a clear patch in the
lawn of bacteria – this is called an inhibition zone
9. The size of this zone indicates how well the antimicrobial plant
is working – the larger the size, the more effective the plant is.

UNIT 2: SECTION 6 – BIODIVERSITTY

Biodiversity and Endemism
Biodiversity is the variety of organisms

 Biodiversity is the variety of living organisms in an area. It

includes:
o Species diversity – number of different species and
abundance of each species in each area. E.g. a wood may
contain lots of tree, birds and mammals
o Genetic diversity – variation of alleles within a species (or
a population of species) for example, human blood type is
determined by a gene with four alleles.
 Conservation helps to maintain biodiversity
 Endemism is when a species is unique to a particular place (isn’t
naturally found anywhere else in the world). E.g. the giant
tortoise is endemic to the Galapagos Islands.
 Conservation is important for endemic species because they’re
particularly vulnerable to extinction. They’re only found in one
place, so if their habitat is threatened, they can’t usually migrate
so their numbers will decline.
The species diversity in a habitat can be measures
it is important to be able to measure species diversity so you can
compare different habitats or how it’s changed over time. You can
measure it in different ways:
  Count the no. of species in an area. The no. of different species
is called the species richness. The higher the no., the higher the
species richness. But species richness gives no indication of the
abundance of different species
 Count the no. of different species and the no. of individuals in
the species. The use a biodiversity index (worked out with an
equation – Simpson’s index of diversity) to calculate the species
diversity – this takes into account the abundance.

When measuring species diversity, it is best to just use a small

sample, to save time. This involves:

 Choose an area to sample – small area where the habitat is being

studied
 To avoid bias, the spot should be random e.g. choose a random
coordinate
 Count the number of species in this one area:
o For flying insects use a sweep net
o For plants use a quadrat
o For ground insects, use a pitfall trap
o For aquatic animals, use a net
 Repeat the process – take as many samples as possible
 Use results to estimate total number of species and abundance
 When sampling different habitats and comparing them, use the
same sampling technique.
The genetic diversity within a species can also be measured

 Diversity within a species is the variety shown by individuals of

that species (or a population of that species)
 Individuals of the same species vary, because they have
different alleles
  Genetic diversity is the variety of alleles in the gene pool of a
species
 Gene pool is the complete set of alleles in a species
 Greater the variation of alleles, greater the genetic variation.
E.g. humans have three alleles for blood group; gorillas have
one allele, so humans show greater diversity.
 You can investigate the changes in the genetic diversity of a
population over time, or how two populations of the same
species show different diversity.
 To measure the diversity of a species, you can look at two
things:
Phenotype Genotype
 Phenotype describes the  Samples of an organism’s
observable characteristics of DNA can be taken and the
an organism sequence of base pairs
 Different alleles code for analysed
slightly different versions of  Order of bases in different
the same characteristic alleles is slightly different,
 By looking at the different e.g. the allele for brown hair
phenotypes in a population will have a different order
of a species, you can get an of bases for the allele for
idea of the diversity of blonde hair.
alleles  By sequencing the DNA of
 Larger the number of individuals of the same
phenotypes, larger the species, you can look at the
genetic diversity similarities and differences
 E.g. humans have different in the alleles within the
eye colours due to different species
alleles. Humans in northern  You can measure the no. of
Europe show a variety of different alleles a species
blue, grey, green or brown has for one characteristic to
eyes. Outside this area, eye see how genetically diverse
colour shows little variety – a species is.
they’re usually brown. In N.  The larger the no. of
Europe there’s greater different alleles, the greater
 genetic diversity. the genetic diversity.

Conservation of Biodiversity
Zoos and seedbanks help conserve endangered species

 The extinction of a species or the loss of genetic diversity within

a species cause a reduction in global biodiversity.
 Some species have already become extinct (e.g. the dodo) and
there are lots of endangered species – species that are at risk of
extinction because of a low population, or a threatened habitat.
 Conservation involves the protection and management of
endangered species
 Zoos and seedbanks help to conserve endangered species and
conserve genetic diversity.
Seedbanks store seeds from plants that are endangered:

 A seedbank is a store of lots of different species of a plant

 They help to conserve biodiversity by storing seeds of
endangered plants
 If the plant becomes extinct in the wild, the stored seed can be
used to grow new plants.
 Seedbanks help to conserve genetic diversity. For some species
they store a range of seeds from plants with different
characteristics (so different alleles)
 Work of a seedbank involves:
o Creating the cool, dry conditions needed for storage which
means the seed can be stored for a long time
o Testing seeds for viability (ability to grow into a plant).
Seeds are planted, grown and new seeds are harvested and
put into storage.
Advantages Disadvantages
 Cheaper to store seeds  Testing the seeds for
than fully grown plants viability can be expensive and
  Larger no. of seeds can time consuming
be stored than grown plants  It would be too expensive
because they need less space to store all types of seeds and
 Less labour is needed to test them for viability
look after seeds than plants  It may be difficult to
 Seeds can be stored collect seeds from some plants
anywhere, as long as it’s cool as they may grow in remote
and dry. Plants would need the conditions
conditions from their original
habitat.
 Seeds are less likely to be
damaged by disease, natural
disaster or vandalism than
plants

Zoos have captive breeding programmes to help endangered species

 Captive breeding programs involve breeding animals in

controlled environments
 Species that are endangered or already extinct in the wild can be
bred together in zoos to help increase numbers. E.g. pandas are
bred in captivity because their numbers are critically low in the
wild .
 There are some problems with captive breeding programmes
though:
o Animals can have problems breeding outside their natural
habitat which can be difficult to recreate in a zoo.
o Most people think it’s cruel to keep animals in captivity,
even if it is to stop them becoming extinct.
Organisms from zoos and seedbanks can be introduced into the wild.

 Reintroduction of plants grown from seedbanks or animals bred

in captivity can increase their numbers in the wild, helping to
 conserve their numbers and bring them back from the brink of
extinction.
 This could also help organisms that rely on these plants or
animals as food, or as part of their habitat.
 The reintroduction of plants and animals also contributes to
restoring habitats that have been lost e.g. a rainforest that has
been cut down.
 Reintroducing organisms into the wild can cause problems
though:
o It could bring new diseases, harming other organisms
living there
o Reintroduced animals may not behave as they would if
they had been raised in the wild, e.g. they may have
problems finding food or communicating with wild
members
Seedbanks and zoos contribute to scientific research
Seedbanks:
 -scientists can study how plant species can be successfully
grown from seeds, this is useful for introducing them to the wild
 Seedbanks can be used to grow endangered plants for use in
medical research, as new crops or for new materials. This means
we don’t have to remove endangered plants from the wild
 A disadvantage is that only studying plants from seeds in a
seedbank limits the data to small inbred populations, so the
information may not be representative of the wild plants
Zoos:

 Research in zoos increases knowledge about the behaviours,

physiology and nutritional needs of animals. This can contribute
to conservation efforts in the wild
  Zoos can carry out research that’s not possible for some species
in the wild, e.g. nutritional or reproductive studies
 A disadvantage is those in captivity may act differently
Zoos and seedbanks help to educate people about conserving
biodiversity
educating people about endangered species and reduced biodiversity
helps to raise public awareness and interest in conserving
biodiversity.

 Zoos let people get close to organisms , increasing the

enthusiasm for conservation work
 Seedbanks contribute to education by providing training and
setting up seedbanks all around the world. For example, the
millennium seed bank project aims to conserve seeds in the
original country.