REPRODUCTION

REPRODUCTION

Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction

-> the production of new organism from the pre existing organisms is known as
reproduction.
-> Reproduction is a life process just like nutrition, respiration and other
processes but is not so essential as compared to them.
How does reproduction ensure continuity of species?
-> The process of reproduction ensures continuity of species.
-> It helps to produce some sort of variation in the organism’s body so that they
can survive in changing niches.
-> Reproduction enable evolutions.
-> Reproduction provides a common basic body structure and design to the
progeny with subtle changes, thus the progeny produced as a result of
reproduction is similar to the parent but not identicle.

WHY DO ORGANISM OF SAME SPECIES LOOK ALIKE? ->

-> there are three main ways, variation occurs in organisms :-
1. Crossing over.
2. DNA Copying.
3. Random fusion of gametes.
-> the organism of a same species look similar due to a basic body design that
they inherit. For similar body designs, they produce similar blueprints, this can
only be done by a mechanism in which the basic body design produces a replica of
it. this mechanism in organisms is known as DNA Replication (DNA Copying)
-> As we know that the nucleus contains chromosomes which carry the features
of inheritance from one generation to the next in the form of DNA.
-> DNA copying is an essential phenomenon in which the organism passes the
inheritant characters from one gen to the other.
-> Similar copy of DNA’s are produced in DNA copying, with similar composition or
similar genes for the production of similar characters.
-> the genes are some segments of DNA which synthesize specific kind of
proteins, if the information in the genes are changed, then they will produce
different proteins and consequently different features.
-> cells usually employ chemicals to build copied of the DNA, this process
produced two similar copies of the DNA in a reproducing cell which are similar to
each other and comes to two daughter cells. Therefore, DNA copying is
accompanied with the formation of another cellular apparatus.
-> these two daughter cells have the copy of the same DNA and thus are
completely identical but not similar In genetic makeup. As no biochemical process
is completely accurate it can result in the formation of differences during DNA
copying, these differences are known as variations.
-> some of these copies might have such drastic variations that they fail to survive
and eventually dies whereas some variations become a source for evolution.

Asexual reproduction ->

-> The production of new organisms from a single parent without the use of
gametes is called asexual reproduction. In this type of reproduction the parent
body simply separates and produce new organism.
-> it is of 6 types :-
1. Binary fission & multiple fission
2. Fragmentation
3. Regenaration
4. Budding
5. Spore formation
6. Vegetative propagatation

-> Asexual reproduction follow mitotic cell division.

1. Fission ->
-> The division of a unicellular organism into two daughter cell is known as fission.
(i) Binary fission
-> In binary fission a parent body simply divides to form two daughter cells.
-> It is shown in unicellular organisms like amoeba, paramecium and leishmania.
BINARY FISSION IN AMOEBA -> [ IMP ]
-> Amoeba reproduces through fission in which it divides to form two daughter
cells
-> When amoeba reach its maximum size on growth, then first, its nucleus divides
into two parts.
-> After that the cytoplasm of amoeba divides into two parts, each starting to
surround the nucleus.
-> In this way amoeba divides to form two small amoebae.
-> The two daughter amoebae then, grows to full size by eating food.
-> This type of fission takes place in any place and is also known as irregular
fission.

BINARY FISSION IN

PARAMECIUM ->
-> Paramecium is unicellular organism which short thread like structure known as
cilia all around its surface.
-> A fully grown paramecium divides its body into two parts to form two smaller
paramecia.
-> This happens when the nucleus and the cytoplasm divides itself to form two
daughter cells.
BINARY FISSION IN PLANARIA ->
-> Planaria is a protozoan unicellular organism, which is a parasite and causes the
disease known as kala-azar (black fever or leishmaniasis)
-> Leishmania is a well organized animal with a whip like structure known as
flagellum at is one end.
-> In leishmania, the splitting of parent takes place in a definite plane with
respect to the flagellum at its end.
MULTIPLE FISSION ->
-> In multiple fission, the parent body divides to form many new organisms.this
type of fission is shown in plasmodium.
->It happens when a protective layer of cyst is formed in unfavourable
conditions.
-> Inside the cyst, the nucleus of the cells splits several times to form smaller
nucleuses, they get covered with some cytoplasm around them to form many
daughter cells.
->When a favourable condition arises, the cyst breaks up to release all the
daughter cells into the surrounding each forming a new organism.
MULTIPLE FISSION IN PLASMODIUM ->
-> Plasmodium is a protozoan which is a malarial parasite that spreads malaria in
human beings.
-> Malarial parasite plasmodium is carried by anopheles mosquito from one
person to the other.
2. Budding ->
-> In budding, a small outgrowth is grown which on growing detaches from the
parent body to form new organism. It is shown in hydra and yeast.
BUDDING IN HYDRA ->
-> Hydra is a simple multicellular organism which reproduces through budding
(due to the presence of regenerative cells).
-> In hydra a small outgrowth called bud, forms on one side of its body by
repeated mitotic division of its cells.
-> The bud gradually grows mouth and tentacles of its own.
-> Finally this new baby hydra is allowed to separate from the parent  .
-> the bud formed in hydra is multicellular too.
BUDDING IN YEAST ->
-> Yeast is a tiny, unicellular, non-green plant which is a fungus.
-> It reproduces through budding in which a small protuberance occurs on the cell
wall.
-> the nucleus of the parent divides to form two parts and one part is allowed to
move into the bud.
-> Finally the bud detaches from the parent yeast to form new organism.
-> In some cases, the budding is so fast that the buds starts forming their own
buds and all of them remain attached to the parent yeast forming a chain of yeast
plants.

-> In some organisms like sponges and corals, the buds remain attached to the
parent body and do not separate thus, forming a colony of sponges and corals.
3. Spore formation ->
-> In spore formation, the parent plant produces hundreds of microscopic spore
which are stored in a protective covering and are released when it bursts, these
spores when lands on damp and warm conditions start to germinate and
produce new plants.
-> It is shown in organisms like rhizopus (bread mould- fungus) , mucor, ferns and
mosses.
-> The spores are always present in our sorroundings, but they are too small to be
seen with naked eyes, for example if we keep a moist bread in open for a few
days then we will see a white cottony substance which later turns black
commonly known as bread mould or rhizopus.
-> The bread mould consists of a fine thread like projection called hyphae (non
reproductive part) and a knob like structure known as sporangia (reproductive
part) which contains the spores in it, when it bursts, the spores are released.
-> spore formation is used by multicellular as well as unicellular organism,
unicellular – bacteria and multicellular-rhizopus and mucor etc.
4. Regeneration ->
-> Regeneration is a process in which an organism, when accidentally cut grows
back into full size from the cut parts in all respects, it is shown in organisms like
hydra and planaria.
-> If hydra and planaria somehow get cut, they can regrow into full size from
those cut parts only.
REGENERATION IN PLANARIA ->
-> planaria is a flatworm which is found in freshwater, ponds and slow moving
streams.
-> If the body of planaria somehow gets cut, they can regenerate into complete
planaria from the cut parts.
-> in this way one planaria worm regenerates to form 3 planaria worms from the
cut parts.
But, regeneration is not simply reproduction this is because most simple
animals would not depend on being cut into pieces to reproduce, it can be used
to produce only those organism which have a relatively simpler body
organization consisting of a few specialized cells. But in complex multicellular
animals, specialized cells makes up tissue which then forms a full organ system
and have a very high degree of organization in their body. Thus, they cannot
reproduce through regeneration.
HOW DOES REGENERATION TAKES PLACE?
-> The regeneration of an organism occurs by the process of growth and
development.
-> the cells of the cut body parts, divide rapidly to make a ball of cells. The cells
present in this ball move to their specific places.
-> these cells when attain their positions, divide to form tissues and then organs.
-> these organs then make up a full organ system and a new organism is
produced.
5. Fragmentation ->
-> Some multicellular organism break up into smaller pieces (fragments) on
maturing, this is known as fragmentation, it is shown by spirogyra and sea
anemones.
-> These pieces or fragments, then grow and form a new organism.
-> This process occurs naturally,when the parent cells attain maturity.
FRAGMENTATION IN SPIROGRA ->
-> Spirogyra is a green, filamentous algae plant which is found in ponds, lakes
etc.
-> Spirogyra simply breaks into two or more fragments on maturing. And each
fragment then grows into a new spirogyra.
-> one spirogyra divides to form 3 spirogyra on maturing.

-> The main difference between fission and fragmentation is that fission is carried
out by unicellular organism whereas fragmentation is carried out by simple
multicellular organism.
6. Vegetative propagation ->
-> it occurs only in plants, especially those who have lost their ability to produce
seeds. The plants are produced without the help of reproductive organs.
-> It involves the growth of buds often present on the old parts of the plant to
form new plants, when proper conditions, like moisture, warmth is present.
-> for example, if we take the stem of an old plant which can be found in fields,
and bury it in the soil before rainfall, then by getting rainwater you will observe
new plants from from that area which could be made possible due to the buds
present on the old stem of leaves.
VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION IN BRYOPHYLLUM ->
-> Buds are present on the stems as well as the leaves of bryophyllum on its
edges which could develop into new plants.
-> If we tend to plant a broken stem of bryophyllum in the soil, then we would be
able to see new plants coming from the plant.
-> The leaves of bryophyllum have buds on its edges or margins. These buds may
detach from the leaves and fall to the ground which would produce new
organism.
-> Sometimes even before a leaf drops from a bryophyllum,we can see new
plantlets already growing around it, when such a mature leaf falls on the ground,
then each plantlet grows into new plants.
-> Begonia also reproduces using this method.
ARTIFICIAL VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION ->
-> the process of growth of many plants, from one plant by man made methods is
known as artificial vegetative propagation. It is done by :-
-> Cutting
-> Layering
-> Grafting
1. Cutting :-
-> when a small part of a plant having buds is cut with a sharp knife is known as
cutting, it may be stem, roots or even leaf but it should be taken care that it has
buds.
-> When this plant part, having bud is buried in the moist soil, then after a few ays
new plants grow from those buds, the new plants are exactly similar to the
parent plant.
-> The plants like rose, crystanthemum, grapes, sugarcane, banana use this
process.
2. Layering :-
-> In this method, the branch is pulled towards the ground, and a part of it is
covered with moist soil leaving the tip of the branch exposed to the air.
-> after some time you will see that new roots have developed to become new
plant.
-> when subtle changes have occurred, the branch is cut off so that the new plant
grows on its own.
-> many plants like jasmine, strawberry, raspberry, hibiscus, bougainvillea use
this process.
3. Grafting :-
-> Grafting is a method in which the cut stems of two different plant are joined
together in such a way that the two stems join and grow as a single plant.
(i) the cut stem of the plant having the roots is known as stock.
(ii) the cut stem of the plant without roots is known scion.
-> in this method the two plants are chosen to be stock and scion, the stems are
cut in a slanting way and the scion is placed over the stock.
-> the cut surfaces of stock and scion are covered with cloth or polythene, so that
no bacteria or fungus enters it and also to prevent loss of water.
-> the two stems are joined by their cambium layer because it is responsible for
growth.
-> the cut soon heals and one plant is formed, the two stems now grow as one
plant.
-> it is practiced in plants like apple, peach and apricots.
ADVANTAGES OF GRAFTING :-
1. Grafting enables us to combine the most desirable characteristics from the two
plants.
2. It enables to obtain flowers with different desired characteristics.
3. Produce varieties of seedless fruits.

ADVANTAGES OF VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION -> [ CBSE 2022, 2017, 2013 ]

1. The new plants produced from this method are exactly like parent plants.
2. Vegetative propagation is a fast and cheap process.
3. The plants produced do not need much labour.
4. Many plants can be grown from one single plant.
5. Even the plants which cannot produce seeds can propagate through this
method.

TISSUE CULTURE (MICROPROPAGATION) ->

-> the production of new plants from a small piece of plant tissue removed from
the growing tips of a plant in a suitable medium is known as tissue culture.
STEPS USED IN TISSUE CULTURE ->
1. A small piece of plant tissue is taken from the growing point of the plant and
kept in a jelly like substance known as agar which contains nutrients and plant
hormones, due to its effect the tissue divide rapidly to form a shapeless lump of
cells known as callus.
2. The callus is then transferred to another jelly containing suitable plant
hormones to stimulate the growth of roots.
3. The callus with roots is then put on yet another jelly to stimulate the growth in
shoots.
4. The callus having roots and shoots separates into tiny plantlets.
5. The plantlets thus produced, are transplanted into pots or soil for further
growth.
-> this type of culture is used in ornamental plants like dahlia, carnation and
crystanthemum.
ADVANTAGES OF TISSUE CULTURE [ CBSE 2017 & 2019 ] ->
1. Tissue culture is a very rapid technique.
2. The new plants produced are disease free.
3. Tissue culture can grow plant all round the year irrespective of season or
weather.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION -> [ EVERY CHILD’S FANTASY UNLIKE ME :) -> (ME INNOCENT) ]

1. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS ->

-> in plants the main sex organs are present in the middle within the flower,
flowering plants are known as angiosperms.
-> the male sex parent (adroecium or stamen) in the flowering plants is known as
stamen, which consists of a stalk called filament and a swollen top known as
anther, anther makes and stores the pollen grains (male gametes) in them.
Usually anthers contain 4 pollen sacs in which the pollen grains are made. Initially
these pollen grains are uninucleate but soon they become 2-3 nucleate and forms
two gametes when surrounded by some cytoplasm. Thus each pollen grain
produces two male gametes.
-> The female sex parent (gynoecium or pistil) is known as pistil which is a flask
shaped organ made of three parts, namely stigma, style and ovary. The stigma is
a sticky surface which is so to capture the pollen grain landing on it, the ovary is
the swollen part of the carpel which contains ovules in them, which inturn
contains embryosac that finally contains the female gametes.
-> flowers are mainly of two types :- unisexual and bisexual
1. Unisexual flower :- flowers having either stamen or pistil are known as
unisexual flowers, for example papaya and watermelon. They exhibit cross
pollination.
2. Bixeual flowers :- flowers having both stamen and pistil are known as bisexual
flowers for example hibiscus and mustard. They exhibit self pollination.
PARTS OF A FLOWER :-
1. Receptacle :- the base of a flower to which all the parts of the flower are
attached.
2. Sepals :- green, leaf like structures in the outermost part of the flower are
known as sepals, all the sepals collectively are known as calyx, they protect the
flower in initial stages of development.
3. Petals :- the colourful parts of the flower are known as petals, all the petals
collectively are known as corolla. They have a major function to attract
pollinators or insect for pollination. They are not essential parts of the flower.
-> in plants, the fusion of male and female gametes take place inside the
embryosac, which is present in the ovules.
POLLINATION ->
-> the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of the stamen to the stigma of the
pistil is known as pollination.
-> Pollination is significant as it supplies the pollen grains to the female
reproductive part of the plant.
-> It produces variations In the organism when cross pollination takes place.
-> the main agents allowing pollination are wind, water, animals etc.
TYPES OF POLLINATION ->
1. Self pollination -> it involves the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to
the stigma of the same plant or flower in the same plant.
2. Cross pollination -> it involves the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of
one flower to the stigma of another flower of same species.
FERTILIZATION IN PLANTS ->
1. Pollination results in the deposition of the pollen grain over the stigma of the
carpel.
2. The pollen grain absorb water, swell and then germinate to produce pollen
tubes.
3. The pollen tube grows into the stigma, to the style and then moves to the
ovary.
4. Two male gametes are formed inside the tube during its growth through the
style.
5. After reaching the ovary, pollen tube enters the ovule through the micropyle,
where its tip finally pierces the egg apparatus end of the embryosac and ruptures
to release the two male gametes into the embryosac.
6. A mature embryosac contains of an egg, three antipodal cells, two synergids
and two polar nuclei.
7. During the act of fertilization, one male gametes fuses with the egg cell to
produce a zygote, this process in known as syngamy.
8. The other male gamete fuses with the two polar nuclei to produce a triplod
endosperm, this process is known triple fusion.
9. As fertilization takes place twice in flowering plants, this mechanism is known
as double fertilization.
POST FERTILIZATION CHANGES ->
1. The fertilized egg divides several times to form an embryo within the ovule.
2. The ovule develops a tough coat is gradually converted into seed.
3. The ovary of the flower develops to become a fruit with seeds inside it.
4. The other parts of the plant, like sepals, petals degenerate and fall off.
SEED AND ITS STRUCTURE ->
-> a seed is a hard and protective unit of a plant which contains the embryo
inside it, which is used to grow a new plant.
-> the part of the baby plant which develops into shoot is known as plumule.
-> the part of the baby plant which develops into root is known as radicle.
-> the part of the seed which stores food for the baby plant is known as
cotyledon.
-> the baby plants are in dormant state, which when provided with water and
suitable condition grows into a new plant.
-> the outer protective covering of the seed is known as testa.
-> the inner protective covering of the seed is known as tegmen.
GERMINATION OF SEES ->
-> the seeds are dormant In nature and can stay inactive for long periods, when
they are supplied with water and other important conditions, they begin to grow.
-> the germination starts when the water is absorbed by the seed, due to which
it swells and bursts, this water helps the enzymes to function in the seed, the
enzyme digests the food in cotyledons and make it soluble, this soluble food
makes the plumule and radicle grow.
-> the radicle of the seed grow first to form roots, which anchors the plant and
also helps it to absorb the nutrients from soil.
-> other developments in the seed happens and, it form a plant in due time

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS [ Moment every child waits for! Unlike me

:) (me innocent) ]
-> humans are unisexual organisms, having either male reproductive organ or the
female reproductive organ. The structures present in both male and female are
different and distinct from each other.
-> the reproductive systems of male and female can be divided into primary and
secondary sex organs.
-> the primary sex organs are gonads, which produce gametes or sex cells and
secretes sex hormones, it is testes in males.
-> the primary sex organs in female are the gonads known as ovaries which
produces gametes and hormones.
-> the secondary sex organs include the ducts and glands which help is
transportation of gametes in reproductive processes, they do not produce any
hormone or gametes.

PUBERTY? ->
-> puberty is an age of human males and females at which the reproductive
organs become function and mature, and the gonads starts producing gametes
and sex hormones.
-> it is attained at the age between 13-14 is males and 10-12 in females.

-> in males the puberty is hit when the testes starts producing testosterone and
the development of secondary sexual characters takes place due to it. the same
happens in females, but they produce estrogen, and these changes in females
makes her eligible to bear a baby.
SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERS IN MALES ->
1. Enlargement of penis.
2. Growth of pubic hair under armpits and genital area.
3. Cracking of voice due to enlargement of larynx.
4. Widening of shoulders and muscle development.
SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERS IN FEMALES ->
1. Onset of mensuration.
2. Growth of breasts
3. Pubic hair under armpits and genital area.
4. Broadening of pelvis.

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM ->

1. Testis :- the human male reproductive
system consists of a pair of testis lying
outside of the body in a pouch like structure
known as scrotum, it produces male
gametes and male sex hormone.
2. scrotum :- the scrotum is a pouch like
structure that hangs between our legs, the
two testis lie in this scrotum. This structure
acts as a thermoregulator and provides an
optimum temperature for the formation of sperms which is 1-3oC lower than the
body temperature.
-> if somehow the testis are not able descent into the scrotum then, the person
has to face a delayed puberty.
3. Vas deferns :- this is a straight tube, which carries the sperms to the seminal
vesicles, where it is temporarily stored and mixed with mucus and a watery
alkaline fluid containing fructose.
4. Seminal vesicles :- these are a pair of glands which secretes mucus and a
watery alkaline fluid (containing fructose) during ejaculation.
5. Prostate gland :- it also secretes mucus and a slightly alkaline fluid which is
released during ejaculation.
6. Cowper’s gland :- It secrets mucus and alkaline fluid into the urethra.
7. Urethra :- it is a long tube which arises from the urinary bladed carrying urine,
which runs down to the penis and allows the release of sperms containing the
secretions of both the seminal vesicles. It is a common passage for both urine and
sperm.
8. Penis :- it is a long, thick muscular organ made up of mostly erectile tissue,
during sexual intercourse these erectile tissue gets filled with blood and makes
the penis erect and ready for reproduction.
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURE ->
1. Ovaries :- each human female has a pair of ovaries located in the lower part of
abdominal cavity near the kidneys, they
are connected to the uterus and produce
the female gamete as well as female sex
hormones. Each ovary is composed of
ovarian follicles which contains thousands
of immature egg cells during birth.
-> females after attaining puberty,
produced one egg every month.
2. Fallopian tubes (uterus) :- these are a
pair of long tubes arising from each ovary
an carrying the egg from ovary to the uterus for implantation, it is the site of
fertilization where the fusion of male and female gametes occur.
3. Uterus :- the uterus is a pear shaped organ that lies behind the bladder, if
fertilization takes place then the embryo gets attached to the walls of uterus till
birth
4. Vagina :- vagina is a muscular tube whose walls are elastic and adapted to
receive penis from the males, they are also adapted to delivery the baby at the
time of birth, thus, vagina is known as birth canal.
-> the female gamete called ova or egg is much bigger than sperm having a lot of
cytoplasm and stores food.

MENSTRUAL CYCLE IN FEMALES ->

-> in human females, ovulation takes place on 14th day of the beginning of
menstrual cycle of 28 days, after attaining puberty.
-> before ovulation, the inner lining of the uterus becomes thick and soft with lots
of blood capillaries in it. these changes are necessary as if fertilization occurs,
implantation will occur on the inner lining of uterus. This implanted embryo
grows into full size by absorbing the water and minerals from the mother’s blood
via these blood capillaries.
-> if however the sperm is not available for ovulation, no fertilization occurs and
thus the blood capillaries formed will be of no use too.
-> within a day, the unfertilized ovum dies and the uterus lining also breaks down
containing a lot of blood vessels.
-> as the uterus lining contains blood capillaries, blood also come out through
vagina in the form of bleeding.
-> this process is known as mensuration.
-> mensuration stops when the female attain pregnancy, this is because all the
blood capillaries are used by the embryo to derive its nutrients.
-> the onset of menstrual cycle in females is known as menarche, this happens at
the age of 12.
-> the stoppage of menstrual cycle in females is known as menopause, it occurs at
the age of 45-50 years.
PLACENTA AND ITS FUNCTION ->
-> after, implantation, a disc like structure develop between the uterus wall and
the embryo which is called placenta. It is through the placenta that the exchange
of nutrients, gases and waste products takes place. It has blood spaces on the
mother’s side and villi on the baby’s side.

FERTILIZATION ->
1.during copulation, the human male inserts the penis into vagina of the female
and releasing male gametes (sperm) into it.
2. The sperms are highly active and mobile, so they move up through the cervix
into the uterus.
3. From uterus, the sperms reach the oviducts where the egg cell released by the
ovary fuses with the male gamete to form a new zygote.

HOW DOES AMOUNT OF DNA REMAIN SAME IN SEXUAL REPRODUCTION ? ->

-> in sexual reproduction, the genetic material (DNA) from the gametes combines
together to form a new cell called zygote. In this process, the DNA does not get
doubles but remains same as the parent. This is because, in the gametes only half
the number of DNA is present as compared to the normal body’s. so, when the
male and female gamete fuses with each other, the new cell, zygote will have the
normal chromosome count.
POST FERTILIZATION CHANGES IN HUMANS ->
-> after the fusion, the zygote undergoes repeated divisions as it moves down to
the uterus. It starts dividing and form a multicellular ball of cells known as
cleavage.
-> the young embryo formed as a result of cleavage is now called blastocyst which
gets imbedded in the uterine wall.
-> the young embryo develops its spinal cord first, hen forms a foetus etc.

BIRTH CONTROL ->

1. Physical barrier
2. Chemical barrier
3. Surgical method
4. Natural method
5. IUCD
1. Barrier method :-
Physical barriers that help prevent the entry of the sperm into female genital
tract.
(i) condoms :- these are thin, rubbers used by man to cover this erect penis. It is
simple and prevent any kind of sexually transmitted diseases.
(ii) femidoms :- it is a thin rubber tube that is fit inside the vagina which is used by
females.

(iii) cervical caps :- these are flexible, rubber caps that is fitted over to the cervix
2. Chemical methods :- these are tablets and hormonal preparations which are
placed in the vagina, these disrupt and kills the sperms.
(i) oral pills :- these are mainly hormonal preparations and contains estrogen and
progesterone, these pills prevent the development of egg and affect the secretion
of FSH secreted by pituitary glands.

(ii) vaginal pills :- these are drug preparations which contain spermicides and are
used by women.
3. IUCD :-
these are contraceptive devices made of copper, plastics or steel, as copper T is
inserted into a women’s uterus, it prevents ovulation and implantation of
embryo. In its long term effect, it causes irritation in the uterus.
4. Natural method :-
adopting abstinence, and refusing to practice reproduction.
5. Surgical method:-
1. Tubectomy :- when the two oviducts on the either ovaries are cut and tied by
surgical operation. This prevents ovulation.
2. Vasectomy :- when the small portion of vas deferns of the parent is cut and are
tied such that it prevents the sperm to come out.
-> tubectomy and vasectomy are modes of sterilization.

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES ->

-> the diseases which are spread due to sexual contact with your infected partner
is known as STDs.
-> the STDs are divided as bacterial and viral diseases
-> Bacterials STDs :- Gonorrhoea & syphilis
-> Viral STDs :- AIDS (HIV) & Warts
1. The most common symptoms of STDs is burning sensation while urination and
sores in the genital areas.
2. AIDS is caused by a virus called HIV, it damages the body’s immune system and
the person becomes weak and cannot protect himself. It does not have any cure
in existence.

- written by Aswad

THE END