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Rigid Body Dynamics
Building up from first principles and simple scenarios, this comprehensive introduction
to rigid body dynamics gradually introduces readers to tools to address involved real-
world problems, and cutting-edge research topics. Using a unique blend of conceptual,
theoretical, and practical approaches, concepts are developed and rigorously applied to
practical examples in a consistent and understandable way. It includes discussion of
real-world applications including robotics and vehicle dynamics, and over 40 thought-
provoking fully worked examples to cement readers’ understanding.
Providing a wealth of resources allowing readers to confidently self-assess – includ-
ing over 100 problems with solutions, over 400 high-quality multiple choice questions,
and end-of-chapter puzzles dealing with everyday situations – this is an ideal compan-
ion for undergraduate students in aerospace, civil, and mechanical engineering.
Joaquim A. Batlle is Emeritus Professor of Mechanical Engineering at the Universitat

Politècnica de Catalunya, and a member of the Royal Academy of Sciences and Arts
of Barcelona.
Ana Barjau Condomines is Associate Professor of Mechanical Engineering at the
Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya.
“As a teacher of mechanics to engineering graduate students for more than 30 years, I have
always been inspired by the particular clear and rigorous style followed by the authors to
present the concepts and ideas of mechanics. This second volume in this series on mechanics of
particles and rigid bodies culminates their work in collecting a lifelong experience into this
book series. The explicit notation and language and the numerous examples and exercises make
it a perfect learning companion. This book on dynamics, along with its kinematics companion,
are my first choices as teaching reference books.”
Javier Ros, Public University of Navarre (UPNA)
“A rigorous and thorough account of the dynamics of systems of rigid bodies, this book is an
invaluable reference for the practitioner and a foundational teaching guide for the student. A
treasure trove of examples, exercises and quizzes provides the necessary additional scaffolding
for a real understanding of the subject.”
Juan Reyero, greaterskies.com
“Rigid Body Dynamics is a textbook of classical mechanics highly recommended for engineering
students, because the principles of rigid body dynamics are applied to practical cases. The authors
present a textbook following the style of their previous work (Rigid Body Kinematics), of which
this textbook is a natural continuation. The textbook is beautifully illustrated with realistic
schemes that make a clear and easily understandable text. . .”
Maria Rosario Isabel Lopez Hermoso, University of Barcelona
“This comprehensive introduction to rigid body dynamics is a tour de force. The information
contained in it is clearly the outcome of distilling a lot of information over years, to come out with
an outstandingly clear text with a connecting thread so well designed that no gap is left in the
discussion. Every single point is perfectly motivated and proved. The beautifully illustrated
examples and exercises are an excellent complement to the theoretical part. As a result, this book
is ideal not only for the classroom but also for self-study. From start to finish, it is an instant
classic and, from my point of view, one of the very best on the topic.”
Federico Thomas, Spanish National Research Council (CSIC)
Rigid Body Dynamics
JOAQUIM A. BATLLE
Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona
ANA BARJAU CONDOMINES

Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Barcelona
University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom
One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA
477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia
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Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of
education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence.
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781108842136
DOI: 10.1017/9781108896191
© Joaquim A. Batlle and Ana Barjau Condomines 2022
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2022
Printed in the United Kingdom by TJ Books Limited, Padstow Cornwall
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library.
ISBN 978-1-108-84213-6 Hardback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy
of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
Contents
Preface page ix
List of Abbreviations xii
1 Particle Dynamics 1
1.1 Fundamental Assumptions Underlying Newtonian Dynamics 1
1.2 Galilean and Non-Galilean Reference Frames 3
1.3 Dynamics of a Free Particle: Newton’s First Law (Principle of Inertia) 6
1.4 Dynamics of Interacting Particles 7
1.5 Closing the Formulation of Dynamics: From Mach’s Axiomatics to
Newton’s Laws, and Principle of Determinacy 11
1.6 Usual Galilean Reference Frames 12
1.7 Interaction Forces between Particles: Kinematic Dependency 13
1.8 Contact Forces between Particles and Extended Bodies 15
1.9 Formulation of Interaction Forces 16
1.10 Characterization and Limit Conditions of Constraint Forces:
Friction Forces 22
1.11 Dynamics in Non-Galilean Reference Frames: Inertial Forces 28
1.12 Examples 31
Appendix 1A: Gravitational Field Outside and Inside the Earth’s Surface 36
Appendix 1B: Dynamics in the Terrestrial Reference Frame (TRF) 39
Quiz Questions 42
Exercises 61
Puzzles 69
Quiz Questions: Answers 72
Exercises: Results 72
Puzzles: Solutions 75
2 Interaction Forces between Rigid Bodies 79

2.1 Torsor of a System of Forces 80
2.2 Formulation of Interaction Torsors: Gravitational Torsor, and Torsion
Springs, Dampers, and Drivers 82
2.3 Constraint Torsor between Two Rigid Bodies: Indeterminacy and
Ill-Conditioning 85
v
vi Contents
2.4 Constraint Torsors between Rigid Bodies: Analytical

Characterization 94
2.5 Constraint Auxiliary Elements 101
2.6 Constraints in Multibody Systems: Indeterminacy and
Ill-Conditioning 109
2.7 Limit Conditions in Multiple-Point Unilateral Constraints: Contact Loss
and Overturning 117
2.8 Additional Limit Conditions: Sliding, Rolling, and Pivoting 120
Appendix 2A: Gravitational Moments 124
Quiz Questions 126
Puzzles 145
3 Mass Distribution 151

3.1 Center of Mass 151
3.2 Analytical Calculation of the Center of Mass: Pappus–Guldin
Theorems 153
3.3 Inertia Tensor 158
3.4 Steiner’s Theorem 162
3.5 Rotation of Axes 166
3.6 Principal Directions of Inertia: Symmetrical and Spherical Rotors 167
3.7 Practical Tips to Calculate the Inertia Tensor about a Point Q 174
3.8 Inertia Ellipsoid 179
Quiz Questions 183
Exercises 196
4 Vector Theorems 202

4.1 Linear Momentum Theorem in Galilean Reference Frames 203
4.2 Angular Momentum Theorem in Galilean Reference Frames 206
4.3 Barycentric Decomposition of the Angular Momentum 212
4.4 Angular Momentum of a Rigid Body 214
4.5 Dynamic Properties of the Principal Axes of Inertia (PAI) 227
4.6 Time Integral of the Vector Theorems: Force Impulse and
Angular Impulse 234
4.7 Vector Theorems in General Non-Galilean Reference Frames 238
Appendix 4A: Static and Dynamic Balancing of a Rotor 244
Quiz Questions 248
Exercises 276
Puzzles 302
Contents vii

5 Work–Energy Theorem 316

5.1 Work–Energy Theorem: Kinetic Energy, Work and Power done
by a Force 317
5.2 Barycentric Decomposition of the Kinetic Energy 319
5.3 Work–Energy Theorem in Non-Galilean Reference Frames with
Translational Motion Relative to a Galilean Frame 320
5.4 Kinetic Energy of a Rigid Body 322
5.5 Work Associated with the Internal Forces 327
5.6 Work Associated with the Forces on a Rigid Body 333
5.7 Work Associated with External Constraint and Friction Forces 334
5.8 Work Associated with Conservative Forces: Conservative Systems 336
5.9 Potential Energy 338
5.10 One-DoF Systems with Constant Mechanical Energy: Equilibrium
Configurations and Stability 344
5.11 The Utopia of Perpetual Motion 348
5.12 Work–Energy Theorem in Non-Galilean Reference Frames 353
Appendix 5A: Rotation Stability in a Free Rigid Body 357
Quiz Questions 361
Exercises 383
Puzzles 398
6 The Method of Virtual Power 406

6.1 D’Alembert Inertial Forces: Formulation of the Method
of Virtual Power 406
6.2 The Equations of Motion through the MVP 408
6.3 The Constraint Forces through the MVP 411
6.4 Torsor of D’Alembert Inertial Forces in a Rigid Body 414
Quiz Questions 425
Exercises 440
Puzzles 454
7 Lagrange’s Equations 463

7.1 Generalized Forces in the Method of Virtual Power 463
7.2 Components of the Generalized D’Alembert Inertial Force 464
viii Contents
7.3 Components of the Generalized Conservative Force 467

7.4 Lagrange’s Equations 468
7.5 Constraint Forces from Lagrange’s Equations 472
7.6 Lagrange’s Equations with Multipliers 474
7.7 Hamilton’s Principle 478
Appendix 7A: Equilibrium Configurations 479
Quiz Questions 482
Exercises 494
8 Introduction to Percussive Dynamics 504

8.1 Introduction to Percussive Problems 504
8.2 Percussive Behavior of Constraints 510
8.3 Percussions Associated with Dry Friction 514
8.4 Percussive Formulation of the Vector Theorems 515
8.5 Percussion Center 519
8.6 Percussive Formulation of the Work–Energy Theorem 520
8.7 Energy Balance: Newton’s Restitution Rule 523
8.8 Percussive Formulation of the Method of Virtual Power 531
8.9 Percussive Formulation of Lagrange’s Equations 533
8.10 Multiple-Point Collisions 537
Appendix 8A: Rough Collisions 540
Quiz Questions 544
Exercises 563
Puzzles 574
Bibliography 579
Further Reading 579
Index 580
Preface
Origin and Scope
Rigid Body Dynamics provides all the tools necessary to solve the dynamics of systems
of rigid bodies in three dimensions. Its contents cover the syllabus of the last two-thirds
of a year-long course for advanced undergraduate students. The first third of such a
course corresponds to rigid body kinematics and receives an exhaustive treatment in our
other text, Rigid Body Kinematics, available from the same publisher. We have taught
this course at the School of Industrial Engineering of the Universitat Politècnica de
Catalunya (UPC) for many years.
There are many good texts on dynamics. However, after more than 40 cumulated
years of teaching a subject, many a lecturer will tend to develop a view of how the
subject taught can be best presented. Writing a textbook may be seen as the last step in
honing that view. Our book was meant not just to produce a text fully covering a
syllabus as taught, but also to uphold both rigor and generality. In the end we wish to
present our readers with a tool that allows them to face any rigid body dynamics
problems they might encounter in different fields of engineering, such as robotics,
automotion, and biomechanics.
Though initially intended for an undergraduate course, the book may be used in
courses for graduate students, or as a reference for practitioners and even researchers.
Prerequisites
The reader should be acquainted with algebra and calculus involving scalar functions
and vectors, and have a solid background in kinematics.
Main Features
This textbook deals basically with the dynamics of multibody systems moving in three
dimensions. Planar dynamics and statics appear as particular applications of that general
case. The main focus is on the vector approach of mechanics, though we also include an
introduction to analytical mechanics (Lagrange’s equations).
ix
x Preface
The notation deserves a special comment. We wanted our notation to be both explicit
and self-sufficient (as the IUPAC chemical nomenclature!), meaning that the details
needed to fully understand every term in an equation would always be present. For that
reason, we opted for a very precise notation that allows readers to know exactly “where
they are.” In particular, we systematically include the reference frame as a subscript in
all variables that are frame-dependent. In classical mechanics, that information is of
paramount importance, as the laws of dynamics are not written in the same way in
inertial and noninertial frames.
Our long teaching experience tells us that students like to skip proofs and simply
practice with the equations on application examples. Notwithstanding this, one needs to
fully understand every term in an equation in order to apply it successfully. This is why
we organize the presentation of every new equation (method or theorem) according to
the same sequence, namely we:
define accurately each term that appears in the theorem (or method) so that the
reader is able to calculate it;
write down the theorem;
give the proof after the equation (theorem or method) is written, isolated from the
text (so it is both easy to skip it and to come back to it later).
Advanced topics are presented in appendices. They may be overlooked without
impairing comprehension of the following chapters.
There is hardly a page without a figure: they help understand and visualize concepts,
theorems, and their properties. Every theorem or method is illustrated by many solved
examples, and a long list of multiple-choice quizzes and application exercises (both
with answers or results). Finally, puzzles are proposed at the end of most chapters. They
reflect realistic everyday situations and are fully solved and commented on. Each one
includes at least one figure.
Content Description
The book begins with a presentation of vector dynamics, starting with Newton’s laws of
particle dynamics. We focus on vector theorems, complemented by the method of
virtual power and the work–energy theorem. For the sake of generality, all theorems are
formulated both in inertial and noninertial reference frames.
Chapter 1 is devoted to the principles of Newtonian mechanics, which govern the
dynamics of particles. Unlike most textbooks in mechanics, we present Mach’s “empir-
ical propositions” as an alternative to Newton’s laws, and discuss the equivalences
between both approaches. The most usual interactions between particles are then
described and formulated (when possible).
Chapter 2 describes the interactions between rigid bodies with a particular emphasis
on constraint forces. It includes the rigorous treatment of links with total and tangent
redundancy, and proposes a systematic tool to analyze them. This formulation is
original and is not found in any other textbooks dealing with this subject.
Preface xi
Chapter 3 introduces all concepts related to the mass distribution of the system
(center of mass and inertia tensor about a point) needed to apply the vector theorems
that solve the dynamics of a rigid body. We provide a few theorems that help to
calculate those elements, and analyze the consequences of the mass distribution geom-
etry on them.
Chapter 4 constitutes the core of this textbook. It introduces the vector theorems for
the case of systems with constant matter: the linear momentum theorem (LMT) and the
angular momentum theorem (AMT). Both relate the rate of change of a vector associ-
ated with the system (the linear momentum and the angular momentum about a point,
respectively) to the net interactions (net force in the LMT, net moment in the AMT)
exerted on the system. We pay particular attention to rotational dynamics, where the
behavior of rigid bodies is often counterintuitive. The dynamic role of the principal axes
of inertia is discussed through several didactic examples.
Chapter 5 is devoted to the work–energy theorem. This theorem plays an important
role in physics: it is the bridge linking mechanics to many other branches (such as
electromagnetism and thermodynamics) as it deals with energy – a magnitude defined
and used in all of them.
As a first step toward analytical dynamics, Chapter 6 presents the method of virtual
power, central and instrumental in many areas of the theory of machines and mechan-
isms, particularly in 2D (planar) situations. Its analytically systematized version leads
us to the Lagrange equations, which are presented in Chapter 7. They are specially
designed to find equations of motion, information indispensable in automation and
robotics. They are also the gateway to analytical dynamics.
Finally, Chapter 8 concludes the book with an introduction to percussive dynamics
that presents the percussive version of the procedures of dynamics: vector theorems, the
energy theorem, the virtual power method, and the Lagrange equations. Newton’s
restitution rule, used extensively in the scientific literature but not always in a consistent
way, is revisited with a rigor unusual in many texts on classical mechanics.
Acknowledgments
A textbook is never a project disconnected from its academic context. Rather it is the
result of countless interactions between the authors and others, involved in one way or
another in their lectures on the subject. Members of the teaching team and students over
the past 30 years have had a positive influence on the way we present the subject today.
Our thanks go to all of them.
We are also grateful for the detailed work done by a few exceptional reviewers, who
went through the draft versions of this book. Their comments and suggestions have
been precious to us.
Last but not least, we would like to extend our gratitude to two Cambridge University
Press publishers, who consistently provided us with first-class assistance throughout the
elaborate process of putting this text together. In that, Julia Ford, Stephen Elliot, Jenny
van der Meijden and Niranjana Harikrishnan deserve a very special mention.
Abbreviations
AMT angular momentum theorem

CAE constraint auxiliary element
CAI central axis of inertia
CoR coefficient of restitution
DoIC degree of ill-conditioning
DoF degree of freedom
ICR instantaneous center of rotation
ISA instantaneous screw axis
LMT linear momentum theorem
MVP method of virtual power
PAI principal axis of inertia
PC percussion center
RBK rigid body kinematics
WET work–energy theorem
xii
1 Particle Dynamics
Particle dynamics is the starting point for the vector formulation of dynamics. It was
first formulated by Isaac Newton through three fundamental laws (Newton’s laws of
motion), which are the core of the Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Isaac
Newton’s major work). These laws have been reformulated many times since they were
published, not only to adapt the language to a more modern and understandable form
(and that includes using mathematical formulations not existing in Newton’s times) but
also to overcome several axiomatic issues as “are those laws independent? (is the first
law a particular case of the second law?),” “are they laws or definitions? (is the second
one a law or just a definition of force?).” Though these laws are widely known and
used, their deep understanding is not straightforward. Concepts such as mass and force,
which are at the core of that formulation, are not at all simple, and have been criticized
by many scientists over the centuries.
Ernst Mach’s axiomatization of Newtonian mechanics (presented in his book The
Science of Mechanics) is among the most important reformulations, and it is the one we
will present in this chapter. It does not mean that it is the “final” formulation: it has also
been subjected to criticism by other scientists, and reformulated in turn!
Mach’s new axiomatization is based on three empirical propositions. We will show
that, together with the consideration of the properties of space and time and a precise
definition of the concepts mass and force, those principles lead to Newton’s laws of
motion. Once this is proved, we will stick to Newton’s formulation.
The fundamental law governing particle dynamics (Newton’s second law) is pre-
sented both in Galilean and non-Galilean reference frames. A discussion on the frames
which appear to behave as Galilean ones (according to the scope of the problem under
study) is also included.
Finally, we present the most usual interactions acting on particles and provide a
formulation for the gravitational attraction, forces associated with springs and dampers,
friction, and a description of constraint forces.
1.1 Fundamental Assumptions Underlying Newtonian Dynamics
Newtonian dynamics rely on a few definitions and laws (assumptions that cannot be
proved) from which many useful theorems may be deduced. There is not a unique way
of formulating those laws. Though Newton was the first to lay the framework for
1
2 Particle Dynamics
classical mechanics, other scientists have proposed different systems of axioms and
definitions to overcome the drawbacks of Newton’s formulation.
Whatever the formulation is, there are, however, two principles which are assumed in
Newtonian mechanics, and which deserve some comments: the principle of causality
and the principle of absolute simultaneity.
Principle of Causality
Dynamics studies the motion of material objects as a function of the physical factors
affecting them. In the Newtonian formulation, those physical factors are mainly their
mass and the forces acting on the objects. Whatever the forces may be, all definitions
assume implicitly that there is a correlation between them and the object’s motion. This
correlation is sometimes described in a simplistic way as a causality relationship:
“Dynamics is the study of the motion of bodies caused by the action of forces.”
The equations of Newtonian dynamics are differential equations relating the second
order derivative of the objects generalized coordinates to the coordinates and their first
derivatives, all of them at a same time instant. This simultaneity of motion variables
makes it difficult (and formally impossible) to distinguish “causes” and “effects,” as the
former should actually precede the latter. That distinction becomes a convention.
Principle of Absolute Simultaneity

The principle of absolute simultaneity1 states, in short, that a sequence (order of
succession) of events is the same for all observers (or independent from the reference
frame). In Newton’s conception of the universe, absolute time goes hand in hand with
absolute space: they constitute an immutable stage where physical events occur, they
are independent external realities.
Other Assumptions
Last but not least: as in any scientific theory, Newtonian dynamics have a limited field
of application (directly related to the experimental limitations of the seventeenth
century!). Outside that field, it yields inaccurate results. The main limitations are:
Low-speed dynamics: objects moving with speeds comparable to the speed of

light cannot be treated successfully with this theory.
Medium length scale dynamics: molecular dynamics and long-reach astronomy
are also out of scope.
Electromagnetic phenomena are excluded.
1
Batlle, J.A. and Barjau Condomines, A. (2019) Rigid Body Kinematics, Cambridge University Press,
chapter 1.
1.2 Galilean and Non-Galilean Reference Frames
When we enter the field of Newtonian dynamics, we are confronted with a surprising
fact: all reference frames are not equivalent for the formulation of the dynamical
equations (or of the fundamental laws of Newtonian dynamics).
The methods presented in kinematics (composition of movements, rigid body
kinematics. . .) apply equally in all reference frames.
The situation in dynamics is quite different: as dynamics intends to relate movement
and “causes,” as the movement depends in principle on the reference frame, the
“causes” may vary from one frame to another.
What can be the “cause” of motion (or motion change) of a particle?2 Certainly, the
existence of other material objects, which may interact with the particle (that is, have an
effect on its motion). But the observation of reality suggests other factors that might
have a consequence on the particle motion. Given a frame where the observations or
experiments are performed, those factors are:
the particular position of the interacting system in the reference frame;

the particular orientation of the interacting system in the reference frame;
the particular time instant of the observations.
The following example is an illustration of those three possibilities. We assume that
the reader is acquainted with some very basic aspects of particle dynamics (to be
presented later on in this chapter).
► Example 1.1 Let’s consider the following situations:

(a) Particle P is initially at rest on a small smooth horizontal surface (whose area is much
smaller than that of the Earth) close to the Earth’s surface (Fig. 1.1a). If we consider
only the horizontal motion (thus reducing the problem from 3D to 2D), the absence of
roughness is equivalent to zero horizontal interaction, and P behaves as a free particle.
(b) Particle P is initially launched with a given speed in any horizontal direction and
from any location on a smooth horizontal surface close to the Earth’s surface
(Fig. 1.1b). Under these circumstances, P is again a free particle.
(c) Particle P is in a smooth slot in a support and attached to two identical springs with
ends fixed to that support (Fig. 1.1c). If we consider only the rectilinear motion in
the slot, the particle and the springs constitute the interacting system. The support
will be glued anywhere and with any orientation on a horizontal surface close to the
Earth’s surface.
2
Newton did not formulate the laws for “particles” but for “bodies.” However, updated formulations of those
laws talk of “particles” (short denomination for a mass-point object). Further on, we will present the concept
“particle” as the simplest model for a material object without any considerations on its size, as far as its
orientation is irrelevant for the situation under study.
4 Particle Dynamics
Reference A) rest
frames: B) constant velocity E) constant
TC C) constant acceleration Plat : F) variable
D) variable acceleration
smooth and horizontal
train car platform
Experiments:
TC or Plat (a) TC or Plat (b) TC or Plat (c)

P Q’
P initially P
at rest Q
Fig. 1.1
In situations (1) and (2), we want to observe the evolution of the initial state (initial
position and velocity of the particle). In situation (3) we will be interested in the
equilibrium position of the particle.
The reference frame will be that of the smooth surface (which coincides with the
springs support in the third situation). Let’s consider different choices:
A. Reference frame at rest with respect to the Earth.

B. Reference frame with a uniform rectilinear motion with respect to the Earth.
C. Reference frame with a rectilinear motion with constant acceleration with respect to
the Earth.
D. Reference frame with a rectilinear motion with variable acceleration with respect to
the Earth.
E. Reference frame rotating with constant angular velocity about a fixed axis with
respect to the Earth.
F. Reference frame rotating with variable angular velocity about a fixed axis with
respect to the Earth.
The reference frames A to D can be pictured as a train car with different motions on a
horizontal straight railway, while the reference frames E and F can be assimilated to a
platform rotating about an Earth-fixed axis.
Train cars and rotating platforms are observation reference frames familiar enough to
the reader, so that the result of those three thought experiments can be correctly guessed.
For instance, leaving the particle P at rest on a train car in different positions will have
no consequences, whereas the time instant when this is done does have an influence on
Table 1.1
Reference Position Orientation Time
frame dependence dependence dependence
A NO NO NO
B NO NO NO
C NO YES NO
D NO YES YES
E YES YES NO
F YES YES YES
the observations when the train car has a variable velocity relative to the Earth.
However, when leaving P at rest on a rotating platform, different initial positions yield
different results: for instance, if located just on the platform center, the particle stays
at rest.
Table 1.1 summarizes the influence of position, orientation and time instant for
experiments (1), (2), and (3) in reference frames A to F. A “YES” means that at
least one of the experiments does show a dependence on position/orientation/
time instant. ◄
Example 1.1 suggests that there are reference frames (A and B) which do not have
any influence on the motion of particles because, as far as mechanical phenomena are
concerned:
All positions are equivalent: space is homogeneous.

All orientations are equivalent: space is isotropic.
All time instants are equivalent: time is uniform.
Those reference are called inertial or Galilean reference frames.
Example 1.1 also suggests the existence of reference frames (C to F) where some of
those properties are not fulfilled: those are non-inertial or non-Galilean reference
frames.
The formulation of the dynamics of a mechanical system will be simpler in a Galilean
reference frame because it will have to take into account just the interactions between
material objects (which will not depend on location, orientation, and time instant).
However, proving the existence of at least one Galilean reference frame is strictly
impossible, hence it is taken as a principle: the principle of existence of a Galilean
reference frame.3
3
In Newton’s Principia Mathematica, Galilean reference frames do not appear explicitly. Instead, Newton
shows the difference between true motion and relative motion, which correspond to motion with respect to a
Galilean and to a non-Galilean reference frame, respectively.
6 Particle Dynamics
1.3 Dynamics of a Free Particle: Newton’s First Law (Principle of Inertia)
The simplest dynamical problem is that of a free particle (a particle free from
interactions) observed from a Galilean reference frame. A free particle is an idealiza-
tion: all real particles interact with other material objects located at a finite distance from
them. Solving the dynamics of a free particle amounts to a thought experiment, but it is
an interesting and useful one.
The properties of space and time in a Galilean reference frame partially restrict the
possible motions of a free particle. If it is initially at rest, it will remain at rest
(Fig. 1.2a): not doing so would imply choosing a direction for the initial motion, and
that would contradict the isotropy of space. If its initial velocity is nonzero, its motion
will have to be rectilinear (if it does not stop) though not necessarily uniform
(Fig. 1.2b), as a curvature in its trajectory would again imply choosing a direction
(the intrinsic normal direction). Summarizing: the properties of space and time in a
Galilean reference frame (RGal) restrict the possible motion of the free particle
according to anRGal ðPÞ ¼ 0.
However, those properties do not imply that asRGal ðPÞ ¼ 0. The particle could either
increase or decrease its speed or even stop without contradicting any of them: this
would be equivalent to imagine that space has a constant intrinsic friction equal in all
locations and directions.
Stating that asRGal ðPÞ ¼ 0, then, is formulating a principle (or a law): Newton’s first
law (principle of inertia). That principle is usually expressed mathematically as
aRGal ðPfree Þ ¼ 0: (1.1)

This law is based on everyday experience, and had already been formulated (among
others, by Galileo): if there are no interactions, rectilinear motion with constant speed
lasts forever (Fig. 1.2b).
RGal (a)
initially
Pfree at rest
space isotropyremains at rest
RGal the (b)

initially n of
i re ctio otion
moving d tial m
ini
Pfree space rectilinear motion
isotropy (while in motion)
Newton’s First Law uniform

(Principle of Inertia) rectilinear motion
Fig. 1.2
The analytical expression of Newton’s first law (Eq. (1.1)) shows that there is an
infinite number of Galilean reference frames (provided that we accept the principle of
existence of one Galilean reference frame): all those having a uniform translation
relative to the postulated one. The proof is straightforward through a composition of
accelerations: between any of those reference frames and the initial one, the transporta-
tion and the Coriolis accelerations are zero.
1.4 Dynamics of Interacting Particles
Galileo’s Principle of Relativity

We have just proved that all Galilean reference frames share the law governing the
dynamics of a free particle.4 When seeking for the law governing the dynamics of
interacting particles, a logical question is: Will the Galilean reference frames also share
that law? Answering that question is equivalent to establishing a principle of relativity
(a principle defining the set of reference frames for which a scientific law is valid).
In Newtonian mechanics, that principle is the special principle of relativity, also
known as Galileo’s principle of relativity, as it was first enunciated by Galileo in 1632.
A modern formulation of that principle is: The laws governing all mechanical phenom-
ena are the same in all reference frames where the Newton’s first law is fulfilled.
A consequence of that principle is that Galilean reference frames are not distinguishable
through mechanical observations.5
Mach’s Empirical Propositions

Though the vector formulation of dynamics proposed by Newton is the most wide-
spread one and its application is certainly more straightforward (as interaction forces are
a more practical representation of interactions than interaction accelerations because of
their symmetry, as will be seen later on), it has many drawbacks from an axiomatic
point of view. It relies on the concepts mass and force, but the definition of the former is
unclear and that of the latter is actually implicit.
The two axioms introduced so far (Newton’s first law and the principle of relativity)
do not mention mass or force, while Newton’s second and third laws do explicitly
4
Actually, Newton’s first law provides an alternative definition for Galilean reference frames (initially
defined as those where space is homogeneous and isotropic, and time is uniform): a reference frame R is
Galilean when Newton’s first law is fulfilled in R.
5
This is actually how Galileo presents the principle: He proposes to “shut yourself up with some friend in the
main cabin below decks on some large ship,” proceed to observe several different mechanical phenomena,
and then repeat the same observations but “have the ship proceed with any speed you like, so long as the
motion is uniform and not fluctuating this way and that.” He then affirms that “you will discover not the
least change in all the effects named, nor could you tell from any of them whether the ship was moving or
standing still,” which is equivalent to saying that the laws governing the mechanical phenomena are exactly
the same in all reference frames whose relative motion is a uniform translation (Galilei, G. [1953] Dialogue
Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, trans. Stillman Drake).
8 Particle Dynamics
include these concepts. Mach’s formulation relies exclusively on interaction

accelerations, and for this reason it will be presented before completing
Newton’s axioms.
Ernst Mach’s axiomatization is based on three empirical propositions and two
definitions. It is an alternative formulation whose application is not straightforward,
but it has two important advantages:
it is based on accelerations, which are observable (and measurable) variables, and

for that reason they correspond to “real” concepts;
it allows us to define in a rigorous way mass and force.
The first empirical proposition considers two isolated interacting particles P and Q.
If observed from a Galilean reference frame, their accelerations will be exclusively the
consequence of their mutual interaction. If aQ!P P!Q
RGal and aRGal are the acceleration of P
under the action of Q and that of Q under the action of P, respectively, the proposition
states that those accelerations will be either attractive or repulsive, in the direction of
QP (Fig. 1.3). Mathematically, this can be expressed as
aQ!P aP!Q
RGal ¼ RGal
, QP aQ!P
RGal ¼ 0: (1.2)
aQ!P aP!Q
RGal RGal
This proposition is followed by the definition of inertial mass-ratio of two particles

ðmQ =mP Þ:
Q!P
mQ aRGal
: (1.3)
mP aP!Q RGal
If we choose a particular value mP for a particle, the mass of the other particles may be
determined straightaway.
Equation
(1.3) provides an interpretation for the inertial mass. As the product
mP aQ!P
RGal
is equal to mP aQ!P , it follows that the particle which acquires a higher
RGal
acceleration has a lower mass, and vice versa. Hence, the inertial mass is a measure of
the resistance of a particle to change its state of motion.
RGal
Q a P oQ
attra
ctive
a QoP
Q P
a P oQ repu
lsive P
a QoP
Fig. 1.3
The second empirical proposition is a principle of separation, and it guarantees that

the determination of the ratio between the interaction accelerations of any pair of
isolated particles (hence that of the mass-ratios) is unique through two statements:
A. the acceleration-ratio associated with a pair of particles is constant and inde-
pendent from the interaction phenomenon
Q!P
a mQ
RGal ¼ constant , ¼ constant, (1.4)
a P!Q mP
RGal
B. the acceleration-ratio is separable, that is, it can be expressed as the product of

two independent acceleration-ratios.
This last idea is illustrated in Fig. 1.4 and can be formulated mathematically as:
Q!P Q!S S!P
a a a m m m
RGal ¼ RGal
RGal
, Q ¼ Q S: (1.5)
aP!Q aS!Q aP!S RGal
mP mS mP
RGal RGal
The third empirical proposition states that the accelerations that any number of
particles (Q, S, T. . .) induce in a particle P are independent from each other. It is
actually a principle of superposition, it is illustrated in Fig. 1.5 and can be formulated
mathematically as:
ðQ;SÞ!P
aRGal ¼ aQ!P
RGal þ aRGal :
S!P
(1.6)
The combination between the principle of separation and the principle of superpos-
ition for the interaction accelerations yields a principle of superposition for the mass of
particles. If QP is the particle obtained when P and Q share the same location (two
S
RGal
Principle of
Separation
mP a P o Q
a PoQ =
mQ a Qo P mP mS mP
Q =
a Q oP mQ mQ mS
P
S S
RGal
a Q oS RGal a PoS
m SoQ mP a Po S
a S o Q mS = a Q o S =
mS a S o P
Q a
Q Q a S oP
P P
Fig. 1.4
10 Particle Dynamics
dimensionless particles become one single particle in that case), its mass is the addition
of those of P and Q: mPQ ¼ mP þ mQ .
Finally, Mach introduces the concept of interaction force through a definition:
FQ!P mP aQ!P
RGal : (1.7)
The definition of interaction force is extremely useful: It describes

the
interaction

between two particles through just one single magnitude as FQ!P ¼ FP!Q .

This is not possible when we use accelerations as main magnitude to describe that
interaction:
P!Q as the interacting particles acquire different accelerations
(aQ!P
RGal
6¼ a
RGal ), we require two related magnitudes for a complete description
(Fig. 1.6).
isolated interactions on P
S (a)
Principle of (c)
RGal superposition
a S oP equal S
Q simultaneous
RGal interactions on P
P
S a (Q, S) oP
(b)
Q
a S oP
RGal
P
a Q oP
Q
a Q oP equal
P
Fig. 1.5
RGal mP a P o Q
= mP a Qo P = mQ a P o Q
P oQ mQ a Q o P
Q a
a QoP
P F Q oP = F PoQ
F Po Q symmetrical description
F Q oP of a two-particle interaction
Fig. 1.6
1.5 From Mach’s Axiomatics to Newton’s Laws 11
1.5 Closing the Formulation of Dynamics: From Mach’s Axiomatics

to Newton’s Laws, and Principle of Determinacy
Newton’s laws of motion can be derived from Mach’s propositions and definitions.
Newton’s Third Law

The first empirical proposition (Eq. (1.2)) and the definition of force (Eq. (1.7)) lead to:
FP!Q mQ aP!Q
RGal ¼ FQ!P , with FQ!P QP ¼ 0, (1.8)
which is Newton’s third law (principle of action and reaction). Note that the inter-
action forces between P and Q fulfill:
FP!Q þ FQ!P ¼ 0, OQ FP!Q þ OP FQ!P ¼ 0, (1.9)
where O is any point. The cross product OP FQ!P defines the moment (or torque)
MðOÞ of force FQ!P about point O. Equations (1.9) show that the resultant force and
the resultant moment (about any point O) of an action–reaction pair of forces are always
a zero (Fig. 1.7).
Newton’s third law provides powerful information about the interaction force
between two particles, and it is considered as the main law by many authors precisely
because it introduces the symmetry in the description of the interaction mentioned
earlier (description of the interaction through one single magnitude).
Newton’s Second Law

The definition of force (Eq. (1.7)) together with Mach’s third empirical proposition
(superposition principle, Eq. (1.6)) lead to:
X
FQ!P ¼ mP aRGal ðPÞ, (1.10)
Q
RGal F P o Q + F Q o P= 0
OQ F P o Q + OP F Q o P= 0
P F Q oP
attra F P o Q
P ctive Q
F Q oP repu
lsive Q
O
F PoQ
Fig. 1.7
which is Newton’s second law (fundamental law of dynamics).6 This formulation

contains a principle of superposition for the interaction forces.
Principle of Determinacy
Whether we adopt Newton’s or Mach’s axiomatics, the principle of determinacy has to
be added to the other laws to complete the formulation of dynamics. It is actually
known as the Newtonian principle of determinacy, though he did not postulate it as a
law but commented on it as an observation. A possible formulation is: “In an isolated
system (undergoing no other interactions but those between the system’s particles), the
particles’ accelerations at each time instant depend exclusively on the system’s mech-
anical state (position and velocity of every particle) at that same time instant.”7 In other
words, the initial mechanical state determines univocally its future evolution. Hence,
this principle states that isolated mechanical systems have no memory.
This principle may seem incompatible with everyday experiences, such as driving a
vehicle, because it is without discussion that its future evolution depends on the driver
and not on the present mechanical state. However, driving a vehicle (or controlling a
system, in general) consists basically of varying the interactions – internal and external –
acting on the system.8 It may also seem incompatible with the existence of “memory”
materials capable of recovering past shapes, but we must keep in mind that those are
very complex systems – with interactions between deformable bodies – whose mech-
anical description is usually over-simplified.
1.6 Usual Galilean Reference Frames
We have defined the Galilean reference frames in three different ways:
those where space is homogeneous and isotropic, and time is uniform;

those where the law of inertia is fulfilled;
those where Newton’s second law is fulfilled.
Checking the first two conditions is impossible, but the third condition provides a
practical check: when studying a particular problem, a reference frame can be con-
sidered to be Galilean if Newton’s second law is fulfilled within the degree of accuracy
sought for in that problem (that is, if the measured acceleration can be justified
exclusively from interaction forces within that degree of accuracy). Hence, accepting
whether a reference frame is Galilean is directly associated with the degree of accuracy
6
This formulation corresponds actually to what appear as Law II (dealing with the interaction of two isolated
particles) and Corollary I (a principle of superposition) in Newton’s Principia Mathematica. Here they have
been merged into one single equation.
7
This formulation is not a literal translation of Newton’s observation but it is totally equivalent.
8
As we will see in Chapter 4, coupling the engine or applying the brakes to the wheels of a vehicle provokes
changes in the wheel–ground interaction forces.
1.7 Interaction Forces: Kinematic Dependency 13
of the calculations. The following reference frames are taken as Galilean ones in
different fields of application.
Terrestrial reference frame (TRF): In short, it is the Earth reference frame. It can
be considered as a Galilean one for the usual short-range applications of mechanical
engineering: machines, ground vehicles. . . However, astronautical applications (such as
the motion of artificial Earth satellites) and other medium-range phenomena reveal its
non-Galilean characteristics: The rotation motion of cyclones and anticyclones, the
rotation of the plane of oscillation of Foucault’s pendulum, the eastward deviation of
projectiles launched to the north/south from the north/south hemisphere, the eastward
deviation of objects falling to the ground. . . Appendix 1B quantifies the non-Galilean
characteristics of the TRF.
Conventional celestial reference frame (CCRF): It contains the Earth’s center of
mass and does not rotate with respect to the distant galaxies (or fixed stars). Relative to
the CCRF, the Earth rotates about its axis with a constant angular velocity of one turn
per sidereal day, which is the time needed by the Earth to complete one turn relative to
the distant galaxies (Appendix 1B).
The CCRF is an acceptable Galilean reference frame in a first approximation for the
astronautics of artificial Earth satellites and for the medium-range phenomena listed in
the TRF comments, but not when studying tides and astronautics of flights to the Moon
and the planets.
International celestial reference frame (ICRF): It is an astronomical reference
frame. It contains the solar system barycenter and does not rotate with respect to the
distant galaxies. It is the usual Galilean reference frame in astronomy and astronautics.
With respect to the ICRF, the Earth rotates about its axis with a constant angular
velocity of one turn per sidereal day, and its center of mass describes an elliptic orbit
(slightly disturbed by the gravitational attraction of the Moon and the planets) with the
Sun as one of its foci.
The International Astronomical Union (IAU) is in charge of the redefinition of
the standard astronomical reference frame (SARF) according to modern high-
precision measurements. As far as Newtonian mechanics is concerned, there is no need
for a more precise definition: The accuracy of the results obtained under the hypothesis
of the ICRF as a Galilean reference frame is comparable to that of the Newtonian
approach.
1.7 Interaction Forces between Particles: Kinematic Dependency
The fundamental equation of dynamics (Newton’s second law, Eq. (1.10) may be used
to predict the acceleration of a particle P from the interaction forces FQ!P exerted on it
(direct dynamics), or to find out what forces would be required to obtain a prescribed
motion for P (inverse dynamics). In the context of engineering, inverse problems in
dynamics are associated with the use of actuators in mechanical systems. The forces
that actuators may introduce between their endpoints to guarantee a given motion may
be an unknown of the problem.
Among the other interaction forces, many of them may be formulated: their value
can be obtained through a mathematical equation (formula) known before solving the
problem. As the unknown in the fundamental equation is the acceleration, those
forces may depend on the position and velocity of the interacting particles. However,
that dependency has to be consistent with all principles and laws of
Newtonian dynamics.
Any formulation we provide will have to include parameters: from the dimensional
point of view, positions [length] and velocity [length/time] cannot yield the dimensions
of the right-hand side of Eq. (1.10). The uniformity of time in Galilean reference frames
restricts those parameters to constant ones. In other words: that principle forbids any
time-dependent formulation of interaction forces.
Restrictions on the Position Dependency (Fig. 1.8)

Because of the homogeneity of space in Galilean reference frames, the depend-
ence of FQ!P on the positions of P and Q cannot be through all the information
contained in their position vectors ORGal P and ORGal Q, but just through their
difference PQ.
Isotropy does not allow a dependency on a particular direction. Thus, only the
distance ρ ¼ PQ is acceptable in the formulation of FQ!P .
Because of the principle of determinacy, the value of FQ!P at any time instant
may only depend on that of ρ at that same time instant.
Restrictions on the Velocity Dependency (Fig. 1.9)

Because of Galileo’s principle of relativity, the dependence of FQ!P on the
velocities of P and Q cannot be through all the information contained in the
vectors vRGal ðPÞ and vRGal ðQÞ separately, but just through their difference:

dQP
ΔvRGal ¼ vRGal ðPÞ vRGal ðQÞ ¼ :
dt RGal
RGal U
P
PQ
OP Q
OQ
O RGal
Fig. 1.8
1.8 Contact Forces between Particles and Extended Bodies 15
Q = f(U, U, 'vn )
RGal FP
v(P)
P
U
Q v(Q)
'vn U
'vU
'v v(Q) v(P)

Fig. 1.9
In general, that difference will have a component parallel to the line PQ and
another one perpendicular to that line: Δv ¼ Δv∥QP þ Δv⊥QP Δvρ þ Δvn .
Isotropy does not allow a dependency on a particular direction not associated
to the existence of the two interacting particles. Isotropy restricts the type of
dependence of FQ!P on Δv. The interaction force may depend on the value of
_ where ρ_ > 0 and ρ_ < 0 describe the separating and the
Δvρ (that is, on ρ,
approaching velocity of particles P and Q, respectively), and on just the
magnitude of jΔvn j (though usual formulations do not depend on that
component).
Because of the principle of determinacy, the value of FQ!P at any time instant
may only depend on those of ρ_ and jΔvn j at that same time instant.
Summarizing: FQ$P ¼ f ðρ, ρ, _ jΔvn jÞ. Note that the values ðρ, ρ_ Þ are the same in all
reference frames (whether Galilean or not), whereas jΔvn j is the same only in Galilean
reference frames but may change when moving to a non-Galilean one. Hence, the
formulation of any interaction depending exclusively on ρ and ρ_ will be shared by all
reference frames.
The usual interactions in mechanical systems do not depend on jΔvn j. Therefore,
only formulations depending on ρ and ρ_ will be considered from now on.
1.8 Contact Forces between Particles and Extended Bodies
So far, we have been considering action–reaction forces between pairs of particles P and
Q. However, the problems found in mechanical engineering do not deal with dimension-
less particles but with extended bodies. The action–reaction forces have to be understood
as interactions between particles belonging to different extended bodies, and this allows
us to consider contact interactions. Those interactions are strictly impossible between a
pair of dimensionless particles P and Q: if in contact, they would become one
single particle.
Contact forces come from the local deformations of the objects in the vicinity of the
contact points. Those deformations are accurately formulated in solid mechanics, but
they cannot be dealt with when objects are modeled as rigid bodies: rigid bodies do not
deform, they are impenetrable.
The modeling of those forces is not possible: consistency with the previous section
leads to the conclusion that they cannot be formulated, and their value becomes an
unknown of the dynamical problem.
Among the contact interactions, there is a subset whose value adapts in order to
guarantee a kinematic restriction. They are the so-called constraint forces, and their
value at every time instant is calculated through Newton’s second law. The number of
independent components (in the three directions of space), however, can be predicted
beforehand from the kinematic restriction they are associated with. The description of
those components is the characterization of the constraint force.
Constraint action–reaction pairs can also appear between particles at a finite distance
ðρ 6¼ 0Þ, provided there is an intermediate element with negligible mass between them
_
guaranteeing a restriction on ρ.
1.9 Formulation of Interaction Forces
The gravitational attraction was the first interaction to be formulated. Though not very
intense, it is an infinite-range interaction, and it is the only one that matters when
studying the motion of celestial objects (such as planets and stars).
Newton formulated the law of universal gravitation at the same time he pro-
posed his three laws. The four laws were based on an important amount of
empirical quantitative data (collected mainly by Tycho Brahe) on the motion of
the planets and their synthetic kinematical description relative to a heliocentric
reference frame given by Kepler’s laws. In short: The planets’ acceleration pointed
toward the Sun and was inversely proportional to the distance squared between
planet and Sun.
Gravitation has a particular status among the interactions considered in engineering
mechanics. On the one hand, it is one of the so-called fundamental interactions in
physics: It is not the result of any underlying phenomena which combine and yield that
interaction; in other words, its formulation is not phenomenological.
On the other hand, it is the only interaction “at a distance” (that is, between
particles separated in space without any intermediate element connecting them). All
other interactions between particles that will be formulated in this section call
for intermediate elements: elements connected to those particles and whose mass is
significatively smaller than that of the particles. In a first approach, then, the mass of
those elements can be neglected, and the force exerted by one particle at the
endpoint of the element is equal, though with opposite sign, to that exerted by the
other particle at the other endpoint. In other words, those two forces fulfill Newton’s
third law, and can be understood as an action–reaction pair of forces between the
particles (Fig. 1.10).
The usual intermediate elements found in mechanical systems are springs, dampers,
and linear actuators. Interactions between particles through those elements are the result
of underlying phenomena whose overall effect on the particles is formulated at a
phenomenological level through empirical models.
Intermediate Element (IE) Q

FPoQ
through the IE
P
negligible mass
FQoP
through the IE
FQoP = FPoQ

Fig 1.10
Gravitational Force
Newton’s law of universal gravitation states that two particles P and Q attract each
other with a force
directly
2 proportional to the product of their masses and inversely

proportional to PQ (Fig. 1.11):

grav mP mQ mP mQ
FP$Q ¼ G0 2 ¼ G0 : (1.11)
PQ ρ2
Strictly speaking, mP and mQ in Eq. (1.11) are the gravitational masses of the
particles. They are conceptually different from the inertial masses, but there is no
empirical evidence so far that they should differ, so they will be treated as one same
thing. The constant parameter G0 in Eq. (1.11) is the universal constant of gravitation
U
Q
mQ
P
mP gravitational attraction
mP m Q
= G0
U2
Fig. 1.11
G0 ¼ 6:67 1011 m3 =ðkg s2 Þ in the International System of Units, SI), and is inde-
pendent from the particles (that is why it is a universal constant).9
grav
The vector FP!Q =mQ is called the gravitational field gP!Q created by P at Q
location. Appendix 1.A presents the formulation of the Earth’s gravitational field.
The universal law of gravitation has been widely discussed because of some very
particular features. On the one hand, and as a result of the identification of inertial mass
and gravitational mass, it predicts a same acceleration (relative to a Galilean reference
frame) for any particle under the same gravitational field. On the other hand, Eq. (1.11)
describes an instantaneous interaction. The direction and intensity of the gravitational
attraction is adjusted instantaneously whatever the distance between the interacting
particles might be: the gravitational field propagates with an infinite speed!10
Interaction Force through Springs

The term spring is used to designate any element with negligible mass responsible for
an interaction force depending exclusively
on the distance between particles (called
spring
“spring length” from now on): FP$Q ¼ f ðρÞ. Springs may introduce either an attrac-
tion or a repulsion between their endpoints.
The most usual case is the linear spring, where the force change associated with a
change of spring length is proportional to that length change through a constant
parameter called the spring constant k:
Δ attraction ðrepulsionÞ force between the spring ends
k : (1.12)
increase ðdecreaseÞ of spring length
Springs constants are always positive. However, the term spring may be used in a
more general sense for any physical phenomenon whose net force is a function of ρ (in
this context, the gravitational force can be seen as a spring). In that case, we will talk of
equivalent spring, and the constant may be negative.
A real spring (not an equivalent one) has a nonzero slack length ρslack (length for
which the force between the spring endpoints is zero). From that state, the spring will
generate an attraction force if the length is increased ðΔρ ¼ ρ ρslack > 0Þ and a
repulsion force if it is decreased ðΔρ < 0Þ.
The force associated with a spring within a mechanical system may evolve from
attraction to repulsion with time. When solving the system dynamics, the spring force is
drawn either as an attraction or a repulsion, and its value is formulated accordingly
(Fig. 1.12).
If the spring force is formulated from a nonzero-tension state (a state where its length
ρ0 is higher or lower than ρslack , and the spring force is F0 ), the choice of its description
as an attraction or a repulsion is made according to the nature of the initial force F0 :
9
The origin and the “constancy” of the fundamental constants are subjects still under discussion nowadays.
Some scientists relate them to our limitations when it comes to measuring the external objective world,
some others claim they might be slowly changing. . .
10
This drawback is solved within Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity.
(a) (b)
'U elong

Frep
Fatt
P k Q
P Q
k Frep +'Frep
Fatt +'Fatt
'U short

'Fatt =k'U elong

'Frep =k'U short
Fig. 1.12
F0 ¼ attraction ) Fspring
att ¼ F0 þ kΔρelong ¼ F0 kΔρshort ,
(1.13)
F0 ¼ repulsion ) Fspring
rep ¼ F0 þ kΔρshort ¼ F0 kΔρelong :
In the context of a particular problem, the spring length has to be expressed as a function
of the generalized coordinates ðq1 , q2 ; . . . , qn Þ describing the system configuration.
► Example 1.2 The linear spring connecting the endpoints of two bars articulated at point
O has a constant k and exerts an attraction force F0 between P and Q when θ ¼ θ0
(Fig. 1.13). For any θ value, then, the spring force is formulated as an attraction force:

spring θ θ0
Fatt ¼ F0 þ kΔρelong ¼ F0 þ 2Lk sin sin :
2 2
spring
Q Fatt
Q
F0 k
spring spring
L Fatt
O T0 attraction
force c
F0
T
P
P L
O
Fig. 1.13
◄
► Example 1.3 The hydraulic cylinder prescribes a motion xðtÞ, and the angular
coordinate θ evolves dynamically. When θ ¼ θ0 and x ¼ x0 , the spring is compressed
and exerts a force F0 between its endpoints (Fig. 1.14).
T
compression F0
for x0 and T0
sliding c k
x(t)
hydraulic
cylinder
Fig. 1.14
As the initial force F0 is a repulsion, the spring force for any configuration will be
formulated as a repulsion force:

r r
Fspring ¼ F0 þ kΔρ ¼ F 0 þ k ð x x 0 Þ þ L tan θ 0 L tan θ
rep short
cos θ0 cos θ

L sin θ0 r L sin θ r
¼ F0 þ k x x 0 þ :
cos θ0 cos θ
In a nonlinear spring, the force change is not proportional to the spring length
change (Fig. 1.15).
spring
Fatt
linear
approx.
F0 U-U0
0 U0 U
0 lengthening
Fig. 1.15
For small length changes around a given length ρ0 , the spring force may be
approximated through a Taylor series up to the linear term:

dF
FðρÞ Fðρ0 Þ þ ðρ ρ0 Þ: (1.14)
dρ ρ0
The derivative dF=dρρ0 can be understood as the constant of an equivalent linear spring
for lengths close to ρ0 .
Interaction Force through Dampers

Dampers with negligible mass exert a force opposite to the approaching or separating
velocity between their endpoints. The force value depends on that velocity, and

damper
sometimes also on the distance ρ between those points: FP$Q ¼ f ðρ, ρ_ Þ.
The most usual case is the linear damper (or viscous friction damper). In those
dampers, the force is strictly proportional to ρ_ through the damper constant, c. As in
springs, the damper force may be an attraction or a repulsion. When the damper is
assembled in parallel with a spring (spring–damper system), the criterion to draw and
formulate that force is the same as that chosen for the spring:
Fdamp
att ¼ c vseparation cρ_ ¼ c vapproaching ,
(1.15)
_ ¼ c vseparation :
rep ¼ c vapproaching cρ
Fdamp
► Example 1.4 The attraction force exerted by the damper in Example 1.2 is

d θ θ
Fdamp
att ¼ c v separation ¼ c _
ρ ¼ c 2L sin ¼ cLθ_ cos : ◄
dt 2 2
► Example 1.5 The repulsion force exerted by the damper in Example 1.3 is

d L sin θ r L r sin θ _
Fdamp ¼ c v separation ¼ c _
ρ ¼ c x ¼ c _
θ þ cx:
rep
dt cos θ cos 2 θ
θr
Actually, the distance between the damper endpoints is L sin cos θ x plus a constant
value, but that constant can be omitted because its time derivative is zero. ◄
Interaction Force through Actuators

An actuator (or driver) is an element able to produce a prescribed motion or a prescribed
interaction according to a predefined time law. Its functioning requires a control system
and an energy source.
Fcyl(t)
Q Fcyl(t) { FQo P

hydraulic cylinder P
(negligible mass)
Fig. 1.16
Frocket(t)
P
idealized rocket
(negligible mass)
Fig.1.17
The most usual actuator between pairs of particles P and Q is the hydraulic cylinder.
As with springs and dampers, the effect it has on P and Q is described as an action–
reaction pair of forces when its mass is negligible (Fig. 1.16). The force Fcyl ðtÞ it
introduces can either be a prescribed function or an unknown whose evolution has to be
adjusted in order to guarantee a prescribed motion ρðtÞ.11
A rocket with negligible mass can be considered as an idealized actuator. It is an
interesting case as it seems to be using just one force of the action–reaction pair to
control the motion of a particle P (Fig. 1.17). This is not so: the reaction force is applied
rocket
to the high-speed gas particles ejected by the rocket in a direction opposite to F ðtÞ.
1.10 Characterization and Limit Conditions of Constraint Forces:

Friction Forces
The forces associated with the contact of a particle P and an extended rigid body are the
consequence of two main features of rigid objects: impenetrability and roughness (that
generates friction). They both may restrict the possible motion of P relative to the
rigid body.
11
Note that the formulation FðtÞ is not consistent with Newtonian axiomatics. Such contradiction is an
oversimplification: The formulation of dynamics of the inner components of actuators is out of the scope of
Newtonian mechanics. However, as these elements are found in most mechanical engineering problems,
not including them in this textbook would be a strong limitation.
1.10 Constraint Forces and Limit Conditions 23
N>0
P
S
rigid
body
Fig. 1.18
Fn>< 0
between
P two surfaces
Fig. 1.19
Particle–Surface Interaction: Force Associated with Impenetrability

The impenetrability of a rigid body S forbids the normal approaching velocity of a
particle P relative to it when they are in contact: vS ðPÞn app ¼ 0. It is a unilateral
restriction, as the separating normal motion is not restricted.
The kinematic constraint vS ðPÞn app ¼ 0 translates into a repulsion normal force N
on P that takes the value required to guarantee that constraint (Fig. 1.18). If that force
did not exist, other interaction forces on the particle could provoke a penetration of P
into the rigid body. As it is a unilateral constraint, the value of N has to be
strictly positive.
The constraint normal force can be formulated as a function of the normal deform-
ation of objects. When that deformation is neglected (hypothesis of rigid body), that
force cannot be formulated, and it becomes an unknown of the dynamical problem.
In unilateral normal forces, a zero value ðN ¼ 0Þ indicates that the contact is about to
be lost. When the N value required to maintain that contact is negative ðN < 0Þ, the
contact is lost and a separating normal motion is actually taking place.
If the particle P motion is restricted by two close surfaces, we say that there is a
bilateral constraint (Fig. 1.19). As an adimensional particle cannot be simultaneously
in contact with two surfaces, we will assume an infinitesimal mutual separation ε ! 0
between them, and P will be either in contact with one surface or the other. In that case,
the normal force on P may have either sign.
► Example 1.6 The particle P is initially at rest relative to a curved ground (Fig. 1.20a).
The normal force on P compensates the weight (otherwise P would penetrate the
ground).
g mg
at rest mg
an v
P
N = mg N > mg
(a) (b)
mg mg
an < g v < g0 an = g v = g0 { v0

N=0 parabola
N < mg
(c) (d) parab =0
 ground
{ 0
mg
an = g v > g0
N=0 parabola
(e)
0
parab >0
Fig. 1.20
If P slides on the ground with speed v (Fig. 1.20b), the value of the normal force is
not the same. The normal acceleration of P relative to the ground is upward, thus N has
to compensate the weight and provide that acceleration: N > mg.
When P reaches the highest position (Fig. 1.20c), its normal acceleration relative to
the ground is downward, so N < mg. If the ground radius of curvature at that location is
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ℜ0 and the speed value is v < gℜ0 , the normal acceleration is an ¼ v2 =ℜ0 < g. As
mg N ¼ mðv2 =ℜ0 Þ and N > 0, the weight compensates the normal force and pro-
vides that acceleration.
If P goes through that position with speed v0 such that v20 =ℜ0 ¼ g, the normal force
is zero, and that indicates that the ground contact is about to be lost. The curvature
radius of the P trajectory is not imposed by the ground curvature but by the speed value
and the weight (Fig. 1.20e).
If v > v0 , the weight will be responsible for a parabolic trajectory with ℜparab > ℜ0 ,
and there will be no ground contact (Fig. 1.20e). ◄
Particle–Surface Interaction: Force Associated with Friction

The roughness of a rigid surface S is responsible for a tangential force (or friction
fric
force) F on the particle P when they are in contact.12 When there is sliding between P
and S (that is, when vslide ðPÞ ¼ vS ðPÞtang 6¼ 0, so there is no kinematic restriction in
that direction), that force is called dynamic or kinetic friction,13 it is opposed to the
sliding velocity when the roughness is isotropic, and it may be formulated as a function
of that velocity.
When there is no relative sliding, the tangential force is called static friction, and it is
a constraint force: its value adapts in order to keep the kinematic restriction
vS ðPÞtang ¼ 0. That force can be modeled as a function of the tangential deformation
of objects. When that deformation is neglected (hypothesis of rigid body), that force
cannot be modeled: it is an unknown of the dynamical problem.
When there is no lubricant between the particle and the surface, Coulomb’s law of
friction (or dry friction model) provides the simplest description for that phenomenon.
If the roughness is isotropic:
fric
The static friction force Fst may have any direction and may take any value
within the range ½0; μs N in order to guarantee the no-sliding restriction
(Fig. 1.21a). The adimmensional constant coefficient μs is called static friction
coefficient. When the friction force required to maintain the kinematical con-
fric
straint is > μs N, the particle slides and F becomes a kinetic friction force.
fric
The kinetic friction force Fkin is opposed to the sliding velocity, and its value is

fric
Fkin ¼ μk N (Fig. 1.21b). The adimmensional coefficient μk is the kinetic
friction coefficient, and it is assumed to be constant.14 Usually μk < μs .
(a) (b)
P N N
P sN vsliding
P kN
P
kinetic
possible static friction force
friction forces
without sliding while sliding
isotropic friction
Fig. 1.21
12
Friction is a phenomenon associated with the roughness of two rigid surfaces in contact. Hence, when
dealing with friction between a rigid body S and a particle, the particle has to be pictured as a small object
with a small flat surface in contact with S.
13
Kinetic friction is also referred to as sliding friction.
14
In a second approach, that coefficient depends on the sliding velocity.
Friction in materials with anisotropic roughness may be modeled through direction-

dependent friction coefficients. For the particular case of orthotropic surfaces (with
different properties along two orthogonal directions), two different friction coefficients
1 2
fric
μs ; μs describe the phenomenon. The allowed range of values for Fst is
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi fric
0; μmean
s N , where μmean
s ¼ μ1s μ2s , and the direction of Fkin is not any more opposed
to the sliding velocity.
When one of the two friction 1 coefficients is much lower than the other μ1s μ2s , a
first approximation with μs 0, μ2s μs yields a simpler model.
When there is lubricant between the particle and the surface ðso jvslide ðPÞj ¼ 6 0Þ, the
kinetic friction force can be formulated as a viscous friction proportional to the sliding

fric
velocity: Fvisc ¼ cvslide . The coefficient c may be a function of the normal constraint force.
Particle–Curve Interaction
The interaction between a rigid curve and a particle P moving along it can be
visualized either as that of a small hollow sphere pierced by a thin wire (Fig. 1.22a),
or a particle moving in a tube with an infinitesimal diameter ε ! 0 (Fig. 1.22b). In
both cases, we will consider that P is in contact with just one side of the wire or the tube
(as was assumed earlier in particles constrained by two close surfaces), hence the
normal force N on P will have any direction on the plane perpendicular to the curve
(Fig. 1.22c).
The friction force between curve and particle may be modeled through Coulomb’s
friction law (Fig. 1.22d,e).
(c) plane of
P possible N
P
rigid guide
(a)
(d) (e)
possible Fstfric
(b) P vsliding
H P kN
fric
Fkin
P sN P sN
P
without sliding while sliding
Fig. 1.22
Fatt (a) Fatt (b)

Fatt Fatt to prevent
P to prevent P
Frep U =L U>0 U =L U>0
Q Q
P P F = 0 for
Frep to prevent
Q U<0
rigid bar
Q U<0 inextensible thread
(negligible mass) (negligible mass)
Fig. 1.23
Constraints between Particles through Intermediate Elements

Two different constraint forces have been introduced so far: the normal force and the
static friction force associated with a single-point contact between a particle and a
surface or a curve force. Following what has been done to introduce interactions “at a
distance” between particles through springs, dampers, and actuators, we will consider
now the possibility of constraints “at a distance” between particles through intermediate
elements with negligible mass.
Constraints between two particles P and Q can be introduced through rigid thin bars
and through inextensible threads. A rigid bar between P and Q generates a bilateral
constraint preventing the particles to approach or separate: ρ_ ¼ 0 (Fig. 1.23a). That
kinematical restriction translates into a pair of repulsion or attraction forces, respectively.
An inextensible thread under tension between P and Q generates a unilateral
constraint preventing just the separation velocity between them, as the thread length
cannot increase (Fig. 1.23b). Hence, a tensioned thread can only transmit attraction
forces between P and Q.
Analytical Characterization of Constraint Forces

The previous description of the constraint forces of a rigid body S on a particle P relies
on the description of the kinematical restrictions they are supposed to guarantee.
Mathematically, this can be expressed as an orthogonality between the force and the
particle allowed motion:
FS!P vS ðPÞ ¼ 0: (1.16)
The description of the velocity of P has to be done from the S reference frame.
Eq. (1.16) is the equation for the straightforward analytical characterization of
single-point constraint forces. Note that there is a one-to-one correspondence between
the nonzero components in FS!P and the zero components in vS ðPÞ.
When the constraint force on P comes from another particle Q through an intermedi-
ate element, the kinematic description has to be done on any reference frame R where
vR ðQÞ ¼ 0.
Characterizing constraint forces and calculating them are two different things. The
former consists on assessing the possibility of existence of those forces, and it does not
depend on the actual motion of the constraining elements (the rigid body S or the
particle Q). Calculating the constraint forces (finding out their values) requires the
application of the laws of dynamics, and the result does depend on the actual motion of
the particle and the constraining elements.
1.11 Dynamics in Non-Galilean Reference Frames: Inertial Forces
Non-Galilean reference frames move with an accelerated translational motion or a rota-

tional motion relative to Galilean ones. The formulation of dynamics in those reference
frames is more complicated than in Galilean ones because space and time do not fulfill
some or all the three properties mentioned in Section 1.2 (homogeneity, isotropy, uniform-
ity). Hence, besides the interaction forces between particles, that formulation includes
terms (called inertial forces) which are location-, orientation- or time- dependent:
X inertia
mP aNGal ðPÞ ¼ FQ!P þ F NGal!P : (1.17)
Q
The acceleration aNGal ðPÞ can be obtained from aGal ðPÞ through a composition of
accelerations.15 If the Galilean reference frame is the absolute (AB) frame, and the
non-Galilean one is the relative (REL) frame:
aNGal ðPÞ ¼ aGal ðPÞ atr ðPÞ aCor ðPÞ: (1.18)
Combining Eq. (1.18) with Newton’s second law (Eq. (1.10)) yields:
X X tr Cor
mP aNGal ðPÞ ¼ FQ!P mP atr ðPÞ mP aCor ðPÞ FQ!P þ F NGal!P þ F NGal!P ,
Q Q
(1.19)
tr Cor
where F NGal!P and F NGal!P are the transportation inertial force and the Coriolis
inertial force, respectively.
The transportation force and the Coriolis force are proportional to the particle mass
(as the gravitational force). The transportation force is location dependent, while the
Coriolis force is velocity dependent. Both forces may depend on singular directions and
may vary along time (different time instants are not equivalent). The lack of space
homogeneity or isotropy, or of time uniformity, found in some of the reference frames
presented in Example 1.1 comes from the transportation or the Coriolis forces that have
to be taken into account in those reference frames.
Coriolis forces become zero in static situations (no motion relative to the non-
Galilean reference frame), but transportation forces persist. For this reason, we develop
15
Batlle, J.A. and Barjau Condomines, A. (2019) Rigid Body Kinematics, Cambridge University Press,
chapter 2.
1.11 Dynamics in Non-Galilean Reference Frames 29
a certain intuitive knowledge concerning the latter. By way of an example, let’s

consider a vehicle accelerating (braking) on a straight road: the car passengers undergo
the effect of the transportation forces (associated with the chassis reference frame)
pushing them backward (forward). In cornering conditions, the passengers are pushed
to the outer side of the road by the centrifugal transportation force.
That intuition may be misleading: it may seem that the transportation forces are
actually associated with being at rest relative to the reference frame, and that the
passenger motion tendency is actually the result of being “physically” transported by
the reference frame.
In general, we are less aware of the Coriolis forces, as they add up to the transporta-
tion ones (when we are moving relative to the non-Galilean reference frame). As they
NGal
are perpendicular to the our relative motion (such as aCor ðPÞ ¼ 2ΩRGal vNGal ðPÞ),
they do not modify the relative speed.
Relationship between Inertial Forces Associated with Non-Galilean

Reference Frames with a Relative Translational Motion
As for particles, the dynamics of rigid bodies may be formulated in Galilean or non-
Galilean reference frames. However, once an initial choice of reference frame has been
made, one may realize that the calculation of some magnitudes (such as angular
momentum, as will be seen in Chapter 4) may be simpler in a frame with a translational
motion (not necessarily rectilinear and uniform) relative to the initial frame. The
formulation of the theorems in the new frame is not complicated, and overall that
second choice may be advantageous. As that new frame does not rotate relative to the
initial one, it will be described as the “Reference frame with a Translational motion and
moving along with point Q”: RTQ in short. Whenever that RTQ is not Galilean, the
inertial forces on each point of the rigid body have to be taken into account.
If the first referenceframe is Galilean,
only transportation forces will have to be
RTQ
considered in the RTQ as ΩRGal ¼ 0 . As all points in the RTQ have exactly the same
motion relative to Gal, the field of inertial forces acting on a system of particles will be
uniform and proportional to the particle masses (Fig. 1.24).
non-Gal
RTQ system
RGal P, mP
RTQ oP mP aRGal(Q)
tr
 
=
Q aRGal(Q)
Fig. 1.24
(a) (b)
RGal non-Gal non-Gal RTQ system
R R P, mP
'( 
tr
oP RTQ oP )
 +

RTQ
Cor

= – mP aR(Q)

aRGal(O)
aR(Q)
:tr Q
O O
Dtr
Fig. 1.25
If the first reference frame is non-Galilean, both the transportation and the Coriolis
tr Cor
inertial forces F NGal!P and F NGal!P have to be taken into account in general even if we do

NGal
not move relative to the RTQ. They are associated with aRGal ðO 2 NGalÞ, Ωtr ¼ ΩRGal

and αtr ¼ αNGal
RGal (Fig. 1.25a).
tr Cor
If we move to the RTQ, the new inertial forces F RTQ!P and F RTQ!P will be different.

0 RTQ
It is always possible to calculate them from aRGal ðQ 2 RTQÞ, Ωtr ¼ ΩRGal and
tr Cor
α0tr ¼ αRTQ
RGal , but they can be obtained from F NGal!P and F NGal!P in a very straightfor-
ward way just by adding one term (Fig. 1.25b):
h i h i
tr Cor tr Cor
F RTQ!P þ F RTQ!P ¼ F NGal!P þ F NGal!P mP aNGal ðQÞ: (1.20)
The additional term that has to be added when moving to the RTQ corresponds to a
uniform force field associated with the transportation force on Q that would have been
required if R were Galilean.
♣ Proof
The inertial forces on P associated with the NGal and the RTQ reference frames are:
tr Cor NGal
F NGal!P þ F NGal!P ¼ mP aRGal ðP 2 NGalÞ 2mP ΩRGal vNGal ðPÞ,
tr Cor RTQ
F RTQ!P þ F RTQ!P ¼ mP aRGal ðP 2 RTQÞ 2mP ΩRGal vRTQ ðPÞ:
Taking into account that the RTQ does not rotate relative to the NGal

RTQ NGal
so ΩRGal ¼ ΩRGal , and that vNGal ðPÞ vRTQ ðPÞ ¼ vNGal ðQÞ,
NGal
aRGal ðP 2 RTQÞ ¼ aNGal ðP 2 RTQÞ þ aRGal ðP 2 NGalÞ þ 2ΩRGal vNGal ðP 2 RTQÞ
NGal
¼ aNGal ðQÞ þ aRGal ðP 2 NGalÞ þ 2ΩRGal vNGal ðQÞ,
1.12 Examples 31
the difference between the inertial forces in those two reference frames becomes:
h i h i
tr Cor tr Cor
F RTQ!P þ F RTQ!P F NGal!P þ F NGal!P ¼ mP aNGal ðQÞ: ♣
1.12 Examples
► Example 1.7 A particle P with mass mP describes a circular trajectory with center O,
radius R, and constant speed v0 on smooth horizontal ground. P is attached to O
through an inextensible thread.
The thread tension T can be calculated through Newton’s second law formulated in
the Galilean ground reference frame E (Fig. 1.26a). As the acceleration of P is
centripetal
with magnitude j a E ð PÞ j ¼ v 2
0 =r , it requires a centripetal force with value
mP v20 =r which is provided exclusively by the thread (as the ground is smooth).
The same result can be obtained with Newton’s second law formulated in the non-

R
Galilean reference frame R that rotates with angular velocity ΩE ¼ v0 =r relative to the
ground (Fig. 1.26b).
The particle is permanently at rest in R, so the zero net force on P has to be zero:
tr Cor
T þ F R!P þ F R!P ¼ 0:
Cor
Here, F R!P ¼ 0 because v R ðPÞ ¼ 0, and the transportation inertial
force is
tr
F R!P ¼ mP Ωtr Ωtr OP , centrifugal with value mP Ω2tr r ¼ mP v20 =r . Hence,
tr
the thread tension has to compensate F R!P , so it is centripetal with that same value.
E smooth horizontal ground E smooth horizontal ground
R at rest in R
r v0 2
v0
R o
tr
P = mP
thread r
T P, mP T
P, mP
O fixed v O
: tr = r0
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.26
The comparison between the dynamical interpretations in these two reference frames
is interesting:
In the rotating frame R, there is static equilibrium, and the thread tension equili-
brates the centrifugal force associated with the non-Galilean behaviour of R.
In the ground reference frame E there is no static equilibrium, and the acceler-
ation has to be provided by the thread tension. ◄
► Example 1.8 A particle P with mass mP slides along a smooth circular wire located
on a vertical plane that rotates with constant angular velocity Ω0 relative to the ground
(Fig. 1.27a).
The equation of motion for the angular coordinate θ that gives the location of P on
the guide and the two components of the constraint force between guide and particle
can be obtained through Newton’s second law formulated in the Galilean ground
reference frame (E):
8 9
€
< R θ RΩ0 sin θ cos θ >
2
X > =
mP aE ðPÞ ¼ F!P ¼ mP g þ Fguide!P ) mP Rθ_ 2 þ RΩ20 sin 2 θ
>
: >
;
2RΩ0 θ_ cos θ
8 9
< mP g sin θ >
> =
¼ mP g cos θ þ F2 :
>
: >
;
F3
The first component is the equation of motion, and the other two yield the value of the
constraint forces.
These results can be obtained through the application of Newton’s second law in the
guide reference frame. As it is a non-Galilean reference frame, the transportation and
the Coriolis forces will have to be included (Fig. 1.27b,c):
(a) (b) (c)

E R R R
g :0const. 2
aREL 2 2 :0r TcosT
O O 1 1
r r T2 aCor RtroP
smooth T F2 rT m:20rsinT
P, m atr
support F3 m2 :0r TcosT
mg 3 RCor
oP
3
:20rsinT
Fig. 1.27
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Rigid Body Dynamics Joaquim A.

Rigid Body Dynamics A Lagrangian Approach Hamad M.

Rigid Dynamics Vol II Analytical Dynamics 16th Edition

Dynamically Coupled Rigid Body Fluid Flow Systems 1st

Dynamically Coupled Rigid Body Fluid Flow Systems 1st

The Fundamental Equations of Dynamic and Its Main

Extended Abstracts Fall 2019 Evgeny Abakumov Anton

Love Your Body A Positive Affirmation Guide for Loving

A Body in the Bookshop 1st Edition Helen Cox

Joaquim A. Batlle is Emeritus Professor of Mechanical Engineering at the Universitat

ANA BARJAU CONDOMINES

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

2 Interaction Forces between Rigid Bodies 79

2.4 Constraint Torsors between Rigid Bodies: Analytical

3 Mass Distribution 151

4 Vector Theorems 202

Exercises: Results 305

5 Work–Energy Theorem 316

6 The Method of Virtual Power 406

7 Lagrange’s Equations 463

7.3 Components of the Generalized Conservative Force 467

8 Introduction to Percussive Dynamics 504

Origin and Scope

AMT angular momentum theorem

1.1 Fundamental Assumptions Underlying Newtonian Dynamics

Principle of Absolute Simultaneity

Low-speed dynamics: objects moving with speeds comparable to the speed of

1.2 Galilean and Non-Galilean Reference Frames

the particular position of the interacting system in the reference frame;

► Example 1.1 Let’s consider the following situations:

train car platform

TC or Plat (a) TC or Plat (b) TC or Plat (c)

A. Reference frame at rest with respect to the Earth.

All positions are equivalent: space is homogeneous.

1.3 Dynamics of a Free Particle: Newton’s First Law (Principle of Inertia)

aRGal ðPfree Þ ¼ 0: (1.1)

space isotropyremains at rest

RGal the (b)

Newton’s First Law uniform

1.4 Dynamics of Interacting Particles

Galileo’s Principle of Relativity

Mach’s Empirical Propositions

include these concepts. Mach’s formulation relies exclusively on interaction

it is based on accelerations, which are observable (and measurable) variables, and

This proposition is followed by the deﬁnition of inertial mass-ratio of two particles

The second empirical proposition is a principle of separation, and it guarantees that

B. the acceleration-ratio is separable, that is, it can be expressed as the product of

The deﬁnition of interaction force is extremely useful: It describes

1.5 Closing the Formulation of Dynamics: From Mach’s Axiomatics

Newton’s Third Law

FP!Q þ FQ!P ¼ 0, OQ FP!Q þ OP FQ!P ¼ 0, (1.9)

Newton’s Second Law

which is Newton’s second law (fundamental law of dynamics).6 This formulation

1.6 Usual Galilean Reference Frames

We have deﬁned the Galilean reference frames in three different ways:

those where space is homogeneous and isotropic, and time is uniform;

1.7 Interaction Forces between Particles: Kinematic Dependency

Restrictions on the Position Dependency (Fig. 1.8)

space isotropyremains at rest

FS!P vS ðPÞ ¼ 0: (1.16)