ADC Unit 01 Merged

Analog and Digital Communication
ETUA22183
Unit 1: Fundamentals of Electronic

Communication Systems
Slides are taken/prepared from:

Principles of Communication Systems, Third
Edition Herbert Taub, Donald L Schilling, Goutam Saha
Students are recommended to read the book thoroughly
Modulation and Multiplexing
Modulation for lower size of radiating antenna and

efficient use of frequency spectrum
Considering diameter of radiating antenna as 0.1 times
the wavelength radiated, 1 GHz signal requires 3 cm
diameter while 4 KHz signal needs 7.5 km!!!
Multiplexing divides resource in such a manner

that it can be used by more than one. Frequency
Division Multiplexing (FDM) and Time Division
Multiplexing (TDM) are important for electronic
communication.
Transmission Media
• Open wire lines : 0.04 dB/km

(3 dB loss refers to signal strength attenuated by 50
percent. Here, this happens after 3/0.04=75 km of
transmission)
• Paired cables : 0.05 dB/km
• Quad cables : 0.25 dB/km, higher bandwidth(BW)
• Coaxial cables : 5 dB/km, more BW than Quad
• Radio : Atmosphere or free space
• Waveguide : 5 dB/100m, very high BW
• Optical fiber : 0.3 dB/km, very very high BW
Frequency Spectrum
Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) and
Channel Capacity
SNR : Relative strength of signal to noise.
dBW is signal strength referenced to 1 W, dBm to 1 mW

Important issue : Bandwidth-SNR trade-off
Channel capacity refers to capacity of a channel to

support a particular rate of information
Signal Energy and Power
Signal Energy :
Average Power :
Normalized Power :
dB and dBm scale
Power in dB= 10 log10(Power in Watt/Pref)
Here Pref is equal to 1 W

Note: Here Pref is generally not written, it is written here for the
understanding purpose.
Power in dBm= 10 log10(Power in Watt/Pref)
Here Pref is equal to 1 mW= 1*10-3 Watt

An Example
Shifting, Inversion, Time Scaling,
Convolution
Convolution :
Correlation
Aperiodic :
Periodic :
Correlation
Coefficient :
Power &
Correlation :
Autocorrelation
An Example
Example : Continued
Another Example
Example Continued
Fourier Series Expansion - 1
where,
where,
such that,
One can also write,
One sided and two sided plot of spectral amplitude

An Example
Find Fourier Coefficients of periodic pulse train as

shown below:
Example - Continued
Example - Discussion
Sampling function,
Fourier Series Properties -1
Time shift :
Time inversion :
Time scaling :
Derivative
where,
Integration
Response to Linear System
Note that,
Normalized Power and Fourier
Expansion
For first two

Frequency
components
Extending the logic,
Or,
Power Spectral Density (PSD)
Normalized power,
Power Spectral Density,
Also,
Power in a frequency range,
PSD of output of linear system,

Fourier Transform
pair
Input-Output in Fourier domain
Or, such that,
Alternate representation,
Example
Another Example
Fourier Transform Properties -1
Convolution,
if,
Parseval’s Theorem,
Distortion due to band limiting
(a) Low Pass Filter (b) High Pass Filter

Fourier Transform and Autocorrelation
For periodic signal, autocorrelation and PSD

are Fourier Transform pair.
For nonperiodic signal, autocorrelation and

energy density are Fourier Transform pair
Another Example
Orthogonal Representation
Orthogonality
over an interval
Any arbitrary function f(x) can be written as,
where, Fourier
Series is
Orthogonal
complete set
Orthonormal if,
Signal and Vectors
Orthonormal functions :
Arbitrary function,
while,
while,
Thank You
Analog and Digital Communication
ETUA22183
Unit 2 Amplitude and Frequency Modulation
slides are taken/prepared from:

Principles of Communication Systems, Third
Edition Herbert Taub, Donald L Schilling, Goutam Saha
Students are recommended to read the book thoroughly
Amplitude Modulation
Need for Frequency Translation
• Frequency Multiplexing : Different message bearing

signal in different frequency range.
• Practicability of Antennas : Antenna size directly
depends on wavelength or inversely to frequency. A higher
frequency range gives lower antenna size.
• Narrowbanding :Converts wideband signal to a
relative narrowband signal which solves many
implementation issues.
• Common Processing : For shifting signal to a
common frequency range to use same processing blocks.
Frequency Translation Method - 1
Consider,
message signal
Consider, an
auxiliary
(carrier) signal
Multiplying,
Extending previous logic for message signal which consists

of multiple sinusoids (as is the case from Fourier
decomposition)
Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier
(DSB-SC) Modulation
DSB-SC Modulator - 1
Balanced Modulator :
Nonlinear Modulator : Previous figure AM block

replaced by nonlinear device
Output of first block

second block
Summer o/p
Simplifying
Band Pass Filtering DSB-SC o/p

Switching Modulator :
Band Pass Filtering DSB-SC output

DSB-SC Demodulator - 1
Coherent Detection : Reverse frequency translation by

multiplying with carrier and then Low Pass Filtering.
If local carrier has phase shift , w.r.t. original then from

above demodulated message is No message
for . Also with phase ampltude changes.
If local carrier frequency is different then
demodulated signal is proportional to
and has waxing and waning.
Need to be precisely synchronous
Squaring synchronizer : Obtaining synchronous

carrier from squaring, filtering, and divide by two.
Double Sideband with Carrier(DSB-C)
Amplitude of carrier
modulated according
to message signal.
(a) Sinusoidal carrier

(b) Modulating waveform
(c) Amplitude Modulated signal
DSB-C Modulator
Switching
Modulator :
Switching in previous fig. approximated by pulse train
BPF that passes will bring out and carrier.

DSB-C Demodulator - 1
Envelop
Detector :
Also from considering diode switching

as a series of pulse train (as done
before) and Low Pass Filtering to get
message component.
Maximum Allowable Modulation for
Rectifier Detection
Required
Percentage Modulation
Spectrum and Power Efficiency
Carrier Power
Useful power i.e.

sideband power
Power efficiency
For tone
modulation
Vestigial Side Band (VSB) Modulation
In VSB, vestige or appendage is added to SSB spectrum.

VSB Demodulation
Demodulation is done by multiplying the signal with a

coherent local carrier and Low Pass Filtering.
Final demodulated output =

If is constant over frequency band of
interest demodulated output is proportional to m(t).
VSB and Television Broadcasting
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation(QAM)
QAM is similar to DSB-SC but sends two message

signals over the same spectrum.
Demodulation uses coherent detection.
Similarly,
LPF brings out message signals.

Thank You
1 @ McGraw-Hill Education
Principles of Communication
Systems, Third Edition
Herbert Taub, Donald L Schilling,

Goutam Saha
Chapter 1 : Part A
Introduction : Signal and Spectra
PROPRIETARY MATERIAL. © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this PowerPoint slide may be displayed, reproduced or
distributed in any form or by any means, without the prior written permission of the publisher, or used beyond the limited distribution to teachers and educators
permitted by McGraw-Hill for their individual course preparation. If you are a student using this PowerPoint slide, you are using it without permission.
Copyrighted Material -Additional resource material supplied with the book Principles of Communication Systems,3E by Taub, Schilling, Goutam Saha published by Tata McGraw Hill. This
resource material is for Instructor's use only.
Block diagram of a electronic

communication system
Terms of references : Communication, Channel, Source,

Destination, Noise, Distortion, Attenuation, Bandwidth,
Modulation, Multiplexing, Transmitter, Receiver, Carrier,
Baseband signal, Transducer
Analog vs. Digital
Analog Comm. –
Message is
analog,
continuously
varying
Digital Comm. –
Message is
discrete, finite
set of values
Modulation and Multiplexing
Modulation for lower size of radiating antenna and

efficient use of frequency spectrum
Considering diameter of radiating antenna as 0.1 times
the wavelength radiated, 1 GHz signal requires 3 cm
diameter while 4 KHz signal needs 7.5 km!!!
Multiplexing divides resource in such a manner

that it can be used by more than one. Frequency
Division Multiplexing (FDM) and Time Division
Multiplexing (TDM) are important for electronic
communication.
Transmission Media
• Open wire lines : 0.04 dB/km

(3 dB loss refers to signal strength attenuated by 50
percent. Here, this happens after 3/0.04=75 km of
transmission)
• Paired cables : 0.05 dB/km
• Quad cables : 0.25 dB/km, higher bandwidth(BW)
• Coaxial cables : 5 dB/km, more BW than Quad
• Radio : Atmosphere or free space
• Waveguide : 5 dB/100m, very high BW
• Optical fiber : 0.3 dB/km, very very high BW
Frequency Spectrum
Filtering in communication refers to separation

of one frequency band from entire signal.
Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) and

Channel Capacity
SNR : Relative strength of signal to noise.
dBW is signal strength referenced to 1 W, dBm to 1 mW

Important issue : Bandwidth-SNR trade-off
Channel capacity refers to capacity of a channel to

support a particular rate of information
Signal Energy and Power
Signal Energy :
Average Power :
Normalized Power :
An Example
Classification of Signal
• Real and Complex signal
• Analog and Digital Signal
• Periodic and Aperiodic Signal
• Even and Odd Signal :
• Energy and Power Signal

• Deterministic and Random Signal
• Causal and Non-causal signal
Singularity Functions
Delta function : such that
Unit step function : and
Shifting, Inversion, Time Scaling,

Convolution
Convolution :
Correlation
Aperiodic :
Periodic :
Correlation
Coefficient :
Power &
Correlation :
Autocorrelation
An Example
Example : Continued
Another Example
Example Continued
where,
where,
such that,
One can also write,
One sided and two sided plot of spectral amplitude
An Example
Find Fourier Coefficients of periodic pulse train as

shown below:
Example - Continued
Example - Discussion
Sampling function,
Time shift :
Time inversion :
Time scaling :
Derivative
where,
Integration
Response to Linear System
Note that,
Normalized Power and Fourier

Expansion
For first two

Frequency
components
Extending the logic,
Or,
End of Chapter 1
Part A

Goutam Saha
Chapter 1 : Part B
Introduction : Signal and Spectra
Power Spectral Density (PSD)
Normalized power,
Power Spectral Density,
Also,
Power in a frequency range,
PSD of output of linear system,
Fourier Transform
pair
Input-Output in Fourier domain
Or, such that,
Alternate representation,
Example
Another Example
Convolution,
if,
Parseval’s Theorem,
Distortion due to band limiting
(a) Low Pass Filter (b) High Pass Filter
Fourier Transform and

Autocorrelation
For periodic signal, autocorrelation and PSD
are Fourier Transform pair.
For nonperiodic signal, autocorrelation and

energy density are Fourier Transform pair
Another Example
Band Pass Filter from Low Pass Filter
In general a band pass or band limited signal can be written as,
Paley-Weiner Criterion
The sufficient and necessary condition for realizable

filter with amplitude response |H(f)| requires,
This does not allow |H(f)| to be zero over a finite

frequency band.
A practical filter transfer function |H(f)| is
Fourier Transform of delayed, truncated impulse
response of ideal transfer function.
Orthogonal Representation
Orthogonality
over an interval
Any arbitrary function f(x) can be written as,
where, Fourier
Series is
Orthogonal
complete set
Orthonormal if,
Signal and Vectors
Orthonormal functions :
Arbitrary function,
while,
while,
Geometrical representation
Decomposition of signal in terms of

orthonormal vectors
Distinguishability of signal
The higher the distance d, the more is the distinguishability.

End of Chapter 1
Part B

Goutam Saha
Chapter 3
Amplitude Modulation Systems
Need for Frequency Translation
• Frequency Multiplexing : Different message

bearing signal in different frequency range.
• Practicability of Antennas : Antenna size directly
depends on wavelength or inversely to frequency. A higher
frequency range gives lower antenna size.
• Narrowbanding :Converts wideband signal to a
relative narrowband signal which solves many
implementation issues.
• Common Processing : For shifting signal to a
common frequency range to use same processing blocks.
Consider,
message signal
Consider, an
auxiliary
(carrier) signal
Multiplying,
Extending previous logic for message signal which consists

of multiple sinusoids (as is the case from Fourier
decomposition)
Double Sideband Suppressed

Carrier (DSB-SC) Modulation
Balanced Modulator :
Nonlinear Modulator : Previous figure AM block

replaced by nonlinear device
Output of first block

second block
Summer o/p
Simplifying
Band Pass Filtering DSB-SC o/p
Switching Modulator :
Band Pass Filtering DSB-SC output

Coherent Detection : Reverse frequency translation by

multiplying with carrier and then Low Pass Filtering.
If local carrier has phase shift , w.r.t. original then from

above demodulated message is No message
for . Also with phase ampltude changes.
If local carrier frequency is different then
demodulated signal is proportional to
and has waxing and waning.
Need to be precisely synchronous
Squaring synchronizer : Obtaining synchronous

carrier from squaring, filtering, and divide by two.
Double Sideband with Carrier(DSB-C)
Amplitude of carrier
modulated according
to message signal.
(a) Sinusoidal carrier

(b) Modulating waveform
(c) Amplitude Modulated signal
DSB-C Modulator
Switching
Modulator :
Switching in previous fig. approximated by pulse train
BPF that passes will bring out and carrier.

Envelop
Detector :
Also from considering diode

switching as a series of pulse train
(as done before) and Low Pass
Filtering to get message component.
Square Law
Demodulator :
Also possible if nonlinearity

Distortion small other than square law.
Maximum Allowable Modulation

for Rectifier Detection
Required
Percentage Modulation
Spectrum and Power Efficiency
Carrier Power
Useful power i.e.

sideband power
Power efficiency
For tone
modulation
Example Continued
Single Side Band (SSB) Modulation
SSB Modulator - 1
Filtering Method :
SSB Modulator - 2
Output of SSB Modulator =
where,
SSB Demodulator
Coherent detection :
Low Pass Filtering with bandwidth

of message signal recovers m(t).
SSB with carrier can be detected by envelop detection.

Vestigial Side Band (VSB)

Modulation
In VSB, vestige or appendage is added to SSB spectrum.
VSB Demodulation
Demodulation is done by multiplying the signal with a

coherent local carrier and Low Pass Filtering.
Final demodulated output =

If is constant over frequency band of
interest demodulated output is proportional to m(t).
VSB and Television Broadcasting
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation(QAM)
QAM is similar to DSB-SC but sends two message

signals over the same spectrum.
Demodulation uses coherent detection.
Similarly,
LPF brings out message signals.

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
Radio Transmitter - 1
Impedance matching network facilitates efficient power coupling.
Antenna efficiency
Directivity
Gain
Note that,
Radio Receiver - 1
Radio Receiver - 2
Advantage of the superheterodyne principle :

Signal strength at receiver antenna is in pW
range and is best amplified and filtered at
Intermediate Frequency (IF) range.
The other advantage is multiplexing, to be

able to tune to different Radio Frequency (RF)
carrier with common processing blocks. Local
Oscillator (LO) frequency need only to be
changed.
End of Chapter 3
•The pre-emphasis process is done at the transmitter side,

while the de-emphasis process is done at the receiver side.
•Thus a high frequency modulating signal is emphasized or
boosted in amplitude in transmitter before modulation.
• To compensate for this boost, the high frequencies are
attenuated or de-emphasized in the receiver after the
demodulation has been performed.
• Due to pre-emphasis and de-emphasis, the S/N ratio at the
output of receiver is maintained constant.
•The de-emphasis process ensures that the high frequencies
are returned to their original relative level before amplification.
•Pre-emphasis circuit is a high pass filter or differentiator
which allows high frequencies to pass, whereas de-emphasis
circuit is a low pass filter or integrator which allows only low
frequencies to pass.
8
Radio Receivers
8.1 INTRODUCTION: FUNCTIONS OF A
Io side this Chapter RECEIVER
Introduction: Function of a Receiver a radio
Classification of Radio Receivers we know that in a communication system,
transmitter radiates or transmits a modulated carrier
Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF)
travels down the
Receiver signal. This modulated carrier signal
at the input
Superheterodyne Receiver Basic channel i.e. transmission medium and reaches
modulated carrier
Elements of radio receiver. This m e a n s that the
receiver.
ReceiverParameters antenna of the radio
A MSuperheterodyne Receiver: signal is picked up by the very weak.
This modulated signal so received is generally
(Description of Various Blocks) weak signal is first
Therefore, inside the receiver this
R.F.Amplifier amplifier stage of
amplified in an R.F. (Radio frequency) modulated signal
A Series Resonance Circuit the radio receiver. Also, since the
received
Characteristicsofa Series Resonant unwanted signals at adjacent
contains a lot of noise or
Circuit selected and the noise must
be
A Parallel Resonance Circuit or frequencies, it must be modulated
the R.F. carrier or
Tuned Circuit rejected. Finally, in receiver,
Resonant demodulated to get back the original
Characteristicsof Parallel signal must be
or Tuned Circuit baseband
or signal. Further, since the
modulating
The Single-tuned Voltage Amplifier demodulated or signal
detected (i.e. audio signal in case of
of a Sin- it has to be amplified
The Frequency Response broadcast receiver) is generally weak,
gle-tuned Voltage Amplifier of audio amplifier.
Voltage inone or more stages
Limitation of a Single-tuned we can summarize the main
From the above discussion,
Amplifier receiver as:
Double-tuned Voltage Amplifier function of a radio
The Frequency Response of Double
i) Intercept the incoming modulated signal (i.e.
tuned Voltage Amplifier antenna.
electromagnetic waves) by the receiving
Stagger-Tuned Voltage Amplifier unwanted
Amplifiers Select the desired signal and reject the
Neutralization in RF Tuned i)
Local Oscillator signals.
FrequencyMixers (ii Amplify this selected R.F. signal.
Tracking or Detect the modulated signal to get back the original
Automatic Gain Control (AGC) modulating or baseband signal.
ALutomaticVolume Control (AVC)
t-Filter
Linear Diode Detector with (v) Amplify the modulating frequency signal.
and Simple AGC This means that a radio receiver is an electronic
Delayed AGC
Amplified and Delayed AGC equipment which picks up the desired signal, rejects the
unwanted signals, amplifies the desired signal, demodulates,
AGCCharacteristics
Double Conversion Receiver the modulated signal to get back the original modulating
ommunications Receiver)
frequency signal.
CSuperheterodyne AM Recevers
521
522 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
8.2 CLASSIFICATION OF RADIO RECEIVERS
We can classify the radio receiver in two ways as under

(A) Depending upon the applications, the radio receivers may be classified as follows:
i) Amplitude Modulation (A.M.) Broadcast Receivers: These receivers are used to receive
the broadcast of speech or music transmitted from amplitude modulation broadcast
transmitters which operate on long wave, medium wave or short wave bands.
ii) Frequency Modulation (F.M.) Broadcast Receivers: These receivers are used to
receive
the broadcast programmes from F.M. broadcast transmitters which operate in VHF or UHF
bands.
(iii) Communication Receivers : Communication receivers are used for reception
of telegraph
and short wave telephone signals. This means that communication receivers are used for
various purposes other than broadcast services.
iv) Television Receivers:
Television receivers
are used to receive television broadcast in VHF
or in UHF bands.
( Radar Receivers : Radar receivers are used to receive Radar (ie. Radio detection and
ranging) signals.
(B) Depending upon the fundamental aspects, the radio receivers may also be classified as
under:
)Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receivers.
(ii Superheterodyne Receiver.
In fact, various forms of receivers have been proposed from time to time. However, only two of
them became popular for commercial applications. These are Tuned Radio frequency (TRF) receiver
and superheterodyne receiver. Presently, the superheterodyne receiver is the most popular and
most widely used. The TRF receiver was used earlier in the 1940s. The TRF receiver had some
inherent drawbacks which were removed in superheterodyne receiver. Therefore, we shall start our discussion
with TRF receiver and then come to the superheterodyne receiver.
8.3TUNED RADIO FREQUENCY (TRF) RECEIVER

Tuned radio frequency (TRF) receiver is the simplest radio receiver. Figure 8.1 shows the block
diagram of a tuned radio frequency receiver. The very first block of this receiver is an RF stage. This
stage generally contains two or three RF amplifiers. Actually, these RF (radio frequency) amplifiers
are tuned RF amplifiers i.e. they have variable tuned circuit at the input and output sides. At the
input of the receiver, there is a receiving antenna as shown in figure 8.1. At this antenna signals
from different sources (i.e. stations) are present. However, with the help of input variable tuned
circuit of RF amplifiers the desired signal i.e, station) is selected. But this selected signal is usually
very weak of the order of uV. This selected weak signal is amplified by the RF amplifier (i.e. R.PF
stage).
VAntenna
RF Audio
Demodulator Audio
Power
Stage or detector Amplifier Amplifier
Loud
peaker
Fig. 8.1. Block diagram of a TRF receiver
Thus the function of RF stage is to select the desired signal and amplify it.)
After this, the amplified incoming modulated signal is applied to the demodulator. The
demodulator or detector demodulates the modulated signal and thus at the output of the demodulator,
522
RADIO RECEIVERS 523
t modulating
or baseband
signal (i.e. audio
this audio signal is further signal). This audio signal is amplified by audio
ge
After
olifier..that,
to drive the loudspeaker. The last stage of thisamplified by a power amplifier upto desired power
level receiver is the loudspeaker. A loudspeaker 18 a
nsducer which changes electrical signal into sound signal.
trans
8.3.1 Drawbacks of TRF Receiver

As discussed above, although TRF receiver is cheaper and the simplest one, it has certain
drawbacks as undeer:
)The TRF receiver suffers from a tendency to oscillate at higher frequencies iromt
multistage RF amplifiers with high gain and operating at same frequency. If'such an amp
has a gain of 20,000 then if a small portion of the output leaked back to the input ofthe RP
stage, then positive feed back and oscillation will result. This type of leakage could result
from power supply coupling, stray capacitance coupling, radiation coupling or coupling
through a n y other element common to the input and output stages. Definitely, this type or
condition is undesirable for a good receiver.

This problem is also termed as instability of the receiver.
and an
ii The selectivity of a receiver is its ability to distinguish between a desired signal
difficult to achieve
undesired signal. The selectivity of TRF receiver is poor. In fact, it is circuits.
sufficient selectivity at high frequencies due to the enforced use of single-tuned
(ii) Another problem associated with the TRF receiver is the bandwidth variation over the
in AM broadcast system, let us consider that
tuning range. For example, a tuned circuit is
540 kHz.
required to have a bandwidth of 10 kHz at a frequency of
tuned circuit must be
According to the definition, the Quality factor Q of this
resonance frequency 540
54
Q bandwidth 10
broadcast band (i.e. 1640 KHz), the Quality

factor Q of the coil,
Now, at the other end of this AM 1640/535 (i.e. 3) to a value of 164. However,
must increase by a factor of
according to above equation, increase.
frequency would prevent such a large
in practice due to several losses dependent upon 120 and hence
of this tuned circuit is unlikely to exceed
Thus, practically, the Quality factor Q to
circuit equal
providing a bandwidth of the tuned
1640 13.8 kHZ
Af
Af =Q 120
bandwidth of 13.8 kHz in place of a fixed bandwidth of 10 KHz.
Therefore, due to this increased frequencies (1.e. stations) with the desired frequency or
The receiver wouldpick up or select adjacent
Station. This means that the bandwidth

of the TRP receiver varies with the incoming frequency.
RECEIVER BASIC ELEMENTS

.4 SUPERHETERODYNE
(RGTU Bhopal, Sem. Exam., June 2005) (05 marks)
gure 8.2 shows the block diagram of a superheterodyne receiver.All the drawbacks in TRF receiver
receiver. The basic superheterodyne receiver is most widelv
Ve been removed in a superheterodyne
This means that the superheterodyne principle 1s used in all types of receiver like television
used
eCeiver, radar receiver, etc
n a superheterodyne receiver, the incoming r signal requency is combined with the local
OScilla
llator signal frequency through a mixer and is converted into a signal of lower fixed freauencv.
heterodyne receiver.
Expla
Pain the principle working of super
(RGTU Bhopal, Sem. Exam., June 2009) (10 marks)
524 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
as intermediate trequeney. lowever,

the intermedint.
This lower fixed frequency is known fro.
as the original signal. This intermediate
same modulation
frequency signal contains thedemodulated to reproduce the original signal.
equency
is word amplifiedand
signal
The now
heterodyne stands for mixing. Here we have mixed the incoming signal free
|uency
Therefore this receiver is called superheterodyne receive
with the local oscillator frequency.
Loud
7Antenna speaker
Demo Audio Power
RF
Mixer o- IL.F
dulator Amplifier Amplifier
Stage Amplifier
AGC
Local
Oscillator
Ganged Tunning
-
Fig. 8.2. Block diagram of a Superheterodyne Receiver

Thus, in a superheterodyne receiver, a constant frequency difference is maintained between the
local oscillator signal frequency and incoming RF signals frequency through capacitance tunning in
which the capacitances are ganged together and operated by a common control knob. The intermediate
frequency (IF) amplifier generally contains a number of transformers each consisting of a pair of
mutually coupled tuned circuits. Thus, with this large number of double-tuned circuits, operating at
a specially chosen frequeney, the IF amplifier provides most of the gain (i.e. sensitivity) and band
width requirements (i.e. selectivity) of the receiver. This means that the IF amplifier determines the
sensitivity and selectivity of the superheterodyne receiver.
Also, since the characteristics of the IF amplifier are independent of the incoming frequency to
which the receiver is tuned, the selectivity and sensitivity of the superheterodyne receiver are
quite uniform throughout its tunning range and not subject to the variations like a TRF receiver.
Further since the I.F. amplifier works at a fixed I.F. frequency, the design of this system is quite
easy to provide high gain and constant bandwidth.
Because of its narrow bandwidth, the I.F. amplifier rejects all other frequencies except
intermediate frequency (L.F.). Actually, this rejection process reduces the risk of interference from
other stations or sources. In fact, this selection process is the key to the superheterodyne receiver's
exceptional performance.
After the I.F. amplifier, the signal is applied at the input of demodulator which extracts the
original modulating signal (i.e. audio signal). This audio signal is amplified by an audio amplifier
to get a particular voltage level. This amplified audio signal is further amplified by a power amplifier
to get a specified power level so that it may activate the loudspeaker. The loudspeaker is a transducer
which converts this audio electrical signal into audio sound signal and thus the original signal is
reproduced i.e. the original transmission is received.
of
The advantages of the superheterodyne receiver make it the most suitable for the
radio receiver applications like AM, FM, communications, single-sideband, television and even
majority
radar receiver; all use superheterodyne principle. This means that it can be considered as today's
standard form of radio receiver.
8.4.1 Advantages of Superheterodyning
G) No variat ion in bandwidth. The BW remains constant over the entire operating rang
(i) High sensitivity and selectivity.
(ii) High adjacent channel rejection.
RADIO RECEIVERS
s2 Frequency ameters of AM Receiver
The AM receiver has the following frequency parameters
Two frequency bands: Medium wave (MW) band and
short
RFcarrier range (MW band): 535 kHz to 1650 kHz (SW wave (SW) band.
(ii Intermediate frequency IF: 455 kHz band):5
to 15 MHz
iv) IF bandwidth B : 10 kHz.
8.5 RECEIVER CHARACTERISTICS

(JNTU, Hyderabad, Sem. Exam., June 2006)
scause the type of receiver is almost the same for various forms of modulation or system, therefore,
Becau
generally most convenient to explain the various principles of superheterodyne receiver

it is a
hile dealing with AM receivers. Thus, with the discussion of AM receiver, a basis is formea ror
more complex vers1ons of superheterodyne receiver. In this section, let us discuss varlou
u
Superheterodyne receiver characteristics. They are as under:
() Sensitivity,
(ii) Selectivity
(ii) Fidelity.
Giv) Double spotting.
(v) Tracking.
w ak ognal
8.5.1 Sensitivity
is
Phe sensitivity of a radio receiver may be defined as its ability to amplify weak signals. It
input terminäls to
generally, defined in terms of the voltage which must be applied at receiver
AM broadcast receivers,
measured at the output terminals. For
provide a standard output power and
by a 400 Hz sine
several relevant quantities have been standardized. A signal modulated
wave
modulation index of 30% is applied through standard

coupling.network known as a dummy antenna.
In addition to this, the loud-speaker is replaced by
an 17
the output is measured
equivalent load resistance. After this 16
to the standard
across this resistance and it must be equal 15
value of 50 mW.
microvoltsorin decibels14
Sensitivity is also expressed in
Delow 1 volt and is measured at threepoints along thetuning13
lined up.
range when production receiver is
a
12
curve over the tuning
Figure 8.3 shows the sensitivity
receiver has a sensitivity
11
and. At 1 MHz, this particular the sensitivity 10
t 12.7 volt or -98 dB volt. Sometimes,
receiver
manufacturer of this
EIntion extended, and the
is
"12.7 uV for an
may quote it to be, not merely 12.7 uV, but 600 1000 1600
NR of 20 dB in the output of the receiver". Frequency, kHz
typical sensitivity curve for
1s Fig. 8.3 A
the
However, for profession al receivers, sensiivy to a good domestic receiver.
required
erally quoted in terms of signal
power
a minimum acceptableoutput signal with a
ce Few factors determining the sensitivity ofa superheterodvne
mum acceptable output noise level.
Teceiver are as under
a) The gain of the IF amplifiers.
b The gain ofthe RF amplifiers.

CThe noise figure of the receiver.
526 cOMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
that the typical values of sensitivity

It may be noted
band receivers, and 1 uV
are 150 u volt for small broadcast Receiver tuned to 950 kHz
communication receiver in the HF 100
or below for high quality
band.
80
8.5.2 Selectivity
(The selectivity ofa receiver may
be defined as the ability S 60
It also expresses the attenuation
toreject unwanted signals. at frequencies adjacent to
offers to signal
thatthe receiver 40
the one to which it is tuned) It is generally, expressed as a
curve as shown in figure 8.4. In selectivity measurement,

of 20
the frequency of the generators is varied to either side
the frequency to which the receiver is tuned. Naturally, the
output of the receiver falls since the input frequency is not 40 -30-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
incorrect. Thus the input voltage must be increased until detuning, kHz
the output is the same as it was originally.The ratio of the Fig. 8.4. A typical selectivity curve for
voltage required of resonance to the voltage required. When a good domestic receiver
the generator is tuned to the receiver's frequency it is
calculated at a number of points and then plotted in decibels to give a curve as shown in figure 8.4.
It may be noted that selectivity depends upon the following factors:
G) Selectivity varies with receiving frequency and becomes somewhat worse when the receiving
frequency is raised.
(ii) In general, mainly determined by the response of the IF section, with the mixer and
it is
RF amplifier input circuits playing a small but significant part.
channel rejection of a receiver.
iii)Selectivity is the main factor which determines the adjacent
8.5.3 Fidelity Receiver output in dB
Minimum attenuatioin
As a matter of fact, the fidelity is the
ability of a receiver to reproduce all the This is basically the
modulating frequencies equally. The fidelity frequency response
basically depends on the frequency response of the AF amplifier
of the AF amplifier. Figure 8.5 shows the
typical fidelity curve.
High fidelity is essential in order to
reproduce a good quality music faithfully 5kHz 10kHz Frequency,f
50 1kHz
i.e. without introducing any distortion. For
Fig. 8.5 Fidelity curve
this, it is essential to havela flat frequency
response over a wide range of audio frequencies.The fidelity
curve for a receiver shown in figure 8.5
is basically the frequency response of the AF amplifier stage in the receiver. Ideally, the curve
it decreases on
fidelity curve the entire audio
should be flat over frequency range. But, practically,
the lower and higher frequency sides.
8.5.4 Double Spotting

When a receiver picks up the same short wave station at twonearby points on the receer
the double spotting phenomenon takes place. The main cause for double spotting is poor iront-e
selectivity, i.e., inadequate image-frequency rejection. The front-end of the receiver does TO e
different adjacent signal very well.
f
The adverse effect of double spotting is that a weak station may be marked by the receav
a nearby strong station at the spurious point on the dial. On the other hand, double spotting a
be used to calculate the IF of an unknown receiver. The spurious point on the dial 1s pl
RADIO RECEIVERS 527
the
th correct frequency. It
elow
responding decrease in theimage-frequeney
double rejection is improved, then certainly there will
spotting occurrence. De
8.5.5 Tracking
or Tunning of a
Tn a
superheterodyne receiver, the local
Superheterodyne Receiver
which
circuits which . are tuned t0 the
oscillator frequency is made to track with the tuned
incoming signal frequency in order to make
at the output of mixer. For constant
broadcast system, the intermediate frequency
nce a
general AM
tis 455 kHz. This indicates that the local
oscillator should always be set at a frequency
A55 kHz above the incoming signal frequency. For frequency which
Antenna purpose the front end of the receiver tuned
1st
stage
RF Detector
Mixer I.F A.F
Amplifier 455 kHz Amplifier Amplifier
3 kHz
Mechanical Local
link Oscillator
Fig. 8.6. Tunning of a superheterodyne receiver

circuits are made to track together simply by mechanically linked or ganged capacitors. A ganged
capacitor has three capacitor sections, one each for the RF amplifier, mixer and the local oscillator.
In addition to this, small variable capacitances known as trimmers are connected in parallel with
each section. These capacitances can be adjusted for proper operation at highest frequency. However
for lowest frequency adjustment, small variable capacitors 6
Badly
known as padders are connected in series with the inductor misaligned
4
of the tank circuit. Correct
The various tuned circuits are mechanically coupled 2
required. This
so that only one tunning control and dial are
means that no matter what is the incoming signal 0
circuits must be
frequency, the RF and mixer input tuned be
tuned to it. The local oscillator must simultaneously Misaligned
is precisely higher than the
Duned to a frequency which However,
Signal frequency by the intermediate frequency. would
difference
any error that may exist in the frequency 1000 1600
being fed to the 600
result in a n incorrect frequency This must error
Frequency, kHz
ermediate frequency (I.F.) amplifier.
of errors are known as Fig. 8.7. Tracking curves
naturally be avoided. Such typeerrors result in stations
acking These tracking
errors.
the dial.
correct position on
Ppearing away from their maximum tracking
error below 3 kHz. A value as low as this is
It is quite possible to keep the
quite acceptable.
(Anna University, Chennai, Sem. Exam., June 2006)
.5. mage Frequency and its Rejection
0.9 receiver is a better receiver
than a Tuned Radio Freqmencu
sufters trom a major drawback known as

(Te know that a superheterodyne receiver
r ) receiver. However a superheterodyne a superheterodyne recejver
of image irequency 15 innerent to
ma Frequency problem. This problem ract, the frequency conversion p r o c e s e
e heterodyne principle. 1n
of the use of
arises because
oscillator and the mixer
often
alloW an undesired frequency in addition to
Ted out by the local
the desired incoming frequency.
Irequency always kept higher
than th
is the local oscilator
at is image signal? Why (RTU, Kota, Sem. Exam., June 2009)(10 marks)
receivers?
requen in uperheterodyne
b28 cOMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
In a standard broadcast receiver, the local oscillator frequeney is always made higher than the
incoming signal frequeney. It is kept equal to the signal frequency plus the intermediate frequeney
(I.F.). yu-9(
Mathematically, =f,+ S44 kHz (8.1)
where f = local oscillator frequency 6 40 fo
f = desired incoming frequency
f = intermediate frequeney
f o - 999
From equation (8.1), we have
Hence, the intermediate frequency is the difference between the local oscillator frequency and
the signal frequency.
Now, if a frequeney f manages to reach the mixer, such that
s f, + 1 4 ..(8.2)
then this frequency f would also produce f when it is mixed with f, This undesired or spurious
intermediate frequency signal will also be amplified by the I.F. stage and thus would cause
interference. This has the effect of two sources or stations being received simultaneously. This
situation is obviously undesirable.
The term f is known as the image frequency and is defined as the signal frequency plus twice
the intermediate frequeney.
Putting the value of f, in equation (8.2) from equation (8.1), we get
fsif,+f
fsi f +f+
fi = f, +2
Thus this spurious frequency
or signal cannot be distinguished by the I.F.stage and hence 8.3)
would
be treated in the same manner as the desired frequency signal.

The rejection of an image frequency signal by a single tuned circuit may be defined as the ratio
of the gain at the signal frequency to the gain at the image frequency. This is given as
a = 1+Qp2 .(8.4)
Here ...(8.5)
and Q = Quality factor of the tuned circuit in a loaded condition.

If the receiver has an RF stage, then there is only a single tuned circuit and the rejection will
be caleulated using equation (8.4). However if the receiver has an RF stage then there are two
tuned cireuits both tuned to f The image frequency rejection of each stage will be caleulated by
using equation (8.4). The total or overall rejection will be the product of the two.
The image - frequency rejection of the receiver depends upon the front- end selectivity of the
receiver. The rejection of image frequency must be achieved before the I.F. stage. Once an undesired
or spurious frequeney enters the first IF. amplifier, it would become impossible to remove it from
the desired signal.
Vit may be observed that if is large as is the case for AM broadcast band the use of an RF
stage is not necessary for good image frequency rejection. However, it would become essential
above about 3 MHz.
81. For a broadcast RADIO RECEVERS 529
actor of the antenna superheterodyne
EXAMPL
AM receiver
kHz, then determi: coupling
the following: circuit is having RF amplifier, thee loaded no
100. Now if the
the intermediate frequeney * 15
(i) image frequeney and its
) the image frequency
ratio
and its
rejection at an
incoming frequency of 1000 kHz.
rejection ratio at an
Solution: () Given
that incoming frequeney of 25 MHz.
Q = 100
and f 455 kHz.

1000
1000 kHz
The image-frequency is given as
fsi fs+ 2f = 1000+2 x 455 =
1000 +910 1910 kHz
p 1910 1000
Further,
1000 1910.910-0.524 1.386
Since the given receiver has no RF amplifier, therefore there is only single tuned circuit.
The rejection ratio is given as
a 1+Qp* =y1+(100x (1.386? y1+138.6 = = 138.6 Ans.

(ii)For second case, it is given that
Q = 100
f 455 kHz = = 0.455 MHz
and f 25 MHz
The image frequency is given as
25 2 0.455 25.91 MHz
fsi =f +2f + x
25.91 25 = 1.0364-0.9649 = 0.0715
25
si
25.91
The rejection ratio a is given as
a =
y1+Qp2 =
y1+(100)* x(0.0715)
5.22 Ans.
y1+ (7.15)
=
a =
receiver having no
RF
amplifier, the loaded Q of the antenna
EAAMPLE 8.2. In a superheterodyne is 90. If the
i n t e r m e d i a t e frequency is 455 kHz, calculate
of the mixer)
upling circuit (at the input
the following: ratio at 950 kHz and
image frequency rejection
) The image frequency
and
ratio at 10 MHz.
and its rejection
) The image frequency
Solution: (i) Given that:
Q 90, IF =455 kHz,
f=950 kHz
frequency is given by
We
We know that the image (2 x 455)
IF =[950
+
ff+2
.i)
fs 1860kHz
as
expressed
ratio a is
Imag
ge trequency rejection
a = 1+Qp
...(ü)
1860 950
=1.45
950 1860 .(ii)
where
130.5 Ans.
Therefore, 1+ (90) x (1.45) =
90, IF 455 kHz, f = 10 MHz

ii) Given that Q = =
Hence, image frequeney

0.455) 10.91 MHz
fsi 10 +(2 x =
...iv)
10.91 10
= 0.174
Also, P.10 10.91 .v)
Therefore, IFRR, o = y1+(90) x (0.174) 15.72 Ans.
Important Point: Therefore, without RF amplifier, the image rejection is adequate at low
it is inadequate at higher operating frequency. RF amplifier may, therefore,
frequencies however
be used at high frequencies.
EXAMPLE 8.3. In order to make the image frequency

a2 15.72, Q
rejection of the receiver of example 8.2 as good at 10
MHz as it was at 950 kHz. Caleulate: RF
Mixer
) The loaded Q which an RF amplifier for this amplifier
receiver would have, and, -0 = a1 d2
(i) The new intermediate frequency that would be Fig. 8.8.
needed if RF amplifier is not be used).
Solution: ( ) Given that a = 130.5 f 10 MHz
From figure 8.8, we can write that
= O C. = 130.5
But C2 15.72
130.5
8.3 ..i)
therefore, a 15.72
Therefore, the loaded Q of RF amplifier i.e. Q can be caleulated as under:
..ii)
Since, P 0.174
Therefore, 1 47.35 .iv)

have the
Thus, the value of loaded Q of the RF amplifier should be 47.35. A well designed receiver would
same Q for the tuned circuits of the mixer and the RF amplifier. Here, it is 65.28 which is the geometric mean
of 90 and 47.35.
1 Q =65.28 ..(v)
therefore,
(i) Now, we want to calculate a new value ofIF at which the rejection ratio a is same as that obtained at
950 kHz.
p 1.45, let the new value of image frequency be f'si
Hence, we have
1860 950 . fsi 10 MHz
1.45
950 1860 10 MHz f
Therefore, fri
10 MHz 186019578
950
or
f' 1.9578 x 10 19.578 MHz .(vi)
However, f f+ 2 IF
19.578 = 10 +2 IF
Hence,
or IF RADIO RECEVERS 531
=
4.789 MHz
Hence, the new IF will be 4.789
MH Ans. (vii)
ortant
Impor Point: 'This shows that
increase in the
rejection. image frequency will improve the age
EXAMPLE 8.4. With an example, explain the
Colution: Let us assume that concept of double spotting ina
Solutio
the IF
is a strong station at f = 1640 kHz, of the superheterodyne receiver is 470 superheterodyne recev r kHz and also we assume nae
()If the local oscillator frequency =
2110 kHz then the
= 470 kHz i.e. IF, hence, the difference between fo and f, will be
(2110 1640)
strong station is picked
up.
ii Now, if the local oscillator
frequency
is reduced to 1170 kHz.
beat with the local oscillator then this station at 1640 kHZ Wi
will be picked up at this pointfrequency to produce IF, i.e., 1640- 1170strong
470 kHz. Hence, this sta =
on the dial as
well. Actually, here, the
(1170-470) 700 kHz. If this signal is weak, itreceiver
is
the signal at frequency = expected the
to re
signal at 1640 kHz. will be masked by suro
2x IF
EXAMPLE 8.5. For a receiver with IF and
RF frequencies of 455 kHz and 900 kHz
respectively, determine the following
700 kHz 1640 kHz
The local oscillator frequency. Radio dial
Two points at which the same
(ii) Image frequency. station is tuned
(iii) Image frequency rejectionratio Fig. 8.9. Double spotting
for a pre-selector Q of 80.
Solution: Given that: IF 455 kHz and f, signal
= =
frequency = 900 kHz
( ) The local oscillator frequency is given by
fo f+IF
or fo (900 + 455) kHz
or o 1355 kHz Ans.
(ii) Image frequency fsi =f, + 2 IF =
900 + (2 x 455)
Or, fsi 1810 kHz Ans.
i iImage frequency rejection ratio is given by
a y1+Qp2
Given that Q=80
1810 900
where 900 1810
or p 1.51
Substituting this and the other values, we get

or = 80.02 Ans.
EXXAMPLE 8.6. In a broadcast superheat AM receiver havingnoRP stage, the loaded o f the aerial
oupling circuit(at the input of the mixer) is 125. If the intermediate frequeney is 465 kHz Calculate
at 1 MHz and 30 MHz.
The image frequency and its rejection
i ) The F reauired to make the image rejection ratio as good at 30 MHz as it is at 1 MHz as it
is at 1 MHz. (Very Important)

465 kHz 1 MHz 30 MHz.
uOn: i)
Given that: Q =125, IF =
f, = or
and its rejection ratio at 1 MHz.

caleulate the image frequency
us +2 IF = [1000+ (2 x 465)] kHz
Aerefore, image frequencyf =f,
or, 1930 kHz Ans.
e mage frequency rejection ratio, a = 1 + Q p
The ..i)
1930 1000
where p 1000 19301.411
si ...ii)
Therefore, a==1+I(125). (1.411)'] or a = 176.48 Ans.

Now, let us calculate the image frequency and its rejection at 30 MHz.
Image frequency f = f, +2 IF = [30 x 10 + (2 x 465 x 10 )
Hence
or si= 30.93 MHz Ans.
30.93 30
New value of p = 0.061
30 30.93 .iii)
Therefore, new value of the image frequency rejection ratio is given by,
a =
1+Qp =
1 +
(125(0.061 1
a = 7.669 Ans.
Thus, the image frequency rejection is adequately large at low frequeney but it degrades as the signal
frequency increases.
(ii) We want the image rejection ratio o = 176.48 at f = 30 MHz.
The corresponding value of P 1.411
But P f fsi .iv)

fsi
si 30 MHz
therefore, 1.411 30 MHz fsi .(v)
But from equation (ii), we have,

1930 1000
1.411 =
1000 1930
Hence, equating this expression with equation (v), we obtain
1930
fsi
1000 30 MHz
or 1.9x 30 MHz =
fsi
New f = 57 MHz ....(vi)
But i +21F
IF= i 57-30
Hence, 2 2
or IF =13.5 MHz Ans.

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Analog and Digital Communication

Unit 1: Fundamentals of Electronic

Slides are taken/prepared from:

Modulation for lower size of radiating antenna and

Multiplexing divides resource in such a manner

• Open wire lines : 0.04 dB/km

dBW is signal strength referenced to 1 W, dBm to 1 mW

Channel capacity refers to capacity of a channel to

Here Pref is equal to 1 W

Power in dBm= 10 log10(Power in Watt/Pref)

Here Pref is equal to 1 mW= 1*10-3 Watt

One sided and two sided plot of spectral amplitude

Find Fourier Coefficients of periodic pulse train as

For first two

Extending the logic,

Power Spectral Density,

Power in a frequency range,

PSD of output of linear system,

Input-Output in Fourier domain

Or, such that,

(a) Low Pass Filter (b) High Pass Filter

For periodic signal, autocorrelation and PSD

For nonperiodic signal, autocorrelation and

Any arbitrary function f(x) can be written as,

Unit 2 Amplitude and Frequency Modulation

slides are taken/prepared from:

• Frequency Multiplexing : Different message bearing

Extending previous logic for message signal which consists

Nonlinear Modulator : Previous figure AM block

Output of first block

Band Pass Filtering DSB-SC o/p

Band Pass Filtering DSB-SC output

Coherent Detection : Reverse frequency translation by

If local carrier has phase shift , w.r.t. original then from

Squaring synchronizer : Obtaining synchronous

(a) Sinusoidal carrier

Switching in previous fig. approximated by pulse train

BPF that passes will bring out and carrier.

Also from considering diode switching

Useful power i.e.

In VSB, vestige or appendage is added to SSB spectrum.

Demodulation is done by multiplying the signal with a

Final demodulated output =

QAM is similar to DSB-SC but sends two message

Demodulation uses coherent detection.

LPF brings out message signals.

Herbert Taub, Donald L Schilling,

Block diagram of a electronic

Terms of references : Communication, Channel, Source,

Analog vs. Digital

Modulation and Multiplexing

Modulation for lower size of radiating antenna and

Multiplexing divides resource in such a manner

• Open wire lines : 0.04 dB/km

Filtering in communication refers to separation

Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) and

dBW is signal strength referenced to 1 W, dBm to 1 mW

Channel capacity refers to capacity of a channel to

Signal Energy and Power

• Energy and Power Signal

Delta function : such that

Unit step function : and

Shifting, Inversion, Time Scaling,

Fourier Series Expansion - 1