- Academic English -

2. Academic vocabulary

1. Academic vocabulary in use

To put things succinctly, we could say that scientific or academic English is simply English with
special probabilities of linguistic elements characteristic of technicality, abstraction, and
objectification. In other words, academic English uses certain words and phrases in higher frequency
than spoken or informal English.

Those linguistic elements are:

(1) General academic vocabulary, some of which is the same as everyday vocabulary, but used with a
slightly different specialized meaning,

(2) the frequent use of noun phrases instead of strings of simple sentences,

(3) numerous fixed Noun-Verb, Adjective-Noun, Adverb-Verb collocations,

(4) formal expressions and “chunks” or phrases.

We have no solid evidence that radiation caused the problem. (solid=dependable, reliable)
(1) The exact nature of her work is confidential. (nature=the characteristic; category, style)
An extensive body of literature exists on the effects of wildfires. (body=amount, quantity)

(2) This model provides an explanation for the difference between the two sets of data.

Plankton plays a significant role.

(3) Researchers spent a considerable amount of time on the project.
Data suggests/reflects/indicates/shows/demonstrates a particular point.

In most respects, what is known about such particles is still at least to some extent based on pure
(4) speculation.
It is noteworthy that/It is worth noting that Holstein (1998) also had difficulty explaining these
phenomena.

(1) General academic vocabulary consists of general scientific terms used across all disciplines.
These are words such as those found in the tables on the following page.

Table 1. Frequent Academic Nouns

approach cluster instance response
array commodity issue schedule
assertion compound layman scheme
assessment constraint likelihood scope
assumption device model shift
assurance evidence occurrence stance
avenue feature outcome survey
bias focus pattern target
bulk framework prospect topic
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challenge hypothesis range trend

clue insight ratio

Table 2. Frequent Academic Verbs

achieve design monitor rest on
accommodate devise occur revise
account for display offset review
address endure opt for sum up
advocate enhance outweigh secure
aim establish overlook set out
argue focus on pinpoint state
assess go through pledge stem from
assume highlight point out support
attempt implement point up trigger
bear out imply provide undergo
benefit incur put forward underlie
consist of infer question underline
contend instigate resolve work out
depart involve respond

Table 3. Frequent Academic Adjectives

accurate forthcoming proper sole
apparent huge random solid
approximate improper relative to sound
comprehensive likely relevant specific
conclusive major reluctant straightforward
consistent mere reverse substantial
core odd rigorous tentative
crucial ongoing rough thorough1
empirical potential significant tremendous
experimental previous so-called widespread

Collocations: evidence can be described as abundant, conflicting, convincing, flimsy,

growing, hard, or widespread, and an example can be clear, striking, telling, or vivid.

Table 4. Frequent Academic Linking Words

albeit irrespective of presumably therefore
furthermore nonetheless prior to virtually
granted notwithstanding respectively whereby
hence obviously thereby2

Exercises

1
Do not confuse the adjective thorough (= “complete, full”) with the preposition through (= “across”).
2
Thereby or therefore? While both words express a result, thereby generally comes before a gerund at the end of
a sentence, whereas therefore can come at the beginning or middle position of a sentence. Compare:

If this process works, it will provide new evidence of elementary interactions, thereby changing our ideas
on elementary particle physics. / If this process works, it will provide new evidence of elementary
interactions; therefore, our ideas on elementary particle physics will change.
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1. Replace the following everyday English words with their academic equivalents (see Tables 1
through 4). In some cases, there is more than one possibility.

Formal / academic Everyday Formal / academic Everyday

a group to cope with, deal with

a result big

a trait, a main
characteristic

a study, a poll general

to appear strong

to try simple, easy

to locate, spot so

to start, kick off also

to say practically, almost

In addition to key vocabulary, academic English features fixed collocations involving key nouns,
verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and also prepositions. Study the table of prepositions below and the verbs
that are often associated with them. NB: Certain verbs change their meaning, even taking the opposite
meaning, depending on the preposition that follows them.

Table 5. Common Verb-Preposition Pairs

for from of in to on with No prep.

account benefit consist result amount be based associate address
call depart dispose assign call be concerned answer
opt exclude attribute cast doubt coincide discuss
search infer consent comment cope emphasize
sign up result opt concentrate deal highlight
react draw be equipped resist
refer focus provide underline
respond rely withstand
shed light

Remember that to answer, discuss, enter, expect, phone, reach, resist and withstand (to
name a few) are generally transitive verbs. They will not take a preposition as in
French. So, do not overuse the preposition of. Also, remember that we say a need for,
a reason for, or a departure from, where in French de would be used.
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2. Complete the sentences below with the correct prepositions. Prepositions may be used more than
once.

on for behind in to of into

a) The rationale _______ the present research _______ antibiotic resistance is the need _______ a
better understanding _______ bacteria’s defence mechanisms.

b) He wrote a dissertation _______ the morphological adjustments words undergo in response

_______ the increase _______ bastardization.

c) Her study produced some interesting insights _______ how young children develop a knowledge
_______ the external world.

d) His approach _______ the analysis of solar phenomena is different from that of Brown. He
questions the assumptions _______ much of previous research.

e) Jawil’s article puts emphasis _______ the need _______ more research and argues the case
_______ greater attention _______ the causes _______ obesity rather than the symptoms.

f) The reason _______ the failure _______ the project was the lack _______ funding.

g) The impact _______ global warming _______ the polar ice caps is now understood more clearly.

In or of? Many students are tempted to use of after increase, decrease, drop, fall, rise,
and so on. However, in is often used after such “change words”. It depends on whether
you refer to the item undergoing change (e.g., a rise in temperature, a drop in volume)
or to the amount of change (e.g., a rise of 10°C, a drop of 5.2 m3).

3. Collocations: Provide the adjectives below with appropriate academic or everyday nouns.

Adjective Associated Noun(s) Adjective Associated Noun(s)

consistent critical

improper accurate

inappropriate conclusive

ongoing widespread

relevant major

common significant

subsequent enormous/
considerable

Note that in English, important cannot be used in the meaning of “large in size”.
We speak of an important / significant aspect, contribution, difference, point, question,
reason, or factor BUT a significant increase, reduction, number, amount, or proportion.

Academic English also makes use of a number of adverbs in order to express ideas as accurately as
possible. The following adverbs are particularly frequent in scientific articles:
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apparently/seemingly, comparatively/relatively, especially/particularly, considerably

(opposite: somewhat), primarily/mainly, largely/mostly, approximately/roughly,
merely/simply/solely, similarly/likewise, precisely, eventually, ultimately, basically, briefly,
definitely, virtually, recently, respectively, essentially, currently, clearly, increasingly,
possibly, typically, convincingly, thoroughly, conclusively (opposite: tentatively).

Read through the list carefully and make sure you have understood the meaning of all the words.
Beware of false friends in adverbs such as eventually, currently, largely, and actually.

4. Here are some prepositional and adverbial phrases often used in qualifying statements. Then, fill
in the sentences below using one of the phrases or completing the sentence with a probable
example.

Qualifying Prepositional and Adverbial Phrases

for the sake of as opposed to as a rule in greater/more detail

on the grounds of/that instead of in turn in sum

in accordance with / in by no means at this point / stage in most/many/some

line with respects

in (the) light of in respect of / beyond the scope of for the most part
with respect to

in conjunction with in terms of with a focus on with the exception of

prior to as regards for the purpose of to a greater/lesser

extent

on behalf of on the basis of in the interest of to some extent

a. The Vietnam War became more and more controversial _____________________

growing evidence that Americans were losing the war in 1966. The War in Iraq is
analogous to the Vietnam War ________________________ growing unpopularity and
increasing loss of life.
b. _____________________ the entire research team, I would like to acknowledge the
FNRS for their financial support. I would also like to acknowledge the moral support and
helpful advice from our supervisor, who was _________________________ responsible
for the successful outcome of this study.
c. It is ___________________________ a simple task to send people to the moon.
d. I am afraid that question goes ___________________________ today’s presentation.
____________________, I never answer questions related to confidential data.
e. Surprisingly, the study was abandoned after only 6 months, _______________
________________ the partners would no longer be able to fulfill their commitment.

5. The sentences below are correct but need to be “dressed up” for publication. Vary them by
substituting the neutral words for more academic words from the beginning of the unit.

1) The data show that the setup was adequate, but lacking in replicate measurements.
2) The data in the latest study proved not to be as good as in previous ones.
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3) This is a very clear example of the power of the human brain.

4) Unfortunately, the facts do not back up the hypothesis.
5) The authors’ conclusions are based on sound evidence.
6) The problem comes from the fact that the software was poorly designed.
7) We tried to examine the evidence completely before reaching a conclusion.
8) A considerable amount of evidence now exists, but scientists always try to get more.
9) The results were so biased that they were almost unusable.
10) So, we can suppose that participants were unwilling to defy authority figures.

2. Verbs for referring to sources

As discussed by Johnston on the U. of Toronto website, when you cite sources, you can choose
specific verbs to refer to your ideas to illustrate your attitude, whereas “to say” just does not convey
such nuances necessary for critical writing3. Rather, there is a wide choice of such reporting verbs in
English. Here are some grammatical patterns to follow in using these verbs.

Pattern 1: Reporting verb + that + subject + verb

acknowledge admit agree allege argue
assert assume believe claim conclude
consider decide demonstrate deny determine
discover doubt emphasize explain find
hypothesize imply indicate infer note
object observe point out prove reveal
say show state suggest think

Examples:
Da Souza argues that previous researchers have misinterpreted the data.
Researchers have demonstrated that the procedure is harmful.
Positivists find that social disorders are exacerbated by class factors.
Singh infers that both states are essential.

Careful! These verbs all differ in meaning – they cannot be used interchangeably. For example, the
verb argue in the first sample sentence indicates your judgement that the author's conclusion is based
on evidence and reasoning, but that other conclusions might be possible. The verb demonstrate in the
second sentence indicates your judgement that the researchers' evidence and reasoning are so
convincing that no other conclusion is possible.

Note that the verbs in this category may also appear in a subordinate clause beginning with as:

As Da Souza argues, misinterpretations by previous researchers need to be corrected.

As researchers have demonstrated, the procedure is harmful.

Pattern 2: Critical or complementary verb + somebody/something + for + noun/gerund

applaud blame censure criticize disparage

3
Taken from Johnston, M. (n.d.). Verbs for Referring to Sources. University of Toronto. Retrieved online from
http:// www.writing.utoronto.ca/advice/english-as-a-second-language/referring-to-sources
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fault praise ridicule single out thank

Examples:
Smith criticized Jones for his use of incomplete data (OR for using incomplete data).
Both Smith and Jones condemn previous researchers for distorting the data.

Pattern 3: Evaluative verb + somebody/something + as + noun/gerund/adjective

appraise assess characterize class classify
define depict describe evaluate identify
interpret portray present refer view

Examples:
Jones describes the findings as resting on irrefutable evidence.
Smith identifies the open window as a source of contamination.
Smith and Jones both present their data as conclusive.

Exercise
6. Choose the correct word(s) in italics to complete each sentence.

a) The article blames / portrays / admits / evaluates that the relationship between greenhouse
gases and climate change is not as straightforward as some scientists have claimed.

b) Phillips’s theory claims / appraises / challenges / supports the accuracy of Marwart’s figures.

c) Hastings contends / states / argues / explains / asserts / highlights / claims / maintains /

emphasizes that continued population growth will be a more serious problem than global
warming.

d) In his latest article, Bjorn underlines / describes / suggests / stresses / alleges that timing
remains a crucial element of the experimental setup.

e) The author assesses / observes / pretends that large-scale urban planning can go wrong.

f) The laws of physics observe / state / demonstrate that this type of symmetry is common.

g) Smith ends by singling out / characterizing / criticizing / presenting his results as conclusive.

h) For their breakthrough, they were appraised / blamed / praised / censured by the media.

i) The methods used could be said / viewed / portrayed / asserted as innovative yet simple.
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3. False Friends

Students have indubitably encountered words that made them think of similar words in French, only
to be surprised that the English version has another meaning entirely. This brief section will attempt
to remedy such mistakes. Far from being exhaustive, presented to you are some frequent false friends.

1. Choose the correct synonym of the word in the first column:

Actually Currently – at the moment – in reality

Argument Heated discussion – subject – topic – issue

Advertisement Warning – publicity

Comprehensive Exhaustive – understanding – sympathetic

Consistent Substantial – in line with everything else

Convenient Good value – a good idea

Educated With a good cultural background – polite

Eventually In the end – if necessary

Impressed Shocked – horrified – pleasantly surprised

Library Where books can be bought – where books can be borrowed

Occasion Opportunity – a particular moment

Occur To need – to take place

Possibly Perhaps – if possible

Sympathetic Friendly – good fun – nice – understanding

2. Choose the appropriate option (false friends).

a) Fifty dollars was the cost forecast, but sixty dollars is the actual / effective cost.
b) The machine is actual / effective but very expensive.
c) Actually / currently there are only three ways to do this, this paper presents a fourth.
d) They work alternately / alternatively: when one stops the other begins.
e) Alternately / Alternatively, if the software is not available, the old software can be used
instead.
f) Although / Apparently this solution is less powerful, nevertheless it does have considerable
advantages.
g) Although / Apparently their group has discovered a new solution to the problem.
h) Our policy is coherent / consistent with EU policy.
i) There was a considerable / consistent number of mistakes in the translation.
j) This translation is not very consistent / coherent, I can hardly understand a word of it.
k) We checked / controlled the results but found no inconsistencies.
l) The flight paths are checked / controlled by an operator in the control tower.
m) The machines were proved / tested to check that they were in working order.
n) We had not experienced / experimented this problem before.
o) We shall now attempt to prove / test that 2+2=5
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p) We have experimented / proved with various chemicals, but none seems suitable.
q) This institute disposes of / is equipped with 100 computers.
r) They all assume the availability / disposal of a video phone.
s) The availability / disposal of toxic waste can be quite dangerous.
t) Eventually / Where necessary three inputs can be used.
u) Any / Eventual breakdowns can be solved by consulting the manual.
v) In the eventuality / event of fire contact...
w) These plants are very sensible / sensitive to heat.
x) There was a sensible / significant rise in temperature.

4. Misspellings that spell-checking software does not find

Everyone tends to trust their spell-checking (or auto-correct) software. Some misspellings will not be
highlighted because they are words that really exist. The following list is non-exhaustive.

Word Example Word Example

Addition (n) The addition of gold Addiction (n) Their addiction to

led to higher values. cannabis has led to
behavioural problems.

Analyses / zes (v) The software analyses Analyses (n pl., sing. We carried out two
the data. Analysis) analyses.

Assesses (v) We assess the pros and Asses (n pl.) Horses and asses
cons. (equus asinus)

Context (n) The meaning of a Contest (n) This is basically a

word may depend on contest between males
the context. and females.

Chose (inf. Choose) In the past we always Choice (n) The rationale behind
chose this method the choice was...
because...

Drawn (inf. Draw) Conclusions are drawn Drown (inf.) The fish drown in the
in Section 5. nets.

Fell (inf. Fall) The tree fell on the Felt (inf. Feel) The patients said they
house. all felt anxious.

Filed (inf. File) It is filed under Field (n) The field of ICT is
“docs”. ever growing.

Form (v) We would like to form From (prep) Professor Yang is

a new group. from China.

Found (inf. Find) We found high values Founded (inf. Found) IBM was founded in
in... 1911.

Lose (inf.) Companies may lose a Loose (adj.) There is only a loose
lot of money. connection between
the two.
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Rely (v) We rely on CEOs to Relay (v, n) This relays the

lake good decisions. information to the
train’s onboard
computer.

Than (conj., adv.) This is better than that. Then (adv.) After Stage 1, we then
added the liquid.

Thanks (n, pl.) Thanks are due to the Tanks (n) The fish were stored in
following people: ... water tanks.

Though (adv., conj.) The overheads are Tough (adj.) This is a tough
high, though the question to answer.
performance is
excellent.

Through (prep) This was achieved Trough (n) Pigs eat from a trough.
through a comparative
study of ...

Two Two replications were Tow (v) The car is equipped to

made. tow a caravan.

Three Tests were repeated Tree Tests were conducted

three times. on an apple tree.

Use (v, n) We use a method Sue (v) Patients frequently sue

developed by ... their physicians for
malpractice.

Weighed (inf. Weigh) The samples were Weighted (adj.) The weighted values
dried and then were obtained by
weighed. dividing the integral of
the ...

Which (pronoun) This worked well, Witch (n) Life often ended early
which was surprising for a witch in
considering that... medieval times.

With (conj.) We worked with them Whit (n) Whit is a religious

in 2013. festival.
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5. Academic writing structures

This section sums up the very useful information found in the MacMillan English Dictionary for
Advanced Learners, which is certainly worth buying for advanced learners of scientific English. In
academic writing, replace the words and structures in the left column by those in the right column.
When speaking, a certain degree of informality is acceptable, and even preferable.

Informal writing or speech Academic writing

a lot, lots of**, tons of** a number of (+ plural)/a great deal of (+ UC)
big / little significant, considerable / slight
really, very significantly, considerably, highly, or Ø
good / bad acceptable, consistent, accurate/poor, inconsistent,
inaccurate
don’t, can’t, it’s, isn’t do not, cannot, it is, is not
etc. / … / and so on Ø (finish the list with and, the final item, and period)
In addition, moreover, furthermore
Besides, Thus
So It seems that; It is likely/probable/possible that
I think/believe that perhaps
maybe although
though (as a conjunction) despite
in spite of first
at first, firstly finally
lastly i.e., that is
that is to say argue, maintain, assert, acknowledge …
say view
opinion according to X
in X’s opinion
To sum up In summary
Nowadays today
** Highly informal
The words topic, subject and theme serve to introduce your ideas in a neutral way while
issue and question are used to present ideas in a more forceful way. Also, remember the
difference between problem and issue: “Artificial insemination has always been a
controversial issue”. An issue is something that can be disputed or called into question,
while a problem is usually more negative and/or definitive.
Recap Exercises
7. Each of the following sentences contains one or several mistakes. Find and correct them.

a) As a conclusion, women are still often discriminated against.

b) The Ministry of Education claimed that children should get more free time.

c) According to me, a large number of students spend lots of time on theoretical courses.

d) As the author argued, religion tried to answer people’s questions about things like life, death,
truth, …

e) Garlic sausages are made in many countries, namely France, Germany, Poland, etc.

f) As it will be explained in the following chapters, the difference lies in the time the animal
spends resting between meals.

g) Nowadays children play with technological toys (i.e., video games).

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8. The following text is taken from a student’s report; while the text is grammatically correct, it is
far too informal for academic purposes. As your friend has asked you to proofread his text, it’s
your job to highlight the informal words or expressions and rewrite those expressions on the blank
page opposite.

I chose to do an internship in archeometry because I think it’s really interesting. During this
exercise, I got to follow Ms Garcia around for two days in a big research laboratory, which
was totally exciting. The research she was carrying out is way too complicated for me to
explain in detail here, so I’m gonna sum up in a few words. In short, Ms Garcia studies the
effect of earthquakes on tides, the atmosphere, … Anyway, the first day, she showed me a
little presentation about the team, and then we went on a little tour of the labs. Everyone was
really nice, and I had a lot of stuff I wanted to discuss with the other team members regarding
their jobs. But there were way too many things to do that day, so we didn’t spend a lot of time
talking with the others. That’s too bad, but I’m so excited that I got the chance to see how a
lab works. There is a big difference between what we learn in our classes and what the real
world is like!