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Adoption of Tissue Culture in Horticulture
Adoption of Tissue Culture in Horticulture:
A Study of Banana-Growing Farmers
from a South-Indian State

By

Ch. Krishna Rao

 Adoption of Tissue Culture in Horticulture:
A Study of Banana-Growing Farmers from a South-Indian State
By Ch. Krishna Rao

This book first published 2014

Cambridge Scholars Publishing

12 Back Chapman Street, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2XX, UK

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Copyright © 2014 by Ch. Krishna Rao

All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner.

ISBN (10): 1-4438-5580-4, ISBN (13): 978-1-4438-5580-8

 CONTENTS

Acknowledgments ..................................................................................... vii

Chapter I ...................................................................................................... 1
Introduction

Chapter II ................................................................................................... 37
Methodology

Chapter III ................................................................................................. 53

Conventional Cultivation of Banana Fruit Production

Chapter IV ................................................................................................. 77
Tissue Culture Banana Cultivation

Chapter V .................................................................................................. 91
Adoption of Tissue Banana Cultivation: A Socio-Economic
Profile of Farmers

Chapter VI ............................................................................................... 103

Tissue Culture Banana Production: Input and Output Linkages

Chapter VII .............................................................................................. 135

Conclusion

References ............................................................................................... 147

Appendix I ............................................................................................... 153

Appendix II.............................................................................................. 159

 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Firstly I would like to express my sincere thankfulness to my research

supervisor Prof. E. Haribabu, Pro-Vice Chancellor and former Head of the
Department of Sociology, for his guidance and constant encouragement
throughout my work. His professionalism and commitment to research
inspired me a lot to pursue my science, technology and society
specialization. It is a great privilege to work under his guidance, and I
thank him for providing an opportunity to me.
I get great satisfaction from a small achievement in this academic
journey. And it is not a one-man effort; it includes the constant support of
my near and dear.
I am very thankful to Cambridge Scholars Publishing house for giving
me an opportunity to publish my thesis in book form.
I am very thankful for the cooperation extended by the farmers of
Kadapa, West Godavari, Rangareddi, and Medak districts of Andhra
Pradesh for their help during my field work.
I am very happy to express my thankfulness to Dr. G. Nagaraju,
Associate Professor, Department of Sociology and Dr. Ramdas of the
Department of Political Science, University of Hyderabad, for inspiring
me to publish this book with Cambridge Scholars Publishing. It gives me
immense pleasure to express my thankfulness to my junior, Mr. Silveru
Harinath, for his continuous interest in publishing the book.
And, to my wife, Bharni Kiran, and my son, Shyam Pramukh, for their
co-operation in the completion of my book.
 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Society provides human, physical and cultural resources for the growth
and development of science and technology. Developments in Science and
Technology influence Society. Technology and Society are obviously in a
reciprocal relationship. All social Institutions are affected by Technology
(Jerry Gaston, 1980). Changes in social institutions may be brought about
by several other factors in addition to science and technology. The study
of social change acquired significance after the Second World War,
because of the increased emphasis on planned change and development by
the developing countries, after they gained political independence.
Understanding influence of technology in bringing about social change
has assumed greater significance in sociological research with the
development of technologies such as Information Technology and
Biotechnology. The present study aims at understanding the influence of
the adoption of tissue culture, one of the techniques of biotechnology, on
the social organization of production, and social relations in the production
process, attitudes, knowledge and practices associated with cultivation of
fruit crops, which have been commercially important in the context of
increasing demand for fruit.

Social Change: Concept and Existing Theories

Social change implies change in the social system over a period of time.
MacIver and Page (1986) viewed social change as distinct from cultural
change, and defined social change as “change in social relationships, every
change in man’s relations to his environment leads to some change in his
relation to his fellow beings”. Harry M. Johnson (1966) defines social
change as a change in social structure. Social structure includes structural
elements like statuses, roles, groups, sub-groups, and collectivity. Hence,
change in any one of these structural elements may be regarded as social
change. Bottomore (1962) defined social change as change in the social
structure (including changes in the size of society) or in a particular social
institution or in the relationships between institutions.
2 Chapter I

Social change has certain distinctions on the basis of the dimensions of

change. These are (i) time (ii) magnitude. Short-term and long-term
changes represent the temporal dimension of change. By and large, large-
scale change corresponds to long-term change, and small-scale change to
short-term change. The number of units is affected by change: the more
units affected by change, the greater the magnitude of change.

Culture Change
Structural and cultural changes are interrelated. Changes in social structure,
the system of social relations in terms of class, caste, gender and power
relations, may trigger changes in culture, attitudes, values, and systems of
meaning. Similarly, change in culture may bring about changes in social
structure. Sociologists have been engaged in formulating theories about
social change. Sociologists have been focusing on understanding the
factors that bring about social change in the economy, polity and culture.

Structural-Functionalist Theory
Structural-functionalist theory assumes that there is order in society and
there is consensus on the value framework that underlies the order. Each
institution serves certain functions in maintaining the order of the society.
When events from outside or inside disrupt the social system, the social
order, comprised of interrelated social institutions, makes adjustments to
restore stability. This perspective has its roots in the work of the early
sociologists, especially Durkheim (1950), Herbert Spencer (1903), and
Radcliff-Brown (1952). Among contemporary scholars, it is most closely
associated with the work of Parsons (1951) and Merton (1969). According
to Parsons (1951), the sources of change can be classified as endogenous
(from within the social system) or exogenous (from outside the social
system); very often, both sources work together and influence the
magnitude of change (Coser, 1971).
Structural-functionalists argue that change generally occurs in a
gradual fashion and not in sudden, violent, radical fashion. Change in the
social order, which is based on consensus on the value framework that
underlies the social order, undergoes change with gradual changes in the
values related to different institutions that comprise the social order. Even
changes that appear to be drastic have not been able to make a great or
lasting impact on the core elements of the social and cultural system. A
change, according to Parsons (1951) and Merton (1968), comes from
basically three sources:
 Introduction 3

i) Adjustment of the system to exogenous changes (e.g. War,

Conquest);
ii) Growth through structural and functional differentiation (e.g.
change in the size of the population through births and deaths);
iii) Innovations by members of groups within society (e.g. inventions
and discoveries in a society).

Because structural-functionalists’ concern is for ‘social order,’ they are

often criticized for not dealing with the problems of social change
adequately.

Conflict Theory
Conflict theory takes the principle of dialectic as central to social life.
Conflict theorists do not assume that societies evolve smoothly from lower
to higher or more complex levels. According to this theory, every pattern
of action, belief, and interaction tends to generate opposing reaction.
Marx, in his theory of class struggle, developed the idea of social
change resulting from internal conflicts. For Marx, social change is not a
smooth, orderly progression, which gradually unfolds in harmonious
evolution. Marx believed that the class struggle was the driving force of
social change. Marx’s views on history are based on the idea of the
dialectic. Dialectical movement represents a struggle of opposites, a
conflict of contradictions. Conflict provides the dynamic principle, the
source of change. Contradiction between relations of production and
forces of production manifests as class conflict.
Haralambos (1980) paraphrases Marx’s theory of social change as
follows: societies change from one type, characterized by a given mode of
production, to another type characterized by another mode of production,
through revolutionary politics.
Conflict resolution through revolution results in a new social formation,
which allows the growth of productive forces up to a point. When
contradiction between relations of production and forces of production
becomes sharp, the contradiction relates the conditions for another
revolution through class struggle. The growth of forces of production,
which is a result of the capacity to produce, is essentially a function of
scientific and technical knowledge, technological equipment, and the
organization of the labour force (Raymond Aron, 1965).
4 Chapter I

Science, Technology and Social Change:

Intertwining Relationship
Both structural-functional theory and Marxist theory recognize the
significance of inventions and discoveries for social change. For
structural-functionalists the inventions and discoveries bring about social
change gradually. For Marx, science and technology are part of the forces
of production which come into the sharp contradiction with relations of
production. As contradictions cannot remain unresolved beyond a point,
the contradiction manifests itself as class conflict and paves the way for
qualitative change in the relations of production.
Science in the most general sense is any systematic study of physical
and social phenomena. Ina restricted sense; science is the study of physical
and social phenomena involving observation, experimentation, appropriate
quantification and the search for universal general laws and explanations.
And science could be referred to as any specific branch of knowledge in
either of the above senses (e.g. social sciences).
Science is social in nature, because science is pursued by human
beings in a social environment to produce new knowledge. Science is
concerned with understanding the basic natural process in the universe;
technology is concerned with developing innovative processes and
products (Jerry Gaston, 1980).Science is the act of ‘knowing’ and
‘technology’ is the act of doing. This conception of science and
technology has been challenged by Haraway (1998),who argued that
science and technology are interpenetrating systems, and she uses the term’
techno-science’ to describe this (quoted in McKenzie and Wazcman, 1999;
pp. 41-49).
In sociology, science is seen as involving a complex process of social
production, working upon and transforming previously existing
knowledge. As a socially located phenomenon, science must also be
recognized as occurring in a social context in which the cultural values and
interests of the scientist, and also the wider interests, always potentially
influence the production of knowledge. According to David Jary and Julia
Jary (1995), sociology of science is concerned with the study of the social
processes involved in the production of scientific knowledge, as well as
the social implications of this knowledge, including technology. For
Durkheim (1915), science is a specialized social activity. Michael Mulkay
(1979) called science a “socio-cultural phenomenon”. According to J. D.
Bernal (1983), science is a major factor in maintaining and improving
production. Science and technology have been recognized as important
factors that bring about structural and cultural changes in human society.
 Introduction 5

As mentioned earlier, technology is one of the important sources of social

change, and technological change produces transformations in all spheres
of social life.
Technology is a vitally important aspect of the human condition. Our
lives are intertwined with technology from simple tools to large technical
systems. Some societies are more responsive to change than others. The
response to change depends upon the level of technological advancement.
Today, the distinction between science and technology is difficult to
maintain because of the interpenetration of science and technology.

Technology: Definitions
Technology constitutes generally, tools, machines, instruments, weapons,
appliances; physical devices and associated skills, methods, procedures,
routines activities, and so on. The rise of man from his apelike ancestors
has depended on his ability to make and use tools. In the few thousand
years that have passed since the discovery of agriculture, man’s power
over his surroundings has been growing at an ever-increasing rate (Nicol
Russell, 1978).
According to the International Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences,
technology is described as “bodies of skill, knowledge, and procedures for
making, using and doing useful things” (Julius Gould, William L. Kolb,
1969).
Technology refers to the application of cultural knowledge to tasks of
living in the environment. It centres on processes that are primarily
biological and physical, rather than psychological and social processes.
They represent the cultural traditions developed in human communities for
dealing with the physical and biological environment, which includes the
human biological organism itself. Technology is defined here as a method
of using science in producing goods and services. It is a parameter of the
system and determined by scientists and technologists (Nicol Russell,
1978).
The term technology also implies: (a) a body of means and skills
characteristic of a particular civilization, community or period; (b) technical
methods used in a particular field of industry. In other words technology
has three components: i) hardware, i.e. the tools, equipment; ii) software,
i.e. knowledge underlying the construction of hardware; and iii) orgware,
i.e. social organization required for implementation of the technology.
David Jary and Julia Jary (1995), observe that technology is the
practical application of knowledge and use of techniques in productive
activities. This definition reflects a sociological concern with technology
6 Chapter I

as a social product, which incorporates both the ‘hardware’ of human

artefacts, such as tools and machines, and the software knowledge and
ideas involved in different productive activities. More recent developments
in energy production and information technology may, however, depend
upon innovations derived from organized science, sometimes technology
is referred to in the narrow sense as machines, whereas wider definitions
include productive systems as a whole and even work organization and the
division of labour. The narrow definition tends to treat technology as
autonomous and ignore the social processes involved in the design and
choice of technology; more inclusive definitions make it difficult to
distinguish between the technology and the social arrangements with
which it is related.

Relationship between Science and Technology

The relationship between science and technology is one of the most
controversial problems confronting historians and philosophers interested
in technology and its history. John Staudenmeier (1985) has pointed out
that they have argued ceaselessly over competing interpretations of the
relationship. The philosopher Mario Bunge (1966) has maintained that
successful technological practice depends on the systematic application of
scientific knowledge. Science influences history in two major ways: i) by
the change in the methods of production, and ii) by the impact of its
findings and ideas on the ideology of the period.
All science is simply an intensified form of technology, generated by
the material needs of society. Throughout the greater part of history,
improvements in techniques have arisen mostly under the stimulus of the
immediate advantage they would give to certain individuals or classes
(Bernal J. D, 1983).
Technology has changed radically in quantity and quality over the
millennia. The rise of technological sciences occurred only with the
creation of a community of practitioners separate from either the body of
inventors or that of scientists. The new group of specialists, who came to
be called engineers, possessed scientific training, a grasp of mathematics
and physics, and an intimate knowledge of technology. During the first
decades of the 19th century, iron became a common material in the
construction of building, bridges and other structures.
Technology is not neutral with respect to history, class, country and
factor endowments, and technological changes take place with the
development of technological knowledge (Stewart Richards, 1983).
Technology is a social activity, all the social sciences-Sociology, Economics,
 Introduction 7

Psychology, Political Science, Anthropology - are also pertinent to studies

of its social origins and influences of technology.
Donald Cardwell (1965) argued that the growth of science owes a great
deal too technological practice, as technological artefacts have provided
tools and the techniques for exploring the new ideas. Edwin Layton (1977)
argues that science and technology are not abstract functions of knowing
and doing; they are social (p. 209).
According to Otto Mayr (1976) this search for a single, timeless
account of the relationship between science and technology may be so
fruitless because it is a fundamentally flawed endeavour. The critical terms,
“science” and “technology”, Otto Mayr (1976) argues, cannot be treated as
invariant across different periods of history and different cultural contexts.
These terms should be treated as historical objects whose invention and
ever-changing definition and mutual relationship cry out for explanation.

Theories of Technology Development

As mentioned earlier, society provides the context and conditions for
growth and development of technology. One of the theories of technology
is technological determinism. This theory assumes that technology is both
autonomous and has determinate effects on society. Technology is seen as
a political and as an independent variable in social change. This
assumption is criticized for ignoring the social processes and choices,
which guide the use of technology and the variety of possible social
arrangements, which coexist with different types of technology. In
Langdon Winner’s words (Mackenzie, 1985) technology could be political
because it is designed, consciously or unconsciously, to open certain social
options and close others. The technological deterministic approach looks
at technology as an independent factor that causes changes in the social
economic, political and cultural aspects of human society. The socio-
technical systems approach focuses on functional groups, i.e. builders,
inventors, engineers, managers, and financiers, and on inventing and
controlling technological systems, heterogeneous social classes/groups,
disciplines, organizations and institutions which become part of the
‘seamless web’ (Hughes, 1986).
The Actor-Network theory emphasizes the relations between actors of
technical and non-technical worlds (Callon, 1986; Latour, 1987; Law,
1987).The notion of ‘actors,’ physical and social, that are involved in the
development of technological systems, replaces the conventional categories
distinguishing animate and inanimate things and forces.
8 Chapter I

The general perception is that new technologies are developed or

existing technologies are upgraded to enhance the efficiency whether in
the field of agriculture or industrial production. The latent object of all
technological improvement is economic efficiency. However, the
consequences of scientific and technological advancement are not just
confined to economics, but pervade all areas of life. This means that there
are always two sides to the advancement of science and technology. On
the one hand, the advance of instrumental rationality or of seeking the
most efficient means to achieve a given end entails an increasing mastery
over the natural and social worlds. On the other, this process also brings
about the increasing impersonality of the external conditions of life. That
is why Brubaker (1984) endorses Weber’s argument that regards science
and technology as central to the process of “disenchantment” or the
increasing extension of instrumental rationality throughout the social
world.
The pervasive influence of technology on society in the contemporary
world is much more widely noticed and seems qualitatively different from
that of past societies. This is for the following obvious reasons. One, the
present day tools are more powerful than any before. For example, while
the domestication of animals and invention of the wheel literally turned
food production around and lifted the burden from man’s back, nowadays
computers have freed human beings from all their hectic and complex
labours. Compared to the rifle of yester year, nuclear weapons of the
modern day could wipe out mankind from the earth. Second, as the quality
and finality of modern technology has improved, it has brought the society
to explicit awareness of technology as an important determinant of human
beings and institutions (Mesthne, 1972).
Technology has been viewed as an important tool in the advancement
of production processes. As a consequence, production processes have
become complex skill-based, mechanized, and automated. Marx (1974),
while analysing the division of labour in the age of technology-driven
industrial revolution, distinguished between organic manufacture and
heterogeneous manufacture. In organic manufacture, the basic raw
material passes through a sequence of stages in which it is converted into
the finished product. In heterogeneous manufacture, different parts are
manufactured by a large number of detail workers and these parts are
collected for the final assembly worker. For example, the making of a
watch used to be an individual product of one craftsman, but in the 19th
century, it became the social product of a large number of workers, like
dial makers, hairspring makers, screw makers and gliders. Marx (1974)
did not consider the worker who assembles all the parts at the end in order
 Introduction 9

to make a watch as a craftsman, despite his skill, since he did not work
directly for the customer, but for the capitalist who organized the
coordination of various component parts (Goody, 1982).
One of the most significant outcomes of technological advancement in
the production process during the eighteenth century was the Industrial
Revolution. The most important change brought about by the Industrial
Revolution was transformation of craft based production to industrial
production. Craft based production lacks specialization and division of
labour. However, industrial revolution led to specialization and a high
degree of division of labour. For example, making pins was broken into 18
separate operations which could be carried out by as many workers with
an astonishing 240 fold increase in productivity, using the same technique
and tools (Adam Smith, 1776).
In the late twentieth century, with the application of biotechnologies,
work in agricultural production processes is undergoing a transition
comparable in scope and magnitude to the Industrial Revolution. The
Industrial Revolution, brought about by capital investments in machines,
was so revolutionary that it substituted mechanical in place of animal and
human energy (Simpson, 1999). However, the bio-revolution seems to be
more revolutionary, brought about by capital and intellectual investments
in general and Research and Development labs that substitute for field and
farmer.

Technology and Social Change

As mentioned above, technology is one of the important sources of social
change, and technological changes produce transformation in all the
spheres of agriculture, industry and services. Technology improves
efficiency, productivity. It affects social relations among workers in the
work place, and also in class relations in a society. Sometimes
technological choices are governed by the goal of controlling the process
of production and the workforce involved in production.
The changes in the levels of and the nature of technology in any sphere
of activity, be it production, education or entertainment, will have an effect
on various aspects of social institutions and culture, thus leading to social
change. The choice of an alternate and new technology in the place of an
old technology will alter the roles of relationships between individuals,
their attitudes, and their values in the course of time, and this leads to
social change.
The knowledge underlying technology, interlinked beliefs and values,
the degree of complexity and the degree of contact it has with the cultures
10 Chapter I

of other societies, are important sources of social and cultural change.

Rahman (1978) believes that science and technology bring deeper changes
in attitudes and value systems, and technology satisfies the basic needs and
helps in removing traditional inequalities in society (Sharma and Qureshi,
1978).
Ogburn (1979) coined a term “cultural lag” to describe the disequilibrium
between material and non-material aspects of a culture. He pointed out
how changes in non-material culture, such as values, belief, norms, family,
or religion, lag behind changes in material culture, that is, technology,
means of production, and output of the economic system.
Ogburn has pointed out that social change is the result of a combination
of new inventions. Since cultural change influences the social relations of
people, it also tends to increase the pace of social change at a greater
tempo through time. Often material inventions result in undermining the
established social patterns and giving rise to new patterns as a result of
them.
Technological innovations are accepted readily from the utility point of
view, but social norms and values are more traditional and get adjusted
much more slowly and gradually compared to the changes in material
conditions. According to Ogburn (1979), various parts of modern culture
are thus not changing at the same rate, since there is a correlation and
interdependences between several parts, or rapid change in one part
necessitating change in the correlated parts of culture.
As per the Human Development Report (2001), technological change,
like all changes, poses risks as shown by the industrial disaster in Bhopal
(India), the nuclear disaster in Chernobyl (Ukraine), the birth defects from
thalidomide, and the depletion of the ozone layer by chlorofluorocarbons.
This report also remarked that technological breakthroughs without
attendant social and infrastructural change could produce distorted results,
being witnessed in India today in the simultaneous existence of grain
stocks and hunger in several states, albeit drought related (HDR, 2001);
agriculture is one of the areas where technological improvements have
been contributing to increased productivity over time.

Technology and Agriculture

Technology plays a very key role in agricultural productivity. According
to the 1997 World Bank Report, about 12% of the world’s total land
surface is used to grow crops, about 30% is forest or woodland, 26% is
pasture or meadow. The reminder, one third, is used for other human
purposes or is unusable because of the climate or topography. In 1961, the
 Introduction 11

amount of land supporting food production was 0.44 hectares per capita.
Today it is 0.26 hectares per capita, and based on population projections, it
will be in the vicinity of 0.2% a year and continues to fall.
Under these circumstances, there is a need to increase productivity per
hectare to feed the increasing population with the decreasing amount of
land available for cultivation. Global agriculture has been steadily gaining
in production over the past few decades. However, it has not been
successful in overcoming the problem of rising demand, which is a result
of the increasing population. The challenge is immense because, by 2050,
global demand for food may be three times greater than today. Moreover,
during the past two decades the production growth has declined, dropping
from 3% annually during the 1960s to 2.4% in the 1970s, and finally to 2.2%
in the 1980s.
On a global basis, average yields per hectare of wheat, rice and maize
have climbed fairly steadily since 1961. The aggregate figures nonetheless
mask some disturbing regional trends. In Asia, for instance, rice yields
rose drastically in the 1960s with the introduction of new varieties and
management practices. Yields continued to increase in the 1970s, but in
the 1980s began to level off or decline.
According to Wenke (1980), agriculture was made possible by
advancements in technology. Similarly, agriculture allows for further
increases in population. As people come into contact with one another,
there is diffusion of crops, which has resulted in increased diversity of
foodstuffs to consume. Norman Borlaug (1981) lists twenty-three plants
that form the base of world agriculture, as indicated in Table No. 1.1.
Over 80% of harvested food by weight is from plants, and just about
half of all food and calories are from the five cereal grains. When
domesticated plants are diffused to new regions, varieties are bred and
adapted to fit the environmental circumstances. Most of the plants have
been crossed with local varieties to fit micro climatic and cultural needs. It
is interesting to note that the majority of wheat and rice production of the
third world comes from plants which share a common ancestry. This is a
cause of concern, as this is a prescription for disaster because this will lead
to a loss of genetic diversity among the crops.
According to Krimsky and Wrubel (1996), although cultivation of
crops was carried out through the past ten to fifteen thousand years, the
technological advancements started only 200 years ago. These include
mechanization, plant-breeding hybridization, chemical based pesticides
and herbicides, and chemical fertilizers. The Green Revolution, a set of
techniques involving use of high yielding varieties, assured irrigation
facilities, use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, institutional credit
12 Chapter I

facilities, etc., has radically transformed the agriculture scenario in third

world countries.

Table No. 1.1: The twenty-three main crops that form the base of
world agriculture

Category Varieties
Five cereals Wheat, rice, maize, sorghum and
barely
Three root crops Potato, sweet potato and Cassava
Two sugar crops Sugar cane and sugar beet
Six grain legumes (pulses) Dry beans, dry peas, chick pea,
broad bean, ground nut and Soya
bean
Three oil seeds Cotton seed, sunflower and rape
seed (the pulses groundnut and
Soya bean are also oil seeds)
Four tree crops Banana, coconut, orange and apple
Source: A Theory of Technology: Continuity and Change in Human Development,
Thomas R. DeGregori, Ames: The Iowa State University Press, 1982.

Green Revolution Technology in India

In India, the Green Revolution was heralded in the mid-nineteen sixties
with the introduction of high yielding dwarf varieties of Mexican wheat
and some exotic varieties of paddy on a selected scale. Parthasararthy
(1971) stated that the Green Revolution altered social relationships on the
farm, caused shift of power within the rural sector from one class to
another, and in addition implied fundamental changes in farm economy
and in the inter-relationships between the farm and external world. He
summed up that it was an Agrarian revolution/Agricultural transformation.
The Green Revolution is the net outcome of a particular type of
agrarian system covering a wide variety of measures to enhance the
agrarian output. This revolution is based on high yielding varieties of
seeds (HYVS) with closely associated agricultural technology, manures,
chemical fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides, weedicides, biological
stimulators, along with capital investment under well-guided irrigation
facilities, i.e., mechanical, chemical, biological and hydrological inputs are
essential for such agrarian transformation.
Introduction of institutional inputs with regard to land reforms,
consolidation of land holdings, banking system and credit facilities,
 Introduction 13

associated service infrastructure in the form of rural link roads, rural

electrification tube well irrigation, marketing support, storage facilities,
etc., have also been instrumental in bringing about the Green Revolution.
These institutional inputs have brought structural changes in agrarian
economy in the country. Keeping all other facilities aside, the introduction
and developments in the field of irrigation - tube wells and canals - have
been most rewarding in the genesis of the Green Revolution.
Spatially, the Green Revolution is limited to certain parts of the
country where necessary infrastructural development in associate aspects
is better than other regions. The most prominent among such areas are
North-Western Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Chandigarh, Delhi, Western
Uttar Pradesh, Regions of the Northern Plains, Krishna-Godavari Delta,
Coastal Tamil Nadu (Thanjavur Area), and parts of Maharashtra.
The Green Revolution is appreciably localized in some particular areas
of toiling farming communities like the Jats (Punjab, Haryana, Western
Uttar Pradesh),the Reddys (Andhra Pradesh) and the Gounders (Tamil
Nadu),who have been entrepreneur cultivators since ages past, and they
carry almost a mystical love for their farm holdings (Singh, 1974). In
Punjab and Haryana, besides an economically viable and socially
acceptable technological package, the public polices and service provided
were conducive for giving a lead in the field of agricultural affluence
(Chopra, 1982).
As per Surender Singh’s perceptions (1992), regional disparities have
been widened in India in rural development after the Green Revolution.
This has led to many socio-cultural and politico-economic repercussions in
the country.
Like land reforms, farm machinery has also been instrumental in
augmenting farm production. Farm machinery is the direct form of energy
input in the agrarian sector. Farm machinery has resulted in several
structural changes in agrarian economy in India. The tractor is the basic
piece of farm machinery, which is capable of supporting other mechanical
inputs. Punjab has only 1.53 per cent of the total geographical area of the
country, but has over 25 per cent of the tractors and 8 per cent of the tube
wells of the country (Surender Singh, 1998).
Similarly, the highest ratio of stationary threshers, combine harvesters,
tillers, harrows, puddles and chemical-spraying apparatus etc. in Punjab, is
also proving the relationship between the Green Revolution and farm
mechanization. The process of farm mechanization has been directly
instrumental in the realization of the Green Revolution.
Increased productivity, area, and production of certain crops have also
influenced the market mechanism in the agrarian sector. Over 60% of the
14 Chapter I

food grain production in Punjab, Haryana, part of north-western Rajasthan,

and western Uttar Pradesh is rendered surplus to be marketed. Farm input
requirements also increased tremendously with the advent of the Green
Revolution, demanding huge investment in a traditional static agrarian
landscape. It has resulted in the stimulation of institutional infrastructural
development in rural areas, which indicates the consequence, as well as
the stimulator, of agrarian development.
Technological transformation of agriculture in India has not resulted in
dramatic changes, and moreover, its localized nature has set a chain
reaction for surrounding peripheral areas for agrarian reforms and
development. Rural roads have also proved to be carriers of agrarian
progress and a means of rural development. It has eased the transportation
of inputs and marketing outputs.
The self-sufficiency of food grains in India may be ascribed to the
Green Revolution. Annual food grain production in the country was 51
million tonnes in 1948, which touched 120 million tonnes in 1976, 150
million tonnes in 1984, and 151 million tonnes in 1986, recording an
overall growth of three times in thirty-seven years. Suchan increase in the
agrarian sector has never been recorded in India. It has been possible due
to the increase in cropping intensity. This development has not only made
India self-sufficient in food grains, but has also generated a deep-rooted
confidence of feeding its fast increasing population.
The realization of the Green Revolution in India is primarily achieved
through expansion in irrigation facilities. In 1949-50, the total irrigated
area in the country was little over 19 million hectares, which increased to
over 63 million hectares in 1983-84, and 70.4 million hectares in 1986-87,
recording an overall growth of 3.7 times in thirty-seven years. It has
resulted in all round changes in endogenous and exogenous linkages of
agriculture’s, agricultural community, villages and society, breaking the
isolation of the peasantry. The total estimated potential of irrigation in the
country has been estimated at around 113 million hectares. This increase is
possible in the northern, western and southern regions of the country, and
these areas have already out-run other areas in agricultural yields (Soni,
1987).
The Green Revolution has been the cause of the unusual spread of rice
(a wet crop) to relatively dry areas of the country, notably in Haryana,
Punjab, and North-Western Rajasthan, due to the assured supply of water
for irrigation from canals and tube wells. Similarly, wheat has perpetrated
in non-traditional areas of Haryana, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, west Bengal, and Assam, giving a
new dimension to our agrarian landscape. The constant rise in production
 Introduction 15

is the outcome of balanced interaction among various favourable forces,

including proper inputs, encouraging policies, and quick adaptability of
the farm community (Singh, 1987). The Green Revolution has not only
changed the agrarian landscape but also helped other economic activities
based on agro-products governing a new set up to farming systems.
Food grain production in Punjab was 32 lakh tonnes in 1960-61, which
touched the figure of 172 lakh tonnes in 1985-86, recording an overall
increase of 5.4 times in 25 years, resulting in socio-economic changes in
rural Punjab. During 1968-69, wheat recorded an increase of 229.5 per
cent, rice 1221.2 per cent, sugarcane 20.9 per cent, rapeseed 80.1 per cent,
and mustarded 126.9 per cent, which, except the sugarcane, is much higher
than the national average. The Realization of the Green Revolution comes
through the increased productivity of cereal crops. In 1966-67, the average
yield of wheat in the country was 8.8 quintals per hectare, which reached
13.8 quintals per hectare in 1971-72, and 18.2 quintals per hectare in
1982-83, recording an overall increase of about 2.1 times in sixteen years.
In the corresponding period, wheat yield in Punjab was 15.1 quintal
per hectare in 1966-67, which rose to 24.1 quintals per hectare in 1971-72,
and 30 quintals per heater in 1982-83. In Haryana, it was 14.3 quintals per
hectare in 1966-67, 20.4 quintals per hectare in 1971-72, and 25.2 quintals
in 1982-83. Growth in yield in Punjab was two times and in Haryana 1.8
times. On average, the yields in Punjab and Haryana are numbers one and
two in India. Similarly, increasing yield in other crops has also been
recorded. The level of yield indirectly reveals the level of inputs for
enhancing production and also indicates the potentialities (Singh, 1987).
The phenomenal rise in area for cereals and their production may be
attributed to the carefully planned inputs strategy in the field of judicious
use of fertilizers, high yielding seeds, and availability of water for
irrigating the thirsty lands, along with crop protection programmes,
various incentives, subsides, and procurement of cereals by various
Government agencies to provide the economic umbrella to the farming
community and avoiding the situation of glut in the market. This has all
resulted in the orientation of the agrarian system in the country in favour
of cereal crops, which has deeply influenced other crops (Singh, 1987).

Socio-Economic Impact of Green Revolution Technology

Socio-economic impacts of the Green Revolution have been different in
various areas according to geographic and socio-political environment. It
has averted famine and hunger, despite the brunt of the population
explosion in various parts of the globe, including India.
16 Chapter I

So it may not be improper to designate it as the food grain revolution.

No doubt, the Green Revolution has heralded the era of self-sufficiency in
food grains, but not without repercussions and problems in the socio-
cultural and economic-political fields, because the dynamism of the Green
Revolution has been introduced into a tradition-bound, static, rural society
in India. The process of change in the traditional rural societies is usually
very slow, and accepted values are cherished despite their outmoded
nature.
Agriculture is a land-based occupation, which is a non-elastic and
immovable resource. After the Green Revolution, the significance of
landholdings has tremendously increased along with their social values. It
has also increased their demand, and with the increasing productivity, this
demand is also rising fast. Land holding is fast emerging as the point of
social power and status. As the new techniques are not favourable for
small holding farmers, so such people sell their meagre holdings and
become landless labourers. It has also been observed that the farmers with
medium holdings (6-12hectares) are eager to increase their holdings. An
important relationship exists between land and people who strive about the
nature of property rights, distribution of ownership and control of land,
system of land division, and settlement patterns (Smith, 1959). Such
relationships are constantly changing in the areas of the Green Revolution.
Land transaction directly influences the distribution of holdings
according to size. The numbers of large and medium sized holdings
increase, and small sized ones are abolished due to land transactions. Thus
the position of operational land holdings’ size seems to be controlled by
economic and technological forces. Heralding of the Green Revolution has
made the traditionally popular system of tenancy cultivation unpopular,
and the holding owners now prefer to cultivate their holdings themselves,
owing to enhanced returns. The Green Revolution has also adversely
affected the share-crops, tenant farmers, and landless agricultural labourers,
because 40 percent of farm households (over 8 hectares) are economically
capable of investing in the Green Revolution. It has made the rich farmer
richer and has resulted in the concentration of wealth and rural power in
the hands of rich farmers, while the poor peasants have not benefitted at all
(Dutt and Sen, 1986).
Similarly, benami transfers of the land on a very large scale in these
areas have also adversely affected the poor and landless farmers, as the
Government could get very little surplus land to be distributed among
them. The Green Revolution has caused a decrease in the number of small
and medium farmers due to economic and technological constraints. It has
 Introduction 17

resulted in an increase in the number of relatively large holdings either by

selling or leasing of the land.
It has also caused a significant income differential between the income
of farmers and the farm labour. In Punjab, the farmers’ income produced
an increase of about 195 per cent during 1979-80, but the increase in the
income of farm labourers could rise only up to 114 per cent during the
corresponding period (Arora, 1987). It has widened the economic gap in
the rural areas, which will have its own impact on the socio-economic
stratification of the rural society. The higher risk-bearing capacity of large
farmers, their greater political power, and control over the developmental
resources and agencies have provided them access to credit and input
supply systems, while the farmers with relatively limited economic
capacity languish behind.
With the advent of the Green Revolution increasing economic returns,
the farmers have been encouraged to enlarge their holdings, either by
purchase or encroachment on to the common lands, reclaiming the sub-
standard areas, or clearing the fruit plantations adjacent to the towns or
cities. This tendency is widely prevalent in agriculturally rich areas.
Particularly cutting of fruit plantations around the settlements has made
them devoid of their traditional green belts. New plantations of dwarf
species giving fruits early are of very restrictive utility for green belt
purposes. Track gardening around the urban centres has also now become
a most potent factor for clearing of the plantations.
Fast growth of towns and cities has also adversely influenced the fruit
plantations on the outer periphery of the old parts of the towns and cities,
both for agricultural and colonization purposes.
Notable changes have been recorded in agriculture after the Green
Revolution. Agricultural labour is one of such fields that have recorded
notable changes. It has also influenced the occupational structure due to
the increased productivity, mechanization, and replacement of traditional
farm techniques with modern methods. Certain types of agriculture have
become labour intensive and produced a unique labour cycle. Local
labourers have migrated to the cities and towns in the neighbourhood for
more remunerative jobs, small business, or self-employment, keeping the
residence in villages. All this had resulted in a wide gap in labour
availability and requirements.
Consequently migration of labour from distant areas increased. Factors
of the cropping pattern and its nature also affected the supply of labour.
Rice cultivation in the Punjab area has increased at a very fast rate, and it
has penetrated to totally new and non-traditional areas even in southern
Punjab. But the local cultivator is not conversant with its cultivation. So
18 Chapter I

the required labour comes from eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, eastern
Madhya Pradesh and parts of Orissa. According to an estimate, such a
labour force for crop-husbandry may vary from four to six lakh people
(Grewal, 1988).
Local labour joins this work only during the peak season of sowing and
harvesting when the wages are at the maximum in the year. Thus the
traditional labour-farmer relations have changed from Jajimani relations to
financial relations on a contractual basis. In some aspects of agriculture,
mechanization has also affected the labour negatively, resulting in the
need for labour for various farm jobs, which were previously done
manually, causing unemployment. Growing unemployment in rural areas
will have its own socio-economic consequences.
The Green Revolution has caused a serious disturbance in the cropping
pattern in its sprawl. The traditional crop rotation was soil fertility
conserving and enriching.
Fertility recharges are essential to get better yields during the next crop.
But in the new crop rotation, one soil-exhausting crop is followed by
another soil-exhausting crop, with no intervening period of rest and
fertility recharge for the soil.
Introduction of new factors in the agrarian landscape in under-
developed areas sometimes produces unique and unprecedented results.
The introduction of canal irrigation into previously dry areas has produced
such noticeable changes in various parts. It has even become the ultimate
cause of out-migration and large scale land transactions, because the
farming communities of the areas were not aware of the irrigational know-
how, which attracted people from irrigated areas. Land transition rendered
local people landless labourers. Later it became the cause of social
tensions and rising economic disparities, which disturbed the special fabric
in a peaceful society.
Singh (1974) propounded that though the term Green Revolution has a
global acceptance in academic parlance and social recognition, in the
Indian context, as per Singh (1974),the Green Revolution term conjures in
the minds of many people a vision of agricultural prosperity, which is not
in consonance with the reality (Singh, 1974). Dantawala (1987) reasoned
that the Green Revolution was not spread in all types of agro-climatic
regions, and further he exemplified that, in the context of attaining food
self-sufficiency, less than 15 per cent of the area under food grains in the
country (mostly in the GR belt) has contributed as much 56 per cent of the
increase in food grain production in the post-Green Revolution period.
As per Surendra Singh (1992), the Green Revolution in India has
changed the traditional subsistence farming system to a market-oriented
 Introduction 19

production system. It resulted in multi-facet socio-economic changes in

rural areas. The concept of increasing returns per unit of area and per unit
of time is the basic consideration. The traditional native farming
technology was replaced in the Green Revolution areas in the country,
which has been instrumental in some structural changes in the agrarian set-
up.
The technological inputs, in the form of tractors and associated
implements, tube wells and pumping sets, electricity, threshing and
winnowing machines, along with combine harvesters etc. have resulted in
positive gains everywhere. Associated biological, chemical, and water
technology led to a continuously increasing volume of harvest. Structural
change in the agrarian sector encompasses a cross-section of inputs and
outputs closely related to various types of farming. Consequently the
resultant influence will be different in various areas. These changes have
also brought a pattern of crop specialization in India because the
infrastructural development proved favourable for particular types of crops,
while restrictive for others, e.g. regular growth irrigational facilities have
restricted the growth of dry farming crops.
Green Revolution Technology, according to Himmat Singh (2001),
paved the way for a new development in Punjab; it eliminated the
‘Jajimani’ system, and the ‘Sefi’ and ‘Begar’ systems, which involved
servitude. The demand for new skills and labour led to the breakdown of
caste-based occupations and encouraged inter- and intra-generational
mobility. There was a real increase in wages and work opportunities for
the labour class. It brought a new system of wage labour, like contract
work, that grew in importance due to new agricultural technologies
leading to better terms, more work for women and less child labour.
According to Himmant Singh (2001), new technology has benefited small
and marginal farmers.
According to Bhalla and Chadha (1983) the impact of Green
Revolution technology in Punjab not only led to accentuation of inequalities,
but also resulted in perpetuation of poverty and destitution. According to
them, any capital-intensive technological change, by its very nature, was
bound to benefit only the upper strata of peasantry and may lead to an
accentuation of tensions in the countryside.
Some of the technological change may have direct consequences; other
changes may not be directly caused by technological factors, and they may
have indirect consequences. The acceptance of a few innovations may not
always bring in considerable social change, but the social change could be
a cumulative effect of many innovations (Nicol Russell, 1978).
20 Chapter I

Development of production and productivity has resulted in demand

for the creation of certain amenities in rural areas, like drinking water,
surfaced roads, transport services, health and sanitation facilities, regulated
markets, regular supply of electricity and further electrification, creation of
more storage facilities close to the villages, improved housing facilities,
educational facilities and local availability of consumer goods to avoid
unnecessary commutation.
Transfer of the cultivated land also testifies to the fact that, during the
period of the Green Revolution, the large farmers are increasing their real
assets while the marginal farmers are selling their small pieces of land and
moving to the urban areas in search of employment. Uprooting people who
were born and brought-up in a farmer’s family leads to psychological
depression and social tensions (Hussain, 1987).
Such changes in the socio-economic scenario in rural areas are also
leading to changes in other sectors, causing polarization of landless
labourers, marginal farmers, share-croppers, and labourers unemployed
due to the mechanization of agriculture. This polarization is becoming a
great danger to the peace and tranquillity in the rural society.
The potential to improve plant and animal productivity and their proper
use in agriculture relies largely on newly developed DNA biotechnology
and molecular markers. These techniques enable the selection of
successful genotypes, better isolation and cloning of favourable traits, and
the creation of transgenic organisms of importance to agriculture. Together,
these genetic techniques are both an extension and an integral part of
classical breeding, contributing successfully to shortening.

Limitations of Green Revolution Technology

David Tillman (1998) reasoned that, although the Green Revolution in
agriculture met the food needs of most of the world’s population, it paved
the way for contamination of groundwater, release of greenhouse gases,
loss of crop genetic diversity and eutrophication of rivers, streams, lakes
and coastal marine ecosystems (contamination by organic and inorganic
nutrients that cause oxygen depletion, spread of toxic species and changes
in the structure of aquatic food webs).
It also unclear whether high-intensity agriculture could be sustained
because of the loss of soil fertility, the erosion of soil, the increased
incidence of crop and livestock diseases, and the high energy and chemical
inputs associated with it. But, as per David Tillman, the hallmark of high-
intensity agriculture is its dependence on pesticides and chemical fertilizers,
especially those containing nitrogen. Since 1960 the worldwide rate of
 Introduction 21

application of nitrogen fertilizers has increased by several times, and now

exceeds 7 tonnes of nitrogen per year. In a nutshell, with the Green
Revolution, productivity reached a plateau; environmental hazards
increased and raised social inequalities. It is in this context that
biotechnology becomes an important technology for the improvement of
crops.

Biotechnology: Setting New Technological

and Social Agendas
Biotechnology is often hailed as the new ‘revolutionary’ science.
Undoubtedly, it has meant some very big changes in certain fields of
strategic and applied science, as well as ushering in new high-tech
biological products. Like any other technology, however, its impact and
direction reflect the interests of those making use of it and not some
asocial unfolding of an inevitable scientific path. Revolutions depend on
the interaction of human agency, and social structures and technological
revolutions are no exception. There is nothing necessarily revolutionary
about any technology; it depends on the way it is adapted by people in
specific social circumstances (Webster, 1991).
Moreover the apparent ‘novelty’ of biotechnology in the late 1970s can
also be overplayed, as, like any other field, it has depended on prior
developments in biology and biochemistry. At the same time, however,
simply because this is the case, we would be wrong to assume, for
example, that all biologists in the late 1960s would have considered
genetic engineering, the most significant biotechnology, a serious
proposition, and a do-able task. Some, such as Stent (1968), even believed
the heyday of molecular biology to have come and gone.

Biotechnology: Definitions
Biotechnology is broadly defined by the Congressional Office of
Technology Assessment (OTA, 1984) as “any technique that uses living
organisms (or parts of organisms) to make or modify products, to improve
plant or animals, or to develop microorganism for specific uses”. The
fermentation of beer, the making of cheese, and the baking of bread can all
be considered “biotechnological” processes, given the use they make of
yeasts.
Biotechnology is the application of biological methods or processes to
produce useful products. The ancient Egyptians were credited with the
invention of fermenting beer by using yeast. Several conventional
22 Chapter I

biotechnology processes and approaches, such as fermentation, are in use

in India. Indians have been making curds by using biological methods for
centuries. Biotechnology was in practice for ages to make fermented foods
and drinks.
Biotechnology is defined as the application of biological organisms,
systems, or processes, to manufacturing and service industries (John E.
Smith, 1988). Biotechnology is the use of living organisms and their
components in agriculture, food and other industrial processes (John E.
Smith, 1988). While agriculture is a source of livelihood for millions of
farmers, biotechnology inputs into it can enhance productivity, improve
quality of the produce, minimize adverse environmental impact, and
increase sustainability and income of the farmers. Today biotechnology
includes (a) fermentation techniques, (b) tissue culture, (c) embryo transfer,
(d) cloning, and (e) genetic engineering.
Modern Biotechnology became prominent after the invention of the
recombinant DNA in the Biochemistry Department of Stanford University
in 1972 by Paul Berg and Dale Kaiser (C. R. Bhatia, 2002). It was shown
that genetic material can be cut at specific sites by using the restriction
enzymes and these pieces can be cloned, spliced, transferred and expressed
in a heterogonous organism. This made it possible to transfer and express
genes into cells of other organisms. Genes can now be synthesized and
expressed in the desired organism. This is also called genetic engineering.

Plant Biotechnology: An Overview

Plants and their products have been necessary components of the material
base on which the complex structures of human societies have been raised,
historically, whatever the period and the mode of production.
Crop improvement is as old as agriculture itself, and the earliest
agriculturalists were engaged in a simple form of biotechnology. There is a
substantial amount of genetic diversity within species. And germ plasma—
the complement of genes that shapes the characteristics of an organism—
differs from individual to individual. Out of each year’s harvest, farmers
selected seed from those plants with the most desirable traits. Over
thousands of years the slow but steady accumulation of advantageous
genes produced more productive cultivars. Following the rediscovery in
1960 of Mendel’s work illuminating the hereditary transmission of traits,
this global process of simple mass selection was augmented by the
systematic “Crossing” of plants by scientists with the express purpose of
producing new varieties with specific characteristics.
 Introduction 23

The process of plant breeding can be thought of as “applied

evolutionary science”, because it encompasses all of the features of neo-
Darwinian evolution (Simmonds, 1983; 6). Plant breeders collect the
genetic material provided by nature and recombine it in accordance with
the parameters of speciation. In essence, they apply artificial selection to
naturally occurring variance in the DNA “message” characteristics of
different genotypes (Medawar, 1977).On this basis humanity has enjoyed
tremendous productive advances in plant agriculture (Kloppenburg, 1988).
But though modern breeding methods of considerable sophistication
have been developed for the recombination of plant genetic material, the
sense in which plant breeders can be said to have “made natural history” is
somewhat limited. Breeders have had to work within the natural limits
imposed by sexual compatibility. In their work, plant scientists have
rearranged a given genetic vocabulary, but they have not been able to
create new worlds or novel syntactical structures. As Marx might have
phrased it, we have not historically had the powers to alter “species being”.
That is, we have not had this capacity until very recently (Kloppenburg,
1988).
In Biotechnology, genetic engineering has far-reaching economic and
social implications upon agricultural production. We are now witnessing a
radical re-characterization of the nature of the link between the
“productive organs of man in society” and the productive organs of living
creatures. This profound advancement in the process of science and
technology could be expected to have broad and important effects on
social and economic relations in agricultural production.
Many observers of what is often perceived as a “bio revolution” have
emphasized the degree to which the global “bio future” will break with the
past (e.g., Hutton, 1978; McAuliffe and Mc Auliffe, 1981; Sylvester and
Klotz, 1983; Yoxen, 1983).
Kloppenburg (1988) pointed out that new technology’s objective is the
improvement of yield of agricultural productivity. And he said that plant
improvement took place in the historical context of capitalism. He argued
that agricultural plant sciences have, overtime, become increasingly
subordinated to capital, and that this on-going process has shaped both the
content of research and, necessarily, the character of its products. This is
not to say that capital has achieved complete domination of the sector.
Capital has encouraged a variety of barriers in its attempts to penetrate
plant breeding and make the seed a vehicle of accumulation. As per
Kloppenburg’s (1988) analysis, there is increasing subordination of
agricultural science to capital and its effect has been complex in social
structure.
24 Chapter I

Biotechnology and its Application in Horticulture

India is second in fruit and vegetable production in the world. However,
India’s share in the global export of horticultural commodities is negligible
due to low productivity, lack of infrastructural facilities, and inadequate
post-harvest management. The various wealth available in the country can
be exploited for production throughout the year. Biotechnology as a tool
offers great scope to remove many such impediments (Ghosh, 1999).
Intervention of biotechnology in horticulture promises a great potential
in increasing productivity, enhancing quality and shelf life of the produce,
and meeting the challenges posed by insect pests and diseases (Ghosh,
1991). Some genetically modified horticultural produce has reached the
market, establishing their commercial viability. Even in India, micro-
propagated banana, cardamom and certain ornamentals, available in large
numbers, are well received by the farmers.

Plant Tissue Culture Technology in Agriculture

Historically, farming communities have been selecting and sowing the
seeds from plants with beneficial characters, such as higher yield, better
nutrition and resistance to diseases and pests etc.; unknowingly, they have
been modifying the genetic make-up of plants and animals, albeit slowly.
The power of these practices was enhanced dramatically in the
twentieth century by the breakthroughs achieved in the basic science of
genetics, leading eventually to modern hybrid seed varieties for important
food crops such as maize and, by mid-century, to high yielding “Green
Revolution” seed varieties for wheat and rice. Today tissue culture is
extensively used in agriculture and horticulture. Genetic engineering has
potential for improving productivity, but it has become controversial
because of its implications for environment, morals, and ethics.
Micro-propagation is an important alternative to more conventional
methods of plant propagation. It involves production of plants from very
small plant parts (e.g. buds, nodes, leaf segments, root segments etc.),
grown aseptically (free from any microorganism) in a container where the
environment and nutrition can be controlled. The resulting plants are
genetically identical to parent plants.
It has been the most successful commercial application, and has a large
potential to meet the demand of high quality planting material in
horticulture, plantation and vegatatively propagated crops, forestry and
agro forestry. This technology can play a major role in rapid multiplication
 Introduction 25

of elite planting material, and in providing clean, disease-free material of

vegatatively-propagated crops.
Plant tissue culture technology has introduced a new phase into plant
multiplication, and is being increasingly utilized in plant breeding. Many
horticultural important plant species are difficult or impossible to
manipulate by conventional propagation and breeding programmes.
Consequently, propagators and breeders seeking more effective methodologies
employ tissue culture technology, with the goal of enhanced production of
improved ornamental plants. Plant tissue culture is an increasingly
important aspect of plant biotechnology and has introduced an exciting
new phase into plant multiplication and breeding.
By experimental methods, isolated cells and tissue can be grown in the
laboratory, under aseptic conditions, subjected to various biotechnological
manipulations. Because of their tot potency, they can be stimulated to
undergo regeneration into whole plants.
The concept of improving plants by tissue culture methods is not new.
Steward (1970), with his characteristic forward vision for plant biology,
foresaw the development of micro-propagation systems and a ‘sort of
tissue culture genetics’, all of which would be based on the totipotency of
plant cells.
Later studies confirmed Steward’s vision of the use of this methodology
for the improvement and rapid multiplications of horticultural plants and
shrubs. Tissue culture has become commonplace and routinely used by
many commercial laboratories for the large-scale production of ornamental
plants, vegetables, fruit and some edible oils.
There are two distinct areas in which plant tissue culture methodology
is important for horticulturalists. The first includes situations where large-
scale multiplication and the Maristems of genetic stability are paramount.
This comprises the micro-propagation of plants, their improvement as a
result of pathogen elimination, and conservation in a stable form. The
second concerns situations in which spontaneous and induced variations
can be induced by modern cell biological methods. Both approaches,
however, rely on our ability to successfully control plant cell genesis and
to develop reliable cell to plant regeneration systems.

Tissue Culture in Horticulture Production

Today, Plant Tissue Culture (PTC) is one of the most commonly used
techniques of biotechnology in commercial propagation of horticultural
plants. PTC has been proved to be the most successful commercial
application of biotechnology for the following reasons:
26 Chapter I

x Large-Scale propagation of elite clones from hybrids or specific

parent lines is possible.
x A large number of plantlets can be obtained in very little time and
in a small space, starting from a single plant. This makes
propagation of temperate species possible throughout the year.
x Making plant material disease-free through eradication and also
maintaining plants in a virus-free state.

PTC applications have tremendous commercial prospects in case of

horticultural plant species, most of which are vegatatively propagated. A
large variety of high value horticultural plant species, ranging from
ornamental, to flower, plantation, and fruit, can be produced through PTC.
PTC represents a group of techniques comprising of the simplest micro-
propagation technique to the most sophisticated one of genetransfer.
However, the most popular application of PTC is micro-propagation.
The need for a healthy stock of plants and quality planting material is
of paramount importance for farmers, nurserymen, traders, seed producers
and exporters. Quality planting material can help farmers in increasing
yields, thus high economic returns.
Through pro-active policies of the state and central Government,
private entrepreneurs came forward in establishing PTC laboratories.
These laboratories, though they started as export-oriented units
concentrating on production and export of high value horticultural plants,
such as ornamentals and flower plants, to developed and western countries,
in recent years they have shifted their attention to the domestic market and
started producing plantlets, which were hitherto produced through
conventional propagation methods. The range of plant species produced
through PTC has increased significantly over the years; the plant portfolio
includes the plants shown below.
 Introduction 27

Table 1.2 Plant Portfolios of Plant Tissue Culture Nurseries

Product Category Plant Portfolio

Foliage Focus, Spathiphylim, Syngonium,
Ferns, etc.
Flowering Anthurium, Chrysanthemum,
Carnation, Gerber , Orchids,
Marigold, Rose , Kalaheo,
Saintpoulia etc.
Fruit Banana, Fig, Strawberry, Grapes, etc.
Vegetable Potato, Onion, Asparagus, etc.
Spices Turmeric, Ginger, Cardamom,
Vanilla, etc.
Plantation Sugarcane, Coffee, Teak, Paulowia,
Neem, Eucalyptus, Bamboo, etc.
Medicinal Liquorice, etc.
Source: C. Raghava Reddy and E. Haribabu’s paper on ‘Biotechnology and the
industrialization of horticulture in India’ in Outlook on AGRICULTURE Vol. No.
3. 2002, pp. 187-192.

Tissue Culture Research in India

In India, the significance of the in vitro culture technique was realized
quite early by Professor P. Maheswari. He initiated investigation with
complex tissues such as ovary, ovule, and control of fertilization. The
initial exploratory work on these organs laid the foundation of several
achievements in plant cell, tissue and organ culture in India. During 1956
to 1966, attempts were initiated to culture the pollinated ovaries of Aerva
tormentors, Allium, Cepa, Althea rosea, Anethum graveolens, Foenciculum
Vulgae, Ityossameus, Niger, Iheris amoara, and Linaria maroceana.

Progress in Commercialization of Plant Tissue Culture

in India
In India, commercialization of agricultural biotechnology began in 1987
(Swaminathan, 1991), when various private sector organizations looked at
this technology as a means of increasing the productivity of their primary
produce or as a part of their diversification programme. These include the
A. V. Thomas Group Companies (AVT), Indo-American Hybrid Seeds
(IAHS), Hindustan Lever, Tata Tea, Uncorn Biotech, Nath Seeds, RPG
28 Chapter I

Enterprises, Indian Tobacco Company, Maharashtra Hybrid Seed Company,

Hindustan Agrigenetics Ltd, and many others.
The first professionally managed commercial plant tissue culture in the
country was set up in 1987-88 by AVT, when the author was their
Research Director. This unit was set up in Cochin Export Processing Zone
and remained one of the largest in Asia and the only one of its kind in
India, until IAHS began production in its Bangalore based unit, which not
only has forty-eight laminar flow work stations, five US-class 100 growth
rooms, each accommodating 400, 000 cultures at one time, but also has a
greenhouse covering 30, 000 sq. feet (2790m sq.) With the most advanced
equipment, such as an automatic shade system, fogging, blackout,
irrigation systems, and movable benches for hardening of tissue culture
plants.
Both IAHS and AVT have exported millions of tissue culture plants to
Europe and released several hundred thousands of bananas and
cardamoms to farmers at home. According to Swami Nathan, during the
last 2 or 3 years, several corporate plant tissue culture laboratories have
commercialized at least two important crops-cardamom and banana - for
the domestic market, selling them at a price of Rs. 5 to Rs. 8 per plan table
seedling.
As Jiterndra Prakash (1991) described, laboratories book the orders at
least one year in advance with some down payment, and accept it only if
the order is at least for ten or twenty thousand plants. If the private sector
laboratories operate in any other way than described above, it is not
profitable to them (Swaminathan, 1991).
As per the observation made by Jitendra Prakash (1991), to take the
advantage of such plant tissue culture progress in India, a farmer must
have Rs. 50, 000, something small scale farmers do not have. Doubtless it
is the large scale farmer who will benefit from the current advances in
India. The priorities of the private sector laboratories have to be
commercial, not necessary national, although they may fall under national
priorities.
Jitendra Prakash propounded that, although we have achieved
considerable technical strength in plant tissue culture, the penetration of
such technology to the small scale farmers is absolutely essential
(Swaminathan, 1991).

Tissue Culture Technology in Banana Fruit Production

Micro-propagation through tissue culture has acquired commercial
significance owing to uniformity in crops, earliness, freeness from disease,
 Introduction 29

and high yields. The banana in India ranks fourth in terms of gross value
after paddy, wheat and milk, and is the largest fruit crop in terms of
production (Ganapathi et al.,1999).The majority of the edible bananas are
triploid and are propagated vegatatively by suckers. In addition to this,
sterility and polyploidy often hamper the breeding programmes for the
development of superior banana varieties.
Plant cell and tissue culture techniques have helped in the rapid
multiplication of elite varieties employing shoot tips or floral apices
(Ganapathy et al., 1999). As per Mohan and Ganapathi (1997), the banana
being propagated vegatatively by suckers has been seriously limited by its
low rate of multiplication. Several attempts have been made to increase the
number of suckers, but the rate of increase has only been marginal and
hence commercial production of planting material in some of the elite
varieties of banana has not succeeded. In recent years, tissue culture
propagation of the banana through shoot tips as well as floral apices has
been demonstrated successfully (Ganapathi and Mohan J. S. S., 1995).
The major limitation in employing tissue the culture technique on a
commercial scale is the high cost of production per plant compared to
suckers and the appearance of off-type plants in the progeny. Also, labour
and media constitute more than half the cost of tissue culture operations
(Ganapathi and Mohan et al., 1995).

Biotechnology in Andhra Pradesh

Andhra Pradesh is endowed with rich bio-resources. There are 7 agro-
climatic zones across the state, with 19 major food and commercial crops
grown in different parts of the state.
There are more than 5000species of flowering trees. About 40 percent
of the land is utilized for agriculture, and 23 percent of the land is covered
by forests in the state. Agriculture is the lifeline of Andhra Pradesh
economy. The sector contributes over a third of the state’s GSDP and
provides a livelihood for over 70% of its population. It is one of the top
three rice-producing states in the country and accounts for about 12% of
the nation’s rice production. The state has a strong base in horticulture,
producing a variety of cardamoms, fruits and vegetables, such as mangoes,
citrus fruits, grapes, custard apples, and bananas. In fact, Andhra Pradesh
is the second largest producer of fruits in India and one of the largest
vegetable producing states in the country. Thus, abundant and diverse
agriculture and forests are the wealth of the state; large marine resources
and cattle populations provide tremendous opportunities for the development
of the biotech industry.
30 Chapter I

In Agri-biotech, tissue culture for food crops and ornamental plants has
been taken up in several parts of the state with considerable success. There
are about half a dozen agri-biotech companies doing flourishing business
in this sector in the state.
Andhra Pradesh has several pioneers in the Biotech industry, such as
Shanta Bio techniques Pvt. Ltd., Bharat Biotech International Ltd.,
Biological E. Ltd, Indian Immunological Ltd, Krebs Biochemical’s,
Jupiter Orga, Dr. Reddy’s Laboratories (India) Ltd, Bio tissues Pvt. Ltd,
Fortune Biotech Ltd, etc.(Andhra Pradesh Biotechnology policy, 2001).
In Andhra Pradesh, Agriculture Biotechnology will be given a thrust in
the districts of Gunter, Krishna, West Godavari and east Godavari using
the facilities available at the Larm Farm in the Günter District, Marutur
Farm (for rice research) and Kovvur Research centre (for vegetables,
tubers, and bananas) in the West Godavari district.
In Andhra Pradesh, the vision 2020 programme also identified the
significance of biotechnology, and it will be used to enhance production
and productivity.

Plant Tissue Culture Method in Banana Production

In this method, explants are selected from a disease-free mat; after initial
treatment, it is cultured under controlled conditions wherein it proliferates
and roots with 8 weeks. Rooted plants are banded in three stages before
planting in the field. Sword sucker is the best source material. A healthy,
free sucker of an elite mother plant is chosen after it is indexed for BBTV
and BSV virus by biological or molecular tests.
Mohammed Jaffar (2003) suggested that banana propagation through
tissue culture was made popular in the District for its guaranteed increase
in productivity.

Banana Tissue Culture Technology in Andhra Pradesh

Plant Cell and Tissue technology will be used to develop horticulture in
the State with a focus on clonal propagation, disease elimination,
germplasm exchange, gene transfer by wide hybridization, molecular
genetic engineering, and variant selection including some clonally
variation; initially, the new techniques will be applied to crops such as
mango, banana, citrus and turmeric and to some ornamental crops.
Currently in Andhra Pradesh, in almost all districts, banana tissue
culture products are under cultivation. The main areas are Pullivendula in
Cuddapah District in the Rayalaseema Region, Medak and Rangareddi
 Introduction 31

Districts in the Telangana Region and West Godavari District in the

Coastal Andhra Region are extensively cultivated as per known
information.
Conventionally, edible bananas (Musa sp.) are propagated by suckers,
since most of the cultivars are seedless. This propagation is seriously
limited by its slow multiplication rate as well as clonally
degradation/degeneration. Since virtually all of the edible clones are
parthenoncarpic, and for all practical purposes seedless or seed sterile,
multiplication must be vegetative. Although in bananas the conventional
method of vegetative propagation has commercial acceptability, to ensure
an extremely rapid rate of multiplication, the tissue culture technique has a
definite and indispensable advantage over the conventional method. This
technique is independent of season due to controlled conditions and
requires limited quantity of plant tissue as the explants sources
(Madhumita, Vijay Joshi, 1998).
According to Jacob George and Ravishanker (1996) Plant Tissue
Culture products are estimated to have a potential market of 15 billion US
dollars per year worldwide. As per Mohamed Jaffer’s observation (2003),
banana propagation through tissue culture became popular in the ‘Theni’
District in Tamilnadu, for its guaranteed increase in productivity.
Micro-propagation through the tissue culture has acquired commercial
significance owing to uniformity in banana crops, earliness, freeness from
diseases, and high yield. In this method, explants are selected from disease
free mat; after initial treatment, it is cultured under controlled condition
wherein it proliferates and roots with 8 weeks. Rooted plants are banded in
three stages before planting in the field. Sword sucker is the best source
material. A healthy, free sucker of an elite mother plant is chosen after it is
indexed for BBTV (Banana Bunchy Top Virus) and BSV (Banana
Sigatoka Virus) by biological or molecular tests.
Advantages of micro-propagated platelets are: pathogen free plant
material, such asfusarium wilt, banana bunchy top, etc.; more uniformity
in stature, with high vigour; plantation comes once over harvest; and20-30
per cent higher yields than conventional material. With drip irrigation and
use of liquid fertilizer tissue culture, plants are becoming acceptable, as
expenditure on planting material is compensated in terms of better returns.
Of all the above-mentioned crops, the banana is the most widely
produced plant cultivated through micro-propagation. In India almost all
PTC laboratories are concentrating on banana crops and producing a large
number of plantlets. In India, bananas are grown on an area of nearly 240,
000 ha, with an annual production of approximately 3.7 million tonnes.
Conventionally, the banana is propagated by vegetative means through
32 Chapter I

suckers and the annual requirement was estimated at400 million

(Viswanthan, 1990).
Through tissue culture, disease-free cultures of selected high yielding
mother clones are raised and multiplied for transfer to the field. The
average yields of commonly grown varieties of banana were estimated to
be 12-14 kg per plant, whereas tissue culture raised plantlets were reported
to have given an average yield of 20-25 kg per plant (Mehra, 1994). It is
projected by PTC laboratories that yield up to 30 kg per plant is possible
with micro-propagated banana plantlet cultivation. However, according to
the literature circulated by the PTC laboratories and of horticultural
experts, the package of practices of cultivation of micro-propagated
bananas is significantly different from that of conventionally propagated
ones.

Micro-propagated plantlets are sensitive to weather in the initial stage of

establishment and to water and nutrients in the later stages. Ensuring
proper and timely irrigation and nutrient or fertilizer supply is an essential
requirement in the cultivation of micro-propagated banana plantlets in
order to achieve the specified yields. Thus, a farmer who cultivates micro-
propagated bananas must be aware of these prerequisites associated with
cultivation practices. It may be observed that the Green Revolution
technology encapsulated a battery of practices and techniques concerning
irrigation, chemical fertilizer, pesticides, and etc. Similar components are
also required for the application of the PTC; in addition, awareness and
economic resources are required for adoption of the PTC.
Presently there are no studies concerning a) accessibility of micro-
propagated seed/plantlets, and b) background of farmers who are involved
in the cultivation of micro-propagated plants. The available literature also
does not indicate that there have been any attempts to study cultivation of
other micro-propagated plants, such as tea, coffee, etc.
In Andhra Pradesh, the banana is a traditionally cultivated crop in all
regions. Farmers engaged in the cultivation of the banana have been
procuring the planting material, i.e. suckers, from nurserymen or fellow
farmers. Earlier, there was no other alternative available to the farmers
than conventionally propagated suckers.
However, tissue culture laboratories, in recent times, have been
offering suckers developed through micro-propagation to the farmer.
These laboratories claim that the micro-propagated plants are superior in
terms of quality, and thus are assured of higher yields. The laboratories
also assist farmers in adopting the new package of practices associated
with incorporated plantlets.
 Introduction 33

Perspective of the Study

The present study tries, from the sociology of science perspective, to
examine a more comprehensive definition of technology that should see
technology as hardware (artefacts), software (knowledge underlying
construction of the artefacts), and orgware (social organization). Whenever
a new technology is developed and deployed, it brings about: a) changes in
the knowledge and practices of users; and b) new forms of social
organization or modifications to the existing social organization. This in
turn brings about changes in social relations in the organization of
production. In other words, technology thus becomes the source of social
change.
Sociology of science is a specialty that examines how and to what
extent various socio-cultural factors, both internal to the world of science
and those external to the world of science, influence and shape the
production of scientific knowledge and its application. The literature
suggests that the earlier conception, that science is autonomous having its
own dynamics unconnected with the external forces, is no longer
sustainable. Today what we find is rather that both science and technology
are influenced by a range of factors: social, economic, political, cultural,
legal, ethical, institutional, ideological, and so on. As Bloor (1976) put it,
“all knowledge, including scientific knowledge, is socially caused”.
Haribabu (1999) mentioned, “The divide between the internal world of
science and external world of science is not rigid but porous”. In other
words, science should be seen as embedded in society, rather than as an
autonomous activity.
In this context, the present study is an attempt to understand the level
of knowledge of farmers who adopted tissue culture in cultivating banana
plants, new practices associated with tissue culture, new forms of social
organization or modification in the existing form of social organization of
production and relations among those involved in production, and changes
in attitudes and values among the farmers using tissue culture. An
understanding of the cultivation practices of conventional banana plants is
necessary as a benchmark study for comparison, and thus it forms one of
the objectives of the study.

Statement of the Problem

What changes does introduction of tissue culture, a new technology in
banana production, bring about in social relations in the cultivation of
banana fruit? A study of changes in the following aspects is sociologically
34 Chapter I

significant: (1) organization of production; (2) knowledge and attitudes; (3)

social relations among farmers involved in production; (4) relations
between suppliers of PTC (Plant Tissue Culture) saplings and farmers; and
(5) relations between farmers and agricultural labour involved in
production.

Objectives
The basic objectives of the study are to:

x Understand the cultivation practices followed in conventionally

propagated banana plants;
x Analyse the socio-economic background of farmers who have been
adopting the PTC based banana plants, and motivational factors
underlying their adoption of the PTC based banana cultivation;
x Analyse the knowledge and skill requirements in the cultivation of
micro-propagated banana plants;
x Understand the organization of production of micro-propagated
banana plants by farmers and to examine how tissue culture brings
out the changes in the package of practices and also other essential
input requirements, such as fertilizers, seedlings, and irrigation etc.;
x Understand the relations between banana growers and suppliers of
tissue culture-based banana plantlets - the PTC laboratories;
x Understand the differences between conventional cultivation and
tissue culture cultivation of banana.

Argument
Plant Tissue Culture (PTC), being new technology, brings about changes
in the knowledge, attitudes and practices among farmers and social
relations in the process of production.

Chapter Scheme
The present study is organized into seven chapters. The first chapter
dealt with the origin and growth of tissue culture technology in banana
crops and its far-reaching implications for various sections of society. The
chapter also presented the perspective of the study, the problem and
objectives of the study other than the detailed review of literature. Chapter
two is devoted to the presentation of methodology adopted in the
collection of data. The methodology adopted in the selection of tissue
 Introduction 35

banana farmers, and tools employed in the collection of data from them,
are described in this chapter under respective headings. It is important to
have benchmark data on conventional cultivation procedures involved in
the banana production process in order to see the change. Chapter three
deals with the conventional cultivation of banana crops, while chapter four
describes process of production of banana tissue culture and gives the
history, principles and other technical details about of tissue culture
banana production. Chapter five provides the socio-economic profile of
the farmers who adopted tissue culture technology in banana crop
cultivation. Chapter six deals with the input and output linkages of tissue
culture banana fruit production. Finally the seventh chapter provides a
brief summary of the findings and conclusions that emerged out of the
study, and it provides a comparative account of the conventional banana
cultivation and tissue culture banana cultivation in order to examine social
change.
 CHAPTER II

METHODOLOGY

Introduction
As discussed in the first chapter, the objective of the present study is to
delineate changes in the banana crop as a result of the application of plant
tissue culture technology, and to examine the socio-economic background
of the farmers and the motivational factors behind the adoption of Plant
Tissue Culture (PTC) knowledge in banana crops. Within this framework,
an empirical study was conducted on the question of the adoption of PTC
knowledge by different social groups.
However, in order to understand changes, it is imperative to know the
conventional techniques for banana crops. Hence as stated earlier, a
benchmark study of conventional cultivation of banana crops was carried
out. This chapter deals with the methodology adopted in the selection by
banana tissue culture farmers. At the end of the chapter definitions of
concepts employed in the study are given.
The current chapter discusses the methodology adhered to in the
selection of the villages where the PTC banana crop is in cultivation. This
chapter also covers the tools and techniques of data collection employed in
the study. The chapter is broadly divided into two sections. The first
section deals with the selection of fieldwork methods and section two
focuses on the concepts operational zed or employed in the study.

Research Design
The research of the present study adopts a cross-sectional design. This
study shows how the socio-economic background influences the adoption
of PTC-based banana cultivation-related knowledge and practices in
cultivation in Andhra Pradesh. The study examines the relation between
PTC cultivators and suppliers of PTC laboratories.
Another random document with
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 The Project Gutenberg eBook of The improved
antidote, supposed to be more active in expelling
poison, than a late invention, by the Rev. Sir
Harcourt Lees, Bart. in which the Catholics are
vindicated from his abuse, and their claims for
unrestricted emancipation, considered
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
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eBook.

Title: The improved antidote, supposed to be more active in

expelling poison, than a late invention, by the Rev. Sir
Harcourt Lees, Bart. in which the Catholics are
vindicated from his abuse, and their claims for
unrestricted emancipation, considered

Author: Philodemus

Release date: July 10, 2022 [eBook #68491]

Language: English

Original publication: Ireland: Not listed, 1820

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE

IMPROVED ANTIDOTE, SUPPOSED TO BE MORE ACTIVE IN
EXPELLING POISON, THAN A LATE INVENTION, BY THE REV.
SIR HARCOURT LEES, BART. IN WHICH THE CATHOLICS ARE
VINDICATED FROM HIS ABUSE, AND THEIR CLAIMS FOR
UNRESTRICTED EMANCIPATION, CONSIDERED ***
 Transcriber’s Note: The Greek is transcribed as printed, although a correct transcription
has also been provided at the end of the book!

THE IMPROVED
ANTIDOTE,
SUPPOSED TO BE MORE

Active in Expelling Poison,

THAN A LATE INVENTION,
BY THE

Rev. Sir Harcourt Lees, Bart.

IN WHICH THE

CATHOLICS ARE VINDICATED

FROM HIS ABUSE,
AND THEIR CLAIMS FOR
Unrestricted Emancipation,
CONSIDERED.
 Addressed to the Public.
πασῃ φυλαχῃ την ψυχην τηρητεον, μη δια τησ των
λορων ἡδονησ παραδεξ αμενοι τι λαθωμεν των
χειρονων ωσπεβ ὁι τα δηλητηρια μετα του μελιτοσ προσ
ιεμενοι
BASIL.

DUBLIN:
PRINTED, AND SOLD BY THE BOOKSELLERS,

1820.
 TO THE PUBLIC,
&c.

Should a great and commercial People experience an unlooked

for reverse of fortune; should a rapid decay of Trade, a long
protracted and ruinous War, an expenditure of the Public Money, at
once lavish and unnecessary, should even all these causes conspire
with an oppressive national debt, in reducing them from opulence
and prosperity to the lowest ebb of distress, the consequences must
be melancholy and alarming: On one hand, the People, impatient of
this calamitous change, will murmur against Government, and
proceed to disorderly and tumultuous Insurrections. On the other,
Administration, foreseeing danger to its own permanence and safety,
will perhaps, adopt coercive measures, not altogether consistent with
the liberty of its subjects:—Under these circumstances, every well
intentioned mind will be deeply affected with concern, for the welfare
of his country; various means will be recommended of healing its
disorders, or, at least, of mitigating their virulence; and no one can
be reprehensible in proposing a Remedy, or an alteration, even,
though the success be doubtful:—Influenced by such considerations,
we also appeal to the indulgence of a generous Public, and should
the application we offer prove beneficial, the utmost wish of our heart
will be gratified, should it, on the contrary, be neglected or derided,
the consciousness of an upright intention, must in some measure
console us.
An Antidote has been already prescribed by a Revd. Baronet, we
presume with the same view; the application of which, however, in
our opinion, would tend to cherish the malignancy of the disease,
rather than to eradicate its cause:—Wherefore, alarmed for the
constitution of the patient, should it be adopted, and at the same
time, though we acknowledge and applaud the Revd. Author’s
anxiety in this case, suspecting that he would prefer a partial to a
complete Restoration, we humbly beg leave to state our reasons for
differing in sentiment with a man of his consummate knowledge and
experience, together with our objections to his Antidote.
That the present crisis is an alarming one, every man capable of
reflection, will readily admit, that, however, every artifice of audacity
and craft has been exerted (and with success exerted) to undermine
the religious, moral, and political sentiments of the great mass of the
manufacturing and agricultural orders of Society in England, seems
to require some farther proof, than the mere assertion of the Author,
before we can assent to it, with an equal degree of conviction:—Is it
probable that, notwithstanding the firmness which has so eminently
distinguished the present Administration, such artifices should be
resorted to with impunity? Is it possible that success should attend
such artifices, notwithstanding the vigilance of Ministers, so
unhesitatingly displayed in the removal of Lord Fitzwilliam? Perhaps,
the Revd. Author meant obliquely to censure Administration, for
overlooking such attempts in the first instance, and subsequently, for
not foreseeing and guarding against their pernicious effects, for not
suppressing tumultuous assemblies, when, (according to his
assertion) the then existing laws, were of sufficient force to stamp
the greater part of them with the Seal of illegality.
It is a melancholy consideration, that the Christian Religion, which
inculcates universal good will and beneficence, as the peculiar
doctrine of its founder, should have been not unfrequently perverted,
in consequence of the self-interested and prejudiced views of
individuals, into an instrument of cruelty and oppression; and it is
probable that this perversion should have an influence, in bringing
into disrepute the Religion we profess, (which is meant we presume,
by the overthrow of our God) far more prevalent than the effusions of
impiety and atheism, however circulated in private, or openly and
daringly boasted of;—The pure and simple precepts of Christianity
call forth our utmost admiration, the sanctity and beneficence of its
founder, excite in us reverence and love, can then these impious and
atheistical dogmas (inspiring us but with horror) can these dogmas it
may be asked, counteract the influence of the Religion in which we
have been educated, which we have been taught, and which we are
inclined from its pure morality to respect? It is the abuse of
Christianity, its pretended friends, not its open and avowed
antagonists, that will ever abridge its permanence or diffusion.
Power, wealth, and consequence, are the prime motives of human
exertion, and when once in possession of these objects, men are
equally anxious to preserve, as they originally were to acquire them:
—the establishment of Hierarchies is of human invention, and of
course, must partake in the imperfections of humanity; These
Hierarchies vest in the several members composing them, no small
share of profit and authority, to retain which, is their common
interest; whenever the particular tenets, for the maintenance of
which, the establishment was originally formed, are called in
question, its members, alarmed at the impending danger, resort to
every means in their power, of upholding their own, and of repelling
the influence of their assailants, among which, persecution may
perhaps appear a ready and effectual mode of quelling all
opposition.
The Church of Rome exceeded all other Hierarchies in extent of
Dominion, of Power, and of Influence; its exertions, therefore,
against all assailants would be proportionably vigorous, its
persecutions proportionably extensive:—these assertions are not
advanced with the view of vindicating Persecution, they are meant
merely to account, in some measure, for its origin;—convinced that
the God of Mercy can delight only in Virtue and Integrity, every
reflecting mind must abhor and condemn the mistaken zeal of those,
who think they promote the service of the Divinity, by torturing and
afflicting his creatures:—but have the members of the Protestant
Establishment entirely abstained from the exercise of this instrument,
to establish or confirm their Power? Are they, altogether, innocent of
resorting to this object of their reprehension? For a solution of these
questions we may recur to our own domestic annals. Has not the
bulk of the Irish Nation been subject to the will and caprice of a few
individuals (in comparison with its population) and this, for adhering
to the religion of their forefathers?—Have not the ministers of this
religion (after being compelled to seek their education in some
foreign country) been debarred from the exercise of their sacred
functions except by stealth or privacy?—Have not the adherents to
this Religion been shackled in every effort to better their condition?—
Have they not been rendered incapable of acquiring real property?—
If possessed of such property, have they not been subject to its
entire forfeiture by information or discovery?—Were not such
forfeitures intended to act as allurements for children to inform, even,
against their own parents?—Was not every father of a family liable to
punishment for educating his children, in that religious persuasion,
which he esteemed the only true one?—Were not Catholics ineligible
to any office of power or trust?—Were not these Acts in force for
nearly a century?—Many other grievances, equally oppressive in
addition to these, were inflicted on them in direct violation of the
Treaty of Limerick, in which it was stipulated, that the Irish should be
admissible to all the Privileges of subjects, upon taking the oath of
Allegiance, without being bound to take the oath of Supremacy:—our
domestic annals, then, afford a strong presumption that the
Protestant Establishment has been no less culpable, in the exercise
of persecution, as an instrument to support its power, than the
Romish Hierarchy so much inveighed against; whilst its present
conduct, in still withholding from the Catholics a full participation in
the privileges to which its Protestant Subjects are admitted, is a
convincing proof that it continues actuated by a spirit of intolerance;
—not to particularize the absurd calumnies, the foul
misrepresentations, so vehemently urged against them, and of which
some of its ministers (we regret to observe) are too intemperate in
the application;—strange inconsistency that there is in mankind,
when the very means they severely reprehend, are not frequently
applied by themselves.—Can it be supposed, that men of well
cultivated understandings, should be so lost to all sense of morality,
so destitute of respect for their own characters, as to look upon wilful
perjury as a virtue, when resorted to for particular purposes, or
particular interests?—Can it be admitted that men, many of them eye
witnesses of, and sufferers in the late revolutionary calamities on the
Continent, when they return home should, by the most atrocious of
crimes, voluntarily endanger the peace and tranquility of their native
Country? Their own conduct is a full refutation of the calumnious
charges advanced against them, a positive proof that they seriously
regard their moral obligations;—they are, not only, peaceable in their
own demeanor,—they render the people, of whom they are the
pastors, quiet and inoffensive;—were they disposed to estimate
wilful perjury as venial, or, in some particular instances, as laudable,
they would recommend it to their several flocks, and thus, would the
Catholics, by being freed from the restraint of morality, become
admissible to all the privileges of subjects; but it is the part, only, of
an abandoned profligate, to profess his conformity with the
established doctrines, and to violate the most solemn engagements,
for the advancement of his own private interest or ambition;—the
man of integrity disclaims all compromise with his conscience, he will
submit to every privation, and will encounter indigence and obscurity,
rather than deserve the imputation of guilt:—the express denial of
the Catholic Universities that any earthly power can grant absolution
for perjury, the solemn abjuration of such a doctrine by the
Priesthood themselves, but above all, the uniform tenor of their
conduct, proves that these calumnies are altogether unfounded.
National reflections, it has been observed, are not justified in
theory, nor on any general principles;—the same observation will
hold good in regard to Sects, Parties, or Professions:—particular
individuals may, undoubtedly, be just objects of censure, particular
tenets of reprehension, but indiscriminate abuse, is the offspring of
prejudice or malevolence, it can never derive its origin from sober
reason and impartiality.—To follow the author of the Antidote through
his abusive rhapsody against the Schismatics, would, perhaps,
engage us too far in scurrility, to examine into the tenets, he
attributes to them, will, at least, more usefully employ our attention. A
new sect has been lately formed, the constitution of whose church,
he says, instructs its adherents that, through belief, they will escape
from the guilt and punishment of sin; this proposition, advanced as
one of the tenets of the new sect, is scarcely intelligible;—that a due
portion of belief will exonerate us from the punishment of sin, may be
readily understood, however we may doubt of its truth, but that the
commission of sin will not involve us in guilt, is a proposition that
cannot without difficulty be comprehended. The Revd. Author may
mean perhaps, that they maintain faith to be more meritorious than
good works, a doctrine which has been ascribed to many of the
sectaries, but, as it is not included by him who founded our Religion,
among the immediate requisites for salvation, it ought to be
examined with the utmost caution, and, if upon such an examination,
it should appear disadvantageous to the interest of society, it ought
at once to be rejected—according to this tenet, its adherents are not
required to cultivate those good qualities, which are beneficial to
mankind; they neglect the occasions of beneficence, they lose even
the dispositions of benevolence, in cultivating faith, which quality
above all others, will insure their acceptance with God. They expose
themselves to the frauds of knaves, or the errors of fanatics, into
which frauds and errors however, they dare not examine, as to
doubt, is to fail in that essential point, on which they found their
future hope;—under the influence likewise of this principle, the tenor
of their conduct becomes a matter of no moment, it induces
negligence in regard to their duties, as men in a state of society,
since active virtue can be of no avail, where faith is esteemed the
sole requisite for justification:—a less grave argument also, though
upon so serious a subject, may, perhaps, be not inapplicable. Faith
depends upon ignorance, of course the less a man knows, the more
he has to believe, hence the most ignorant, with a due supply of
credulity, will become the most meritorious of christians:—we would
moreover, recommend it to the Revd. Author, of the Antidote, to
examine more accurately into his own Articles of Belief, as required
by law, before he censures this doctrine of the Sectaries.
They hold, moreover, as the Rev. Author informs us, farther, that, if
once justified, no outrage they can afterwards commit, no sin (it does
not signify of how horrible a nature, they can be guilty of) will deprive
them of eternal salvation;—We readily join with Sir Harcourt Lees in
reprobating such a tenet, it is absurd and presumptuous;—The
determinations of God are impenetrable by man;—his acceptance of
our feeble efforts to conciliate his favor, can be discovered only by
the Revelation he has communicated.—How then can we become
confident in our own justification, during our present state of
existence, in which we are unceasingly liable to error? The very
supposition involves in it an absurdity;—but to arrogate to ourselves
exemption from punishment for all future transgressions, is to
assume the peculiar province of the Deity, and is equally impious, as
it is presumptuous;—this tenet is also subversive of general
Benevolence,—its votaries must, necessarily, look upon themselves
as the sole partakers in justification, and the rest of mankind as
outcasts from God’s Mercy. They will esteem them, therefore, but
little entitled to their consideration and regard;—the conceit of being
justified must originate either in actual, or fancied inspiration, but
inspiration is a real feeling of the Divine Presence, enthusiasm a
false one, and the effects are nearly the same in either case,—how
then will they guard themselves from misapprehension? how will
they be able to distinguish between Divine Inspiration, and mere
mortal enthusiasm?—The former will, we must acknowledge,
dissipate all doubt, and confirm them in virtue, but the latter may lead
them into errors, which it will be difficult, if not impossible to repair:—
may not these tenets however, be somewhat overcharged, I do not
mean by design, but through misapprehension.—The consciousness
of a scrupulous discharge of their relative duties may, in some
instance, give birth to presumption, and leave men to conceive
themselves entitled to justification from their own superior merits; but
these sectaries strongly impressed with the imperfection of human
nature, attributing such conceptions to the arrogance of human
reason, regard Faith as an humble acknowledgement of their
incompetence to merit the Divine Favor, they rely solely on the
Mercy of God for justification;—hence their preference of faith, in
comparison with their own exertions for this purpose;—by these
means, however, their minds became enervated, their reason less
vigorous, they are less inclined to exert it, and more open to the
fervor of enthusiasm, which may, not improbably, inspire an opinion,
that themselves are favored with a Divine Communication; that
hypocrites and imposters will take advantage of this disposition is
more than probable, but hypocrites and imposters abound in all
persuasions, even in the Established Church, a good mind may be
deceived, but it is hoped will not be perverted by them;—the
absurdity of such doctrines may be offered to their consideration,
convince their reason and they will abjure them, but, if this delusion
tends only to sweeten their present enjoyments, and render them
confident in future hope, why should they be grossly reviled for their
belief?
 “But (he proceeds) should these schismatics form a Coalition with
the sworn enemies of our Church and constitution, the pious and
merciful Papists (as Lord Donoughmore calls them) whose Priests
will give them absolution, while the imaginations of the fanatic
Enthusiast will justify him, I should be glad to know what would soon
be the fate of both Church and King in this great Empire.” Here the
Rev’d. Author displays his motives for administering to the public,
foreseeing danger from the envenomed shafts of the fanatic, and
from those of the Papist, armed with a still more deadly poison, he
compounds an Antidote that he may counteract their pernicious
effects, he expresses indeed, the most decided contempt for Dr.
Dromgoole’s Prophecy, though he evidently apprehends its
accomplishment,—but Dr. Dromgoole’s prophecy is as harmless as
himself was uninspired; the Protestant Church may defy external
violence, her danger proceeds from her own internal system, she
cherishes, within her own bosom, a principal of decay, which unless
Correctives be applied, must terminate in dissolution: The Clergy of
the establishment have been successful in their pursuit, they have
possessed themselves of the objects to which they aspired Power,
Wealth and Consequence: but in all human affairs, the completion of
our desires is generally succeeded by inactivity, after a successful
termination of our labours, we sit down to enjoy with ease and
tranquility, the good things of this life, so it is with the Clergy of the
establishment, their zeal is grown luke warm, their exertions are
relaxed; In their Churches, instead of the animated advocate infusing
into his audience the love of Religion, with admiration at its
excellence, we too frequently find an indolent drone holding forth to a
drowsy congregation: In the conventicle, on the contrary, we may be
hold the schismatic, ardent in zeal, earnest in his exhortations,
vehement, impetuous, and enforcing by his impressive manner, the
uninterrupted attention of his auditors:

... Se vis me flere dolendum est

Primum ipsi tibi....
...
Si dicentis erunt Fortunis absona dicta
Romani tollent Equites Peditesque Cachinnum.
 The cause of this essential difference is, that the Clergy have
already attained the summit of their ambition, whereas the Fanatic is
still engaged in the pursuit after profit and estimation:—should it be
represented that, with respect to the establishment, there are
gradations in preferment, and dignities, with princely endowments,
sufficient to excite emulation even in the most indolent of its
members,—we acknowledge that such is the fact,—but how are they
distributed?—Are they held out as inducements for exertion, as the
appropriate rewards of diligence and merit?—By no means:—They
are universally disposed of through the channels of family influence,
or parliamentary interest:—the minister for the time being (in the
name of his sovereign) has the uncontrouled disposal of Church
dignities, and it is probable (it might be said notorious) that he will
rather consult how he may best strengthen his own interest for
retaining his situation, than attend to the characters and
qualifications of the applicants:—it is, by no means, intended to call
in question the methods, by which the present venerated dignitaries
of the Church arrived at their eminence, their exemplary conduct
proves that they deserve it, they are beyond dispute, endowed with
piety, learning, and conscientiousness in discharge of their sacred
functions, but will their successors in office, succeed also to their
good qualities? The future probable consequences should therefore
occupy the attention of the public;—under such circumstances, the
minister may appoint to these dignities, men totally destitute of the
necessary qualifications; they, imitating the minister, may confer their
patronage upon their own immediate connexions, or upon such
fawning sycophants only as are best versed in flattery and
insinuation;—can a clergy, thus constituted, command the respect of
the people? on the contrary, they will excite contempt rather than
reverence:—hence may be discerned the principle of decay in the
system, which, unless guarded against with the utmost vigilance,
threatens to prove fatal:—the Roman Catholics, swayed by these
facts, and their attendant consequences, hesitated at the proposal of
Emancipation, when clogged with the Veto;—the clergy foresaw, that
in consequence of the Veto, they would, in fact, become dependant
upon the minister for all future promotion; the laity were alarmed, lest
the priesthood should be corrupted, whilst they suspected that, by
these means, the people in general would be demoralized,
Emancipation therefore, upon such terms, they wisely determined to
reject, and they merit the applause of the public for this their virtuous
determination.—“Ere long” (the Revd. Author fervently prays) “may
there be prepared and enforced a stronger test than the articles of
religion, to clear our Parishes and to save our children from the cruel
consequences of Evangelical Instruction,” (by which expression he is
supposed to mean the errors of fanaticism.) Would he then, out of
pure good will to the Protestants, enlarge their measure of Faith as
already prescribed by law, and still farther controul their reason? Is
he aware that the defection of many, even of the Protestant clergy,
proceeds from a repugnance to these articles, and would he
encrease the schism? His hostility to the sectaries may be
reasonably suspected, when he recommends a mode, so evidently,
tending to increase their numbers. The Catholics are charged by
him, with being sworn enemies to their Protestant fellow subjects, he
would, notwithstanding, imitate the conduct he reviles, and render
the hostility between all parties irreconcilable;—he would, even arm
the dignitaries of his Church with more extensive powers, and
convert those, who ought to be models of Christian charity, into
instruments of unchristian persecution: but the Rev. Baronet has,
perhaps, a mitre in contemplation, and is anxious, ere he wields the
crozier, that the office may be invested with more ample means of
exalting the Protestant Ascendancy, at the expense of all who differ
from its doctrines; It is to be hoped, however, that, should he arrive
at this proud eminence, he will exercise its present powers, unaided
by additional ones, with temperance and discretion.
The Public then will cease to wonder that the Revd. Author should
so strongly object to a right honourable gentleman’s declaration, in
answer to a Catholic Address, viz: that he is at a loss to account for
the reasons that operate, to prevent the Catholics from being
“unrestrictedly emancipated,” since this declaration militates against
the Protestant Ascendancy;—with due submission, however, to the
learned Author’s accumulated Experience (“having, from the earliest
period of his academic course, been in the habit of devoting a
considerable part of his time in the acquirement of knowledge, and of
informing his mind upon matters connected with the History, Politics,
and Religions of his country. Having been accustomed, likewise, to
pass such time in the society of the most eminent and able Writers,
Politicians, and Statesmen, of ancient and modern days.”) We
cannot but accord with the above stated declaration of the Right
Honorable Gentleman, as equally just and liberal;—if the co-
operation of the Catholics, as fellow subjects, be expected, why
should they be debarred from the privileges of the subjects?—If their
attachment to the Constitution be a desirable object, why not attract
them by the united motives of interest and affection?—But how can
they be interested in, how can they affect a Constitution, which
excludes them, in particular, from its benefits and confidence?—
Notwithstanding, however, that we acknowledge the justice and
liberality of this declaration, we must beg leave to express our
dissent from the same Right Honorable Gentleman, when (according
to the Report of a recent debate) he pretends to define the term
Liberty, by Potestas faciundi quicquid per leges liceat;—the power of
doing whatever may be permitted by the laws, points out, only, that
peculiar portion of liberty allowed by each respective Government, to
its appropriate subjects, but can never be substituted for the general
term itself.—In the Eastern regions, where the Prince is despotic,
where the will of the Sovereign is the law of the state, the liberty of
the subject will be bounded by the Will of a Tyrant; under such
circumstances the people are mere slaves;—hence, the Right
Honorable Gentleman’s definition is equally applicable to Slavery, as
to Liberty,—it may, however, be looked upon as the definition of a
lawyer, and as lawyers, in general, accommodate their pleadings to
the taste and interest of their clients, it may be presumed, that the
Right Honorable Gentleman adopted his definition to the interest,
and peculiar taste of his employer:—in the course of his harangue on
the same occasion, the Right Honorable Gentleman is reported to
assert, (if we understand the report aright,) that the great body of the
people has no right to enter into discussions concerning civil polity,
or the immediate measures of Government, an assertion that does
but little credit to his head, or his heart.—It may incline the people,
however, to examine into the Right Honorable Gentleman’s own
claim to this important privilege;—it may also be asked, who are
interested in the measures adopted by administration?—Is it the
public at large? or is it the ministry? The ministers are, indeed, a part
of the people, but a failure in vigilance, with respect to their own
immediate interests, will never be attributed to them; the security, the
property, the liberty of the people, are at stake, and it behoves them
to be equally attentive to their concerns:—to whom are ministers
responsible?—to the representatives of the Nation:—who are the
constituents of this representative body?—the people:—in order then
to estimate the merits of a candidate, the people should become
competent judges of the excellence of their own Constitution, and of
the qualifications necessary, in a representative, to watch over and
to maintain its inviolability;—a close inspection therefore, into the
System of Government, and into the conduct pursued by their own
representatives, is a duty they owe themselves,—their fellow-
subjects, and their posterity;—the upright senator will also invite this
serenity, whereas the corrupt fool of a crafty minister will endeavour
to evade enquiry, as in the event of detection, he contemplates his
own disgrace.
Neither does the Revd. Author spare the Radical Reformers, “Who
(he says) under the pretence of Petition, have alone in view the
ascertainment of strength, for the purposes of desolation.”——that
immense multitudes assembling from all quarters, with the intent of
framing Petitions for a reform in their representation, is alarming to
the peaceable phlegmatic subject, cannot be doubted, but it is no
less certain that in general, they conducted themselves on these
occasions, with the utmost tranquillity and discretion:—if (as he
maintains) Government were armed with sufficient powers to
suppress the meetings, why were they not resorted to in the first
instance? why connive at such scenes, even in the Metropolis,
where they must undoubtedly be the most formidable, and thus
impress upon the people an idea of their legality?—Why encourage
a frequent repetition of them, and thus give occasion for the fatal
occurrences at Manchester?—If it be true that prevention is better
than a cure, were not the Ministers remiss in not instantly exerting
their powers? and that they had these powers, we have the Revd.
Baronets own authority.—Why, then, resort to new measures, when
the existing laws were sufficient for the immediate occasion?—A free
Press is generally looked upon as the surest bulwark against the
encroachments of power; to it also, we are indebted for the various
improvements in Arts, in Sciences, and even in virtue and religion,
when considered as Sciences;—the unrestrained privilege of
questioning every proposition, and discussing every subject, greatly
contributes to the investigation of truth; should the liberty of the
Press, degenerate into licentiousness, a legal remedy has, long
since been provided;—should it encourage tumultuous meetings, as
the former laws (according to Sir Harcourt Lees) were of sufficient
force to suppress such assemblies, a farther restraint was
unnecessary, and uncalled for;—should it disseminate Blasphemy
through the nation, the good sense of the people will soon reject and
condemn it, as is evident from the several verdicts returned against
the publications of such a nature;—does then, the Baronet indulge in
irony, when he extols the conduct of administration? on the contrary,
we rather suspect that, misled by his own voracious appetite for
praise, in too liberally dispensing it to others, he has unguardedly
conveyed censure, where he meant but to commend.
The liberty of the Press, is without doubt, liable to abuse, so is
every privilege we enjoy, as men or as subjects, but, if it be once
admitted that the abuse of any privilege by a few individuals, is a
sufficient reason for withdrawing it from the Public at large, all their
privileges as free men will be successively forfeited:—If, indeed,
Government had not been possessed of sufficient means for
remedying the apparent disorders, they had had a decent apology
for resorting to new measures, and restrictive expedients; but, when
the Revd. Author acknowledges the competence of the powers
vested in Ministers, originally to suppress such assemblies, he
according to our apprehension, (though perhaps, not designedly,)
censures their conduct in neglecting to do so.
That seats in the House of Commons, are to be purchased, is as
notorious as the sun at noon day, according to a noble member of
the present Administration, who is reported, in the public papers, to
have made use of this expression, on being convicted of bartering or
attempting to barter a seat in that house, for a Writership in the East
India Service:—it is no less confidently affirmed, that, in many
instances, Boroughs (intended to return representatives of the
commercial part of the Empire) are become the properties of private
individuals, who either appoint their own Members (with this
particular proviso, that they shall vacate their seats, unless they vote
agreeably to the will of the individual appointing them) or without
hesitation sell them to the best bidder:—it even, sometimes
happens, that the Aristocracy of a county (by which I mean the
proprietors of great landed estates) consult together, how many
votes each of them can command (for they conclude that every
tenant must vote according to the direction of his landlord) and
proceed to put in nomination such candidates, as may have secured
the weightiest interest with themselves, who are generally
successful; whether are they then, the representatives of the people,
or of a few individuals constituting this Aristocracy?—Are these
practices consistent with the Constitution? or rather is not its very
principle violated by them?—in consequence of these abuses, it may
reasonably be conjectured, that the representative body will become
corrupt;—that their own immediate interests will outweigh all
consideration for the public; and that they will utterly disregard the
rights and privileges of the people, to protect which, however, they
were originally instituted:—are the people culpable if aroused by
such grievances? they petition for a Reform in the Commons House,
well aware that the long duration of Parliaments, not only gives birth
to, but accelerates the progress of corruption; if they aim at an
annual, rather than a septennial parliament, concluding that, by how
much the shorter the period of their parliamentary existence may be,
the Administration will become by so much the less able and less
willing to corrupt the members, and that even should any individuals
of the representative body betray their trust, the period will soon
arrive, in which they may elect more worthy representatives?—It has
been asserted that this is contrary to the nature of our boasted
constitution; but, if the system be imperfect in this one particular, why
not amend so material a defect?—Or is the constitution immutable
but for the benefit of the Aristocracy, whilst every change is
inadmissible, that will protect the people at large in the due
enjoyment of their rights and privileges?—Is the change from a
Triennial, to a Septennial Parliament (brought about by the
representative body, in direct violation of their constituents’ rights;) is