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influence it is at present a failure, though the enterprise has been
carried out regardless of cost, even in the most liberal manner.
The American mission at Teheran has really succeeded in making
some headway.
However, the at present (in regard to converts) abortive mission to
Julfa has in the educational department certainly done wonders, and
has given an impetus to the native schools, which previously, heavily
subsidised by successful Armenian emigrants, had done no work at
all, and were battened on by a set of hungry priests and mirzas, who
on some pretext or other sent away their pupils for five days out of
seven, and declared a holiday. Where the income went nobody
knew; this much was apparent, there was no result.
The long fasts of the Armenian Church are loyally kept by the
poorer of the Armenian community and by the villagers. They occupy
altogether a sixth of the whole year, and in them no eggs or meat
may be eaten, only vegetables, fruits, grain, and vegetable oil, but
wine and spirits are freely indulged in.
CHAPTER XIII.
ISPAHAN.
“Somebody must be beaten,” said the doctor, “and these Jews are
undoubtedly horribly persecuted.”
When the shouting was at its highest, the doctor called to the
sergeant of infantry and whispered in his ear. The two soldiers
turned pale, and the Jews proceeded to implore blessings on the
head of the doctor.
Presently a pole some eight feet long, with a transverse handle at
either end and a loop of rope in the middle, was produced, and,
kicking off their boots, the two soldiers lay down on the ground, and
each raised a foot; but the doctor was not to be appeased so easily,
and insisted on both feet of each man going into the loop. On this
being done, the noose was tightened by turning the pole by means
of the handles, and the soles of the soldiers’ feet were now upwards,
and a fair mark; two other soldiers held the ends of the pole, which is
termed a “fellek.”
The doctor now adjured the men to confess, as, if they did not, as
he put it to them, he should have to thrash them till they did, and
then have to punish them for the offence itself; whereas, if they
confessed, there would be only one beating and accounts would be
clear.
Both men confessed, though the value of a confession under such
circumstances may be doubted. Then the doctor’s servants drew
from his hauz a huge bundle of sticks some five feet long; they were
ordinary willow wands, switchy, and about twice the thickness of the
thumb at the butt; the bark was left on, and it appeared that they
were kept in water to prevent their breaking too easily.
Four of the soldiers now seized each half-a-dozen wands, and,
taking one in their right hands, awaited the signal. “Bezan!” (“Lay
on!”) exclaimed the hakim-bashi, and they proceeded to thrash the
bare soles of their comrades with the sticks; at first they struck fair
on the feet, but whenever the doctor’s eye was not on them, they
broke the stick over the “fellek” and substituted a fresh one.
The men now roared for mercy; some hundred sticks had been
broken over their feet, and, taking an average of four blows for each
stick, they had received four hundred, or two hundred each.
“Amān Agha!” “Mercy, Lord!” “Oh, hakim-bashi!” “Oh, merciless
Jews!” “Oh, Mussulmans!” “Oh, doctor, sahib!” “Oh, Lord, without
mercy!” “Oh, rascal Jews!” “Sons of dog fathers!” “Mer—cy!”
The hakim-bashi now addressed them—“Rascals, do you know
now that you are not to oppress the king’s subjects?”
“Ah,” replied one man, “but Jews—” He had better have been
silent, for the hakim-bashi raised his hand, and the beating
recommenced. I now interceded, and the men were led off, limping.
I asked the doctor if such beatings would not lame the men.
He replied, “Not in the least; they will be all right in two days, if a
little tender to-morrow. I have myself had quite as bad a beating from
my achōn (schoolmaster) when a boy. There is no degradation in the
punishment; all are liable to it, from the Prime Minister downwards.
What you have seen is merely a warning; one and two thousand
sticks are often given—I mean to say fairly broken over the soles of
the feet—and thicker sticks than mine; say, six thousand blows.”
I asked what was the result of such beating.
“Well,” said the doctor, “I have known them fatal; but it is very rare,
and only in the case of the victim being old or diseased.”
I was told that it is really very much a matter of bribing the
farrashes (carpet-spreaders) who administer the punishment. As a
rule, a severe beating, such as is given by the king’s farrashes,
keeps a man in bed for weeks or months. Culprits much prefer it to a
fine. Here the doctor called one of his servants.
“Which would you prefer,” said he, “to lose a month’s pay or take
such a beating as those soldiers had?”
“The beating, of course,” replied the man.
“His pay is ten kerans a month,” said the doctor (seven-and-
sixpence).
Custom, I suppose, is everything; to our tender feet such a beating
would be very terrible, but Persians of the lower class walk much
barefoot; in fact, like our own tramps, unless the road be very stony,
one sees them on the march take off their boots and go bare, to
save shoe-leather or sore feet.
The doctor told me of the trials and troubles of his position, his
long hours of duty, and his many anxieties when his young charge
was ill. “Your arrival is a great thing,” he said; “you can speak as I
cannot dare to, and you can insist on proper directions being carried
out. At present, when the prince is indisposed, all the visitors and all
the old women prescribe, and as he tries all the remedies, he
becomes really ill.
“Then I have to telegraph his state to the king; then the king’s
French physician and his other hakims are ordered to suggest
remedies. You can fancy the result. Why, when I came here, the then
hakim-bashi was a young and rowdy prince, who, though a very
good fellow, kept the Prince-Governor permanently on the sick-list,
gave him two china-bowls of physic to take a day, and tabooed
everything that was nice. Of course I broke through all that, and, by
keeping him free from physic and on good plain food, he is a strong
and healthy youth.” I sympathised with the doctor, and took my
leave.
From the doctor’s house I went to the principal bazaar of the town
to buy carpets, for I had disposed of most of my own on leaving
Kermanshah, to lessen the weight of my luggage. I was shown
several hundred carpets, some four by seven yards, down to little
rugs a yard square. Some of the finer carpets, astonished me by
their beauty, and also their price—forty pounds was a usual figure for
a large and handsome carpet.
The finer and more valuable carpets were not new—in fact, few
really good carpets are made nowadays. At the time I am speaking
of (sixteen years ago) the magenta aniline dyes were unknown to the
carpet-makers of Persia, and all the colours except the greens were
fast. Nowadays the exact reverse is the case. A very brilliant carpet
is produced, and if a wet handkerchief is rubbed on it, the colours
come off; these are not fast, and the carpet is worthless.
The aniline dyes are particularly used in the Meshed carpets, and
as these are the showiest and most attractive, they are largely
exported. Of course a native will not look at them, for when he buys
a carpet he expects it to last at least a century: he is generally not
disappointed. One sees many carpets which are quite fifty years old
with hardly a sign of wear.
At the time of which I am speaking, carpets had very seldom been
exported from Persia, and consequently there was no rubbish
manufactured; now (1883) it is quite different; if a very good carpet is
wanted, an old one must be bought.
The carpets made for the European market are coarse, and the
weaving loose. Many, indeed, are made of fast colours, but gaudy
patterns only are used, and the fine and original patterns formerly in
vogue are disappearing. Of a couple of hundred carpets brought for
sale, perhaps there may be only six distinct patterns, though, of
course, the borders and arrangement of the colours may vary. The
favourite patterns are the “Gul Anar” and “Herati:” the latter is
certainly very effective, and is the pattern of nine-tenths of the
carpets exported.
To choose a carpet, the first thing is to see if the colours are fast.
This is done by rubbing with a wet cloth. If the slightest tinge is
communicated to this, the carpet should be rejected. Then, if the
carpet is limp, and can be doubled on itself like a cloth, it is “shul-
berf” (loosely woven) and scamped. A carpet which is well woven (I
am speaking of new ones) is always stiff. Greens in the pattern
should be avoided, as they will fade to a drab, but this drab is not
unpleasing; white, on the contrary, in time becomes a pale yellow,
and is a good wearing colour, and should be chosen rather than
avoided.
The thinner and finer the carpet is, the greater is its value. The
size of the thread of the wool should be noticed, and the smaller it is
the better. It should be remembered that, in the question of price, a
thinner thread means a great difference in the amount of labour in
making.
The size, too, of the pattern should be noted, as a large pattern is
proportionately much cheaper. Again, the finer patterns being only
undertaken by the best weavers, one is more likely to get a good
carpet with a fine pattern than with a coarse. The general effect, too,
should be noted. This is never bad, but at times an eccentric pattern
is come across.
The softer the carpet is to the hand, the more valuable it is as a
rule, if it be not a Meshed carpet with aniline dye. These latter should
be avoided, as they always fade, and are of very small value.
One of the reasons why Oriental carpets last so long, is that chairs
are not used, and they are not walked on by boots, and so dirtied
and worn, but by bare feet. The carpet should now be doubled, and
the ends applied to each other. If one is broader than the other, it
shows careless work, and the carpet should be rejected as “kaj”
(uneven, or rather, crooked).
It must be then spread on a level floor and smoothed, to see if it
lies flat. Many carpets have “shatūr,” or creases; these never come
out. The carpet never lies flat, and wears in a patch over the “shatūr.”
If all is yet satisfactory the carpet must be turned bottom upwards,
and the edges carefully examined; if any darns are seen in the
edges of the carpet it must be rejected, for the Persians have a plan
of taking out any creases by either stretching the edges, which often
break under the process, or, if there is a redundancy, cutting it out
and fine drawing it so skilfully that it is only detected on carefully
examining the back. Such carpets are worthless.
The top of the carpet should now be inspected; if the edging of
cotton at the top or bottom be blue with no white in it, the carpet is
rubbish, and merely a thing got up for sale, absolutely a sham. The
edge or finish should be either white cotton or black wool; the latter
is by far the best, but is seldom seen nowadays. The all-woollen
carpets are mostly made near Mūrghab, and by the wandering tribes
of Fars; they are very seldom exported, and are always of sad
patterns, often very irregular.
In making a carpet, the women who weave it will often run out of
the exact shade of wool used in some part of the pattern or even
ground-work; they will continue with another shade of the same
colour. This has a curious effect to the European eye, but the native
does not look on it as a defect.
The value in Persia of a carpet in the present day may, if perfect
(either new or old), be reckoned at from fifteen shillings to two
pounds a square yard. In the larger carpets nothing can be obtained
under a pound a square yard.
Of course there are a few carpets which have been made to order
for great personages which are worth more than the price I have
given, but these are not easily obtained and only at prix fou. By the
term carpet, I mean what Persians call kali, that is, in
contradistinction to farsch. Kali is our idea of carpet, that is, a floor-
covering, having a pile.
Farsch means floor-covering generally, and may be “nammad,” or
felt, or “gelim,” a thin, pileless floor-covering of coarse pattern, and
much used in Europe as a portière; in these “gelim” white greatly
predominates, and they soon get soiled and dirty; they are only used
in Persia by the villagers and poor.
The farsch hamam-i, or bath carpet, is a finer species of gelim
made near Kermanshah; both sides are alike, the patterns are
elaborate and beautiful, and the colours very lovely, but they fade,
being mostly of aniline dye, and are harsh to the feel. Their only
recommendation is their extreme portability.
The nammad, or felts (carpets), are generally used by Persians to
go round the room and act as a frame to the carpet (kali), which
occupies the top and centre.
They are three in number for each room; two kanareh, or side
pieces, a yard to a yard and a half wide, and a sir-andaz, literally that
which is thrown over the head (of the apartment). The kanareh are
from half to two and a half inches in thickness, and are usually of a
light-brown or yellow-ochre colour, being ornamented with a slight
pattern of blue and white, or red and green, which is formed by
pinches of coloured wool inserted when the felt is made.
The best nammad are made at Yezd, and are often expensive;
they cost about thirty shillings a square yard, and will last a century;
they are two inches thick.
Nammad, however, are now getting out of fashion, for they will not
stand the wear produced by chairs, which are coming into common
use among the rich. Carpets are taking their place.
These nammad, or felts, are universally used as great-coats by
the peasantry, and are very good indeed as an outer covering, being
seamless. They are often made with bag-like sleeves with a slit at
the wrists, thus forming a glove, and when the peasant wants to use
his hands, they are thrust through the slit and the glove portion
turned back over the wrist. They are all in one piece.
The gelim, or tent carpets, are very suitable for travelling or rough
work, and being thin are easily dried. They wash well, and have no
pile.
There is yet another variety of carpet called jejim: this is very thin
and more like a plaid in consistency; it is used by horsemen, who
wrap their spare clothing in it and use it as a bed and carpet too.
For about fifty pounds I was able to get enough carpets for all my
living rooms, and, owing to the steady rise in the price of carpets, on
my departure in nine years’ time on leave, I got as much as I gave
for them. Exactly the same as with horses after the famine, the
demand being greater than the supply on account of exportation,
prices rose considerably.
A good deal of illness occurring just at this time among the staff, I
had my attention directed to the water, which, being mostly from
surface wells, was much contaminated. I therefore engaged a water-
carrier from the town, purchased a skin and bucket for him, and the
staff were supplied with a skinful twice a day, for cooking and
drinking purposes, from the monastery well—a deep and good one.
The Persians are particular what water they drink, and invariably
employ a sakka, or water-carrier; but the Armenians generally have
a cesspool just outside their house door, and in its immediate
proximity the well is dug, often only ten feet deep. The result is
obvious.
Our superintendent being a married man, collars which I had cast
off for the last year, principally because I could not get them washed,
had to be worn; and I had to send them to Teheran by post to get
them washed, for in Ispahan the art of ironing was unknown; and the
American term for a shirt, “boiled rag,” was literally appropriate.
I made the acquaintance of three brothers who were Syuds, or
holy men, but who had the reputation of being freethinkers; these
men called on me and insisted on my breakfasting with them in the
town: they were wealthy landed proprietors and merchants. I found
their house beautifully furnished and their hospitality was great; they
discoursed much on the subject of religion, and were very eloquent
on the injustices perpetrated in Persia. They were nearly related to
the Imām-i-Juma, or high priest, a very great personage indeed, who
ruled the town of Ispahan by his personal influence. It was said that
any one who incurred his displeasure always, somehow or other, lost
his life.
Under the shadow of such a relation, the Syuds Hassan and
Houssein and their brother openly held their very liberal opinions.
They were, in fact, sectaries of the Baab.
This impostor has succeeded in establishing a new religion, the
tenets of which are very difficult to get at—a community of property
being one. Mahommedans state that a community of women is also
observed; this is, however, very doubtful.
The execution of their prophet, far from decreasing their numbers,
has had an opposite effect; many among the Ispahanis and Zinjanis
still secretly profess Baabiism.
A few years before my arrival in Ispahan (1867), a determined
attempt was made on the life of the present Shah by a few of the
fanatics of this sect, and the unsuccessful conspirators were put to
death with horrible tortures. (For details see Lady Shiel’s work.) In
these latter days (1880), when I was in Ispahan, a priest was
denounced by his wife as a Baabi. I saw him led to prison; he
avowed his Baabiism and declined to retract, though offered his life;
he, however, denied the statements of his wife and daughter, who
accused him of wishing to prostitute them to others of his co-
religionists.
On being taken to the public square for execution, after having
been severely bastinadoed, and when in chains, knowing his last
hour was come, he was offered his life if he would curse Baab.
He replied, “Curses on you, your prince, your king, and all
oppressors. I welcome death and long for it, for I shall instantly
reappear on this earth and enjoy the delights of Paradise.” The
executioner stepped forward and cut his throat.
A few days after his execution, my friends the three brothers were
arrested, their valuables looted by the king’s son the Zil-es-Sultan,
the then Governor of Ispahan, and by the Imām-i-Juma, the
successor of their former protector in the office of high priest of
Ispahan. Their women, beaten and insulted, fled to the anderūns
(harems) of friends and relations, but were repulsed by them for fear
of being compromised. They then came to the telegraph-office in
Julfa and sat in an outer room without money or food. After a few
days the relatives, rather than let the (to them) scandal continue of
the women being in the quarters of Europeans, gave them shelter.
The real cause of the arrest of these men was not their religion;
the Imām-i-Juma owed them eighteen thousand tomans (seven
thousand two hundred pounds); they were sent for and told that if
they did not forgive the debt they would be denounced and inevitably
slain. But habit had made them bold; they declined to even remit a
portion of the sum owing; they were politely dismissed from the high
priest’s presence, and a proposition made to the prince that the
whole of their property should be confiscated by him, and that they
should be accused of Baabiism and executed. This was agreed to.
They were sent for and taken from the prince’s presence protesting
their innocence, the youngest brother cursing Baab as proof of his
orthodoxy.
The next day all were savagely beaten in prison, and it was
generally given out that they would be executed; but being men of
wealth and influence, no one believed in this.
The English missionary in Julfa, the assistant superintendent of
the telegraph, and a few Armenians, addressed a letter to the prince
which, while apparently pleading their cause, really, I fear,
accelerated their fate (if it had any effect). The prince was furious,
and vouchsafed no reply.
I happened to see him professionally, and he asked me why I had
not signed this letter. I replied that I had not been asked to in the first
place; and that I should hesitate to mix myself up in the politics of the
country, being a foreign official. He appreciated my motives, and
asked if I knew the three men.
I replied that all three were my intimate friends, and I trusted that
their lives were not really in danger.
I never have been able to ascertain if his reply was merely given to
quiet me or not; it was this:—
“The matter is really out of my hands—it has been referred to the
king; he is very bitter against Baabis, as you know; nothing that
sahibs in Julfa may do will have any effect. Why, sahib, what would
your Prince of Wales say if he were interviewed, and letters written to
him about confessed criminals by obscure Persians? The
missionary, the missionary, he only troubles me to make himself
notorious.”
I explained that these Syuds were really personal friends of the
missionary as well as my own.
“All disaffected people are friends of missionaries, as you very well
know.”
I again asked him if they would be spared or not?
“I can tell you nothing more,” he said; “one has cursed Baab, he
will not die. As for the others the king will decide; for me, I wish
personally to kill no one; you have known me long enough to know I
dislike blood. I am not the Hissam-u-Sultaneh” (the king’s uncle, a
very severe Governor). He changed the subject and declined to
return to it. I cannot tell if the two elder brothers had been offered
their lives or not. I went back to Julfa hoping that they would all be
spared. The town was in great excitement. Next morning at dawn
their throats were cut in the prison, and their bodies flung into the
square. The prince had not dared to execute them publicly for fear of
a tumult.
Their houses were looted, and part of their estates; the Imām-i-
Juma’s share of the plunder was large, and he never repaid the
eighteen thousand tomans. Such was Persia in 1880. The youngest
brother, who had cursed Baab, was spared, and afterwards
reinstated in part of his family property.
CHAPTER XIV.
JULFA AND ISPAHAN.