AS Biology: Unit 2

Topic 3: the voice of the genome

Phylogeny: The study of the history of the evolution of a species or group, especially in reference to lines of descent and relationships
among broad groups of organism
Phylogenetics is the study of evolutionary relationships among biological entities

feature Bacteria Archaea Eukarya

DNA, RNA, ribosomes Yes Yes Yes

Nucleus No No Yes

Membrane-bound No No Yes
organelles

Cell wall Yes- made of peptidoglycan Yes- no peptidoglycan
however *phospholipids in
membrane have branched
hydrocarbon tails and ether
bonds
Some yes but no
peptidoglycan (i.e; plants
and fungi), some no (i.e;
animals)

Antibiotics Not resistant to antibiotics Resistant to antibiotics that Same as Archea

affect bacteria
*also live in harsh
environments

Eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells:

Eukaryotic cells:
➔ found in Eukaryotes; Animals, plants, protoctists (i.e; Algae), many fungi
➔ Contain membrane-bounded organelles; A nucleus, Mitochondria, chloroplasts etc…

Prokaryotic cells:
➔ Found in Prokaryotes; most bacteria, green-blue algae
➔ Do not contain membrane-bounded organelles (no mitochondria, ER, golgi body and chloroplasts)
➔ do not have a nucleus. They have a single strand of DNA coiled to form a loop in the centre- the nucleoid
➔ Cytoplasm contains enzymes, ribosomes and food storage granules
➔ will sometimes have additional genetic material in rings called plasmids
➔ Respiration takes place in a special part of the cell membrane; a Mesosome
➔ Photosynthesizing prokaryotes will have a form of chlorophyll. *Not in chloroplast
Eukaryotic cell ultrastructure:

Membranes
The cell membrane surrounds a cell acting as a boundary which holds the cell together and controls what goes in and out. *Partially
permeable
Intracellular membranes make up/surround organelles and serve many functions.

The protoplasm

Cytoplasm
jelly-like liquid containing organelles

The nucleus
● Largest organelle, between 10 and 20 micrometres
● Controls events in cytoplasm because contains genetic material of cell; Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). Also contains proteins.
*when cell is not dividing DNA bonds with a protein to form chromatin- tiny granules
● surrounded by a double nuclear membrane or, envelope, which has many nuclear pores allowing for the movement of
chemicals
● Contains at least one nucleolus; dense area of almost pure nucleic acids and proteins

Mitochondria
● Surrounded by inner and outer membranes. Inner membrane folded to make cristae which is surrounded by a fluid matrix
● contain their own genetic material; to replicate themselves during cell division
● Function: Releases energy from food in the form of ATP using Oxygen in a series of biochemical reactions → aerobic
respiration
● More found in cells requiring more energy, i.e; muscle cells

Centrioles
● Two found in each cell. Each a bundle of nine tubules.
● Function: Pull apart to form a spindle of microtubules in mitosis

Cytoskeleton
Dynamic, 3D, web-like structure made of microfilaments (protein fibres) and microtubules (protein tubes)
Function: gives cytoplasm structure and keeps organelles in place

vacuoles
Mostly found in plant cells. Formed and lost as needed in some animal cells. i.e; white blood cells
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
Rough ER:
● Network of sac-like cavities (cisternae) covered with ribosomes
● Function: Protein synthesis occurs in ribosomes- rER isolates and transports these proteins as transfer vesicles pinch of
the cisternae and travel to the Golgi body
● Large SA for synthesis of many proteins
Smooth ER:
● Tubular cisternae- no ribosomes
● Function: Synthesis and transport of steroids and lipids (i.e; oestrogen)

Golgi body
● Made up of stacks of flattened, parallel, membrane pockets called cisternae, found near the nucleus. Transfer vesicles from
the sER fuse to form these
● Function: Modify, store and transport proteins received at the cis golgi from the rER. Carbohydrates can be added to
proteins to form glycoproteins.
● Secretory vesicles containing proteins bud off the cisternae at the trans golgi
● some fuse with the outer cell membrane to release proteins, i.e; extracellular enzymes
● Involved in formation + secretion of lysosome

Lysosome
Vesicles containing a powerful mix of digestive enzymes. Used in phagocytosis.
Can rupture to destroy damaged cell- known as apoptosis.

The organisation of cells:

1. Tissues: Groups of similar cells carrying out a specific function- They do not operate on their own
Four main tissue types:
➔ Epithelial: form the lining of surfaces, inside and outside the body. i.e; squamous epithelium
➔ Connective: Main supporting tissue in the body mostly made up of collagen. i.e; bone tissue, blood
➔ Muscle tissue
➔ Nervous tissue

2. organs: Different tissues, grouped into a structure so that they can work effectively together
3. Organ systems: Organs working together as a system to carry out large-scale functions
Cell cycle and mitosis:

Stage 1:
Interphase;
➔ G1: cell synthesizes mRNA and proteins
➔ S (Synthesis): DNA replication and cell growth + centrosomes replicate
➔ G2 (gap 2): final cell growth takes place. *At checkpoints, small proteins called cyclins build up and attach to CDKs to allow
the cell to move on to the next stage
Mitosis:
A form of cell division which results in two identical daughter cells being formed.
*Allows for growth, asexual reproduction in some organisms and for damaged tissue to be replenished after injury by replacing
damaged cells.

Prophase:
❖ Chromosomes coil and condense by winding around positively charged histone proteins and each appear as two chromatids
joined by a centromere. (X shape)
❖ Nucleolus breaks down
❖ Centrioles move apart and begin to form the spindle

Metaphase:
❖ Nuclear membrane breaks down
❖ Spindles made of microtubules have been formed (by the centrioles) and chromosomes line up at the equator of the cell
where each is attached to a spindle fibre by its centromere

Anaphase:
❖ The centromeres separate as the sister chromatids are pulled towards opposite poles, shortening spindle tubules

Telophase:
❖ Spindle fibres break down and nuclear membranes form around two sets of chromosomes
❖ Nucleoli and centrioles also re-form. The chromosomes unravel, becoming less dense

Cytokinesis: Final stage; division of cytoplasm to form two individual cells.

Gametogenesis: (meiosis)\

Meiosis is a process where a single cell divides twice to produce four cells (sex cells or gametes) containing the haploid number of
chromosomes.
-It consists of two stages;
➔ Meiosis l
◆ Same process as mitosis; two diploid cells produced
◆ Crossing over occurs during prophase (during synapsis); homologous chromosomes1 wind around each other at
the chiasmata and sections of each chromosome switch places; genetic information is shared between the two
→ genetic variation even between siblings
◆ independent assortment occurs as a result of the alignment of homologs during metaphase I, determining which
maternal and paternal chromosomes assort to each daughter cell. Each pair of alleles separates independently of
every other pair of unlinked alleles leading to a new combination of chromosomes.

➔ Meiosis ll
◆ Same process as mitosis (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase) but DNA is not replicated
◆ Only one of the four cells produced becomes an ovum; the others are polar bodies

Structural adaptations of mammalian gametes:

Sperm

Spermatogenesis (in testes) → spermatids → differentiate into mature sperm within about two months. *occurs from onset of
puberty throughout a man’s lifetime.

1
Carry the same genes but not necessarily the same alleles
 Secondary oocyte

Cortical granules contain enzymes which are released once a

sperm has penetrated the egg, known as the cortical reaction
→ Zona pellucida forms hard barrier preventing polyspermy
(the fertilisation membrane)

Oogenesis: Primary oocytes are formed from oogonia (female

germ cells) following repeated mitotic divisions. At puberty
meiosis resumes from prophase l and eggs at metaphase ll are
released. The second division of secondary oocytes to produce
mature ova is only completed during fertilisation.

Fertilisation:

Animals
1. Sperm move through the female reproductive
tract and the acrosome region matures
2. Sperm cluster around ovum (secondary oocyte)
3. Heads of sperms touch surface of ovum →
acrosome reaction2
4. One sperm3 eventually wriggles through the
weakened barriers and touches the surface
membrane of the secondary oocyte
5. The oocyte undergoes second meiotic division to
provide a haploid egg nucleus
6. A tough fertilisation membrane is formed to
prevent polyspermy following the cortical
reaction
7. The head of the sperm enters the oocyte and the
tail is left behind; the male and female chromosomes fuse and a diploid4 zygote is produced

2
Enzymes are released from the acrosome which digest the follicle cells and the zona pellucida as the
sperm approach the egg
3
One sperm alone does not produce sufficient enzymes to penetrate the protective layers around the
ovum; reason for large number of sperm released in ejaculation
4
Containing two complete sets of chromosomes one from each parent
Plants
1. If the molecules on the surface of the pollen grain and the stigma recognise each other as being from a different plant5 from
the same species the pollen grain begins to grow or germinate
2. Pollen tube grows through stigma into the hollow style
3. Nucleus of pollen tube divides to form two male nuclei and the tip of the tube eventually passes through the micropyle of the
ovule *growth of pollen tube is very fast due to rapid elongation of cell
4. Two male nuclei pass into the ovule
5. Double fertilisation occurs → one male nucleus fuses with the nuclei of the two polar bodies to form the triploid
endosperm nucleus and the other fuses with the egg cell to form the diploid zygote

Stem cells
Stem cells are undifferentiated cells (Totipotent, Pluripotent or multipotent) which have the potential to differentiate and give rise
to different specialised cells such as muscle cells. These cells are present in some organs where they will divide to
replace and replenish damaged tissue.

Stem cells are either:

•Totipotent: can give rise to any type of specialized cell.
•Pluripotent: Can give rise to any type of specialised cell other than placental cells. i.e; embryonic stem cells, taken from
the blastocyst
•Multipotent: Can give rise to more than one type of specialised cell- more limited than pluripotent stem cells. i.e; adult
stem cells

Uses of stem cells:

•The main two types of stem cells are embryonic cells, which are derived from the blactocyst (a ball of cells which
developes 3-5 days after fertilisation) produced under IVF or fetal tissue, and adult stem cells which are taken from adult
tissues such as the bone marrow.

•Due to their unique regenerative abilities (They are capable of continuous cell division and technically have no hayflick
limit), stem cells can be used to treat several diseases including type 1 diabetes- where they can be induced to become
insulin producing beta cells.

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For more variation
Problems with using stem cells from donors:
➔ You need to find a suitable match which can be difficult
➔ Risk of rejection
➔ Risk of transmission of disease
➔ The recipient would have to take immunosupressant drugs to prevent their body from rejecting the stem cells making them
vulnerable to opportunistic diseases
➔ Can cause cancer to develop

Stem cell ethics:

❖ Is it okay to create and destroy life for scientific purposes? Sometimes extra embryos from IVF are used, they would be
thrown away anyway
❖ Is it okay to ‘alter’ humans?
❖ What if stem cell therapy heralds damaging effects on humans in the future?
❖ Embryos should have the same human rights as a fully grown adult
❖ Stem cell research offers the hope of curing millions of hopeless people suffering from illnesses like Parkinson’s and
Alzheimer’s
❖ Use of adult stem cells is ethically less sensitive

Cell differentiation/differential gene expression

● external/internal stimulus (i.e; hormones, chemicals) triggers diff. Genes to be activated
● Diff. sections of dna are transcribed; active mRNA produced + translated into proteins
● Proteins are made→ control cell processes and determine cell structure and function

Genetic variation
❖ Alleles are alternative forms of the same gene that occupy the same location (gene locus)
A phenotype is the result of an interaction between genotype and the environment (e.g. animal hair colour, human height, monoamine
oxidase A (MAOA) and cancers). For example, about 400 genes contribute to human height, however, environmental factors which
determine a child’s nutrition and overall health also affect it. The data on the relative contributions of genes and environment is often
difficult to interpret.

Gene locus
A locus (plural loci), in genetics, is the specific location or position of a gene, DNA sequence, on a chromosome.

Phenotype and gene interactions

Some phenotypes are affected by many genes at different loci (polygenic inheritance) as well as the environment (e.g. height) and
this can give rise to phenotypes that show continuous variation. Polygenic inheritance occurs when one visible characteristic
(phenotype) is controlled by two or more genes at different loci. Often the genes are large in quantity but small in effect. Examples of
human polygenic inheritance are height, skin color, eye color and weight. These characteristics do not seem to follow mendelian rules
in their inheritance patterns.
When there are large numbers of genes involved, it becomes hard to distinguish the effect of each individual gene
Topic 4: Biodiversity and natural resources
All living organisms are divided into three domains (established by Woese in 1990); bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya which stem from the
last universal common ancestor (LUCA).
*Bacteria and Archaea, are both single-celled prokaryotic microorganisms with no nucleus. Despite this, Archaea are known to be
more closely related to Eukarya.
feature Bacteria Archaea Eukarya

DNA, RNA, ribosomes Yes Yes Yes

Nucleus No No Yes

Membrane-bound No No Yes
organelles

Cell wall Yes- made of peptidoglycan Yes- no peptidoglycan
however *phospholipids in
membrane have branched
hydrocarbon tails and ether
bonds
Some yes but no
peptidoglycan (i.e; plants
and fungi), some no (i.e;
animals)

Antibiotics Not resistant to antibiotics Resistant to antibiotics that Same as Archea

affect bacteria
*also live in harsh
environments

Initially, scientists used morphology, or the physical appearance of organisms to identify the degree of similarity or
differene between them and in turn, grouping them into species, genus and so on. A species is a group of closely related
organisms which can interbreed to produce fertile offspring.
Some organisms may look similar while they are actually very different. The new science of molecular phylogeny
uses the analysis of the structures of many different chemicals6 and genes to identify how closely related organisms are
and in turn back up or even disprove the relationships based on morphology. This is done with the evidence from DNA
profiling and analysis of the sequence of bases in DNA and RNA as well as amino acid sequences.

The theory that there are three domains; two prokaryotes (Archea and bacteria) and the eukaryotes developed
as a result of analysis of ribosomes, enzymes and chemicals such as DNA and RNA under molecular phylogeny. The three
domain system, remains a source of debate and uncertainty, however, as some scientists argue that archaea are not more
closely linked to eukarya and that the evolution of organisms would be better represented by a complex web of life rather
than a simple tree.

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I.e; DNA, RNA and proteins
Plant cell structure:

Because plant cells are bounded by cell walls, they appear as more rigid and uniform in shape than animal cells. *Plant cells contain
the same features as animal cells (except centrioles) as well as some distinguishing features

Plant cell walls

Middle lamella:
➔ first layer
➔ Forms after cell division
➔ Made of pectin, calcium pectate
Primary cell wall:
➔ Build up against middle lamella
➔ Made up of cellulose microfibrils, pectin and a matrix of hemicelluloses and other short-chain carbohydrates which act as a
glue
➔ Flexible as cellulose microfibrils oriented in a similar direction (parallel)
Secondary cell wall:
➔ Develops as plant ages
➔ Cellulose microfibrils laid densely at diff. angles to each other → gives cell wall strength
➔ More rigid + hemicelluloses harden it further
➔ Some are lignified, i,e; wood

middle lamella
Holds cell walls of neighbouring plant cells together, acting as a glue. Made mainly of calcium pectate and hemicelluloses which hold
the cellulose matrices in place.

Plasmodesmata
a narrow thread of cytoplasm7 that passes through the cell walls of adjacent plant cells and allows communication between them.

Pits
Pits are cavities in plant cell walls that allow water to be transported more easily.

Organelles unique to plant cells:

Large central vacuole

Space inside cytoplasm filled with cell sap (substances dissolved in water), surrounded by membrane called the tonoplast.
Functions: Allows water to enter the cell by osmosis → key in maintaining turgor pressure and, in turn, cell structure. Storage of
different substances. i.e; Betacyanin in beetroot cells

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The cytoplasm is not completely separated at cell division
Chloroplasts
➔ large organelles, biconvex shape
➔ Contain granum made of thylakoid membranes suspended in a liquid called stroma
➔ contain their own DNA and have a double membrane8, like mitochondria, giving a large SA for reactions to take place
➔ function: site of photosynthesis; contains chlorophyll- green pigment that traps energy from light

Amyloplasts
colourless, like chloroplasts, develop from a plant stem cell known as a leucoplast.
function: store amylopectin. Found in large amounts in starch-storing areas; potato tubers

Cellulose:
● Cellulose is made up of long chains of beta glucose joined by 1,4-
glycosidic bonds-cellulose chains9.
○ One of the monomer units has to be inverted so bonding
can take place. Hydroxyl groups stick out on both sides
of the molecule → cross-linking can occur between
parallel chains. These hydrogen bonds make cellulose
and plant fibres very strong.
○ They have a high tensile strength meaning they cannot
be easily broken by pulling.

B-glucose → cellulose molecules →cellulose microfibrils arranged at 90

degrees to each other → matrix strengthened by hemicelluloses and in some
cases, lignin

How is it different from starch?

● Starch is made up of alpha glucose joined by 1,4 and 1,6 glycosidic bonds, not b glucose joined by 1, 4 glycosidic bonds
● Cellulose is used for structure and support whereas starch is used for energy storage
● Cellulose is made from straight, parallel chains which form cellulose microfibrils whereas starch is made up of spiralled
amylose and branched amylopectin

The tissues that make up the stem:

❖ Epidermis: outer layer of the stem is the epidermis, protects the cells beneath it. A waxy substance called cutin is secreted
to reduce water loss
❖ Parenchyma: Made up of parenchyma cells- unspecialised cells. Can serve many functions, i.e; storage and photosynthesis,
some can be modified into collenchyma and sclerenchyma

8
Inner membrane is folded
9
10-100,000 cellulose molecules (straight chains) joined by hydrogen bonds make up microfibrils.
 ❖ Sclerenchyma: Type of modified parenchyma- for support. Develop around vascular bundles in older stems, to support
bigger upper weight of plant. Sclerenchyma cells have strong secondary walls made of cellulose microfibrils laid out
perpendicularly to each other. Some form fibers; very long cells found in bundles/cylinders. Lignin is deposited on the cell
walls of fibres. Position: outside phloem

❖ Vascular bundle:
Xylem:
Main functional units; hollow, lignified, xylem vessels made of dead cells with no
end
Function: transport water and dissolved mineral ions up the stem
Phloem: Living tissue made up of phloem cells which transport sucrose (the
product of photosynthesis) to where it is needed for growth or to be stored as
starch.

Cambium: a layer of unspecialised cells between xylem and phloem.

Importance of water and inorganic ions to plants:

Mineral ion Function Deficiency symptoms

Nitrate Needed to make DNA and amino · Stunted growth

acids and, in turn, proteins. Essential · Yellow older leaves
to growth and reproduction

Phosphate Needed for phosphate groups in ATP · Very dark green leaves
and ADP and nucleic acids; essential · Purple veins
to energy transfers and growth · Stunted growth

Calcium Combine with pectin to form calcium · Growing points die back
pectate found in middle lamella of · Yellow and crinkly younger
plant cells + important to leaves
permeability of membranes

Magnesium Part of chlorophyll molecule + · Yellow areas on older

essential for activation of plant leaves
enzymes needed for photosynthesis · Growth slowed down
+ synthesis of nucleic acids
Uses of plant fibres
Plant fibres have a high tensile strength- a lot of mass has to be applied to them to break them/pull them apart. This makes them very
suitable for making cloth, paper, ropes etc…

Plant fibres and starch are renewable resources unlike oil which is limited and becomes increasingly expensive. They are also
biodegradable and are of better quality in some cases10. Plant resources can be carbon neutral; they take in carbon as they grow and
release it as they are burnt or used. Thus, these contribute to sustainability.

cotton:
Short, single fibres found around cotton seeds are spun to form long, continuous threads with are then woven together to make
fabrics.

Wood:
A composite material made of lignified cellulose fibres embedded in hemicelluloses11. Wood has a very high tensile strength at is quite
flexible making it suitable for weight-bearing in buildings, making furniture and making boats.
To make paper:
➔ Soak in a strong alkali such as caustic soda
➔ Pulp consisting of cellulose and lignified cellulose left in water
➔ Thin layers of pulp pressed onto frames
➔ Layers of pulp dry to form paper
Bioplastics vs oil based plastics:

Oil based plastics are non-biodegradable; they cannot be degraded by naturally-occurring microorganisms such as bacteria and
fungi. They accumulate in the environment, particularly aquatic environments, and can cause marine life to die through intoxication12,
following ingestion of the plastic, or entanglement in the plastic fragments.
These conventional plastics are also non-sustainable as they are produced from non-renewable resources; petroleum and natural gas.

Bioplastics are made from renewable biological resources that at the end of their useful life rapidly biodegrade and return nutrients
back into the system.

Historic drug testing Vs contemporary drug testing

William Withering's digitalis soup
➔ discovered that an extract of foxgloves could be used to treat dropsy (extract contained the drug digitalis.)
➔ CHANCE OBSERVATION ; a patient suffering from dropsy recovered after being treated by a traditional remedy containing
foxgloves.
➔ Tested different versions of the remedy with different concentrations of digitalis.
➔ TRIAL & ERROR; - too much digitalis poisoned his patient, whilst too little had no effect.

10
For instance; clothing made from cotton are more absorbent and therefore more comfortable to wear
than those made from synthetic fibres
11
Polysaccharides found in cell walls which are less complicated in structure than cellulose.
12
Oily nature of plastics allow them to concentrate oily toxins
Contemporary drug testing

PRE-CLINICAL TESTING
Animal studies and laboratory studies on isolated cells and tissue cultures assesses safety and determines whether the compound is
effective against the target disease.

Clinical Trials:
PHASE 1
A small group of (usually healthy) volunteers are told about the drug and given doses. The trial confirms whether or not the compound
is being absorbed, distributed, metabolised and excreted by the body in the way predicted by the laboratory tests.
*They must be of the same age/gender and they must have the same general health levels and lifestyles

PHASE 2
Small groups of volunteer patients e.g. 100-300 people with the disease, are treated to determine the drug’s effectiveness.

PHASE 3
Large group of patients (1000-3000 people) are selected and divided into two groups. One is given the compound being investigated;
the second is given a placebo (in some cases an existing treatment is used rather than a placebo). A placebo is an inactive substance
that looks exactly like the drug but doesn't do anything.

If the results show significant improvements in the patients receiving the treatment compared to those with the placebo or standard
treatment then compound being investigated is effective.
Often a DOUBLE BLIND TRIAL is used -which is when neither the patients nor the doctors know who is having the compound under
investigation and who is having the placebo.

Biodiversity
The variety of organisms present in a given habitat
➔ Species richness: The number of species present in a habitat in a given time.
➔ Species evenness: How close in numbers each species in an environment is.
➔ Genetic diversity (within a species): The variety of alleles in a gene pool of a species; the more genetic variation the better
bc. Higher chances of survival

How to measure biodiversity:

❖ Using quadrats: *quantitative sampling, simplest way
➢ Place a quadrat of a suitable size (i.e; 1m by 1m) at random co-ordinates from a number generator
➢ Identify plants or animals (useful for organisms that don’t move much)
➢ Count how many species present
➢ Repeat at different locations; obtain mean number of species and multiply out to give total number of species in a
particular habitat (the more areas included the more reliable the results)
❖ Using transects
 The Galapagos
tortoises are
endemic to the
galapagos islands

Endemism
The ecological state of a species being unique to a defined
geographic area (in the wild) where they are not found anywhere
else.

Concept of Niche
A niche is the specific role or function of an organism in its habitat which is a result of its physical, anatomical and physiological
adaptations.
Adaptations:
➔ Behavioral; The ways an organism acts
◆ I.e: bird calls, migration
➔ Physiological: processes that take place inside an organism’s body
◆ I.e: Making venom, secreting slime
➔ Anatomical: Structural features of an organism
◆ I.e: long beaks, sharp claws

Natural selection:
The differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotype.
This is a type of directional selection which shows a change from one phenotypic property to a new one more advantageous in the
circumstances.
*This often begins with geographical isolation which changes the selection pressures on a species
1. There are genetic differences13 between organisms within the same species which results in different phenotypic traits.
2. Some traits are favourable; they make organisms fitter as these adaptations make them better suited to their
environments14
3. Many favourable traits are heritable, meaning they can be passed onto offspring
4. The fitter15 animals are more likely to survive and pass16 on their advantageous phenotypic traits to their offspring

13
Often caused by random mutations
14
Also, changes in selection pressures (environmental factors) may reduce reproductive success thus
contributing to evolutionary change or extinction through the process of natural selection
15
Have adaptations which give them the upper hand in terms of their chances of survival and
reproduction
16
The environment cannot support unlimited growth; not all individuals reproduce to their full potential
Mechanisms of evolutionary change:
★ Natural selection; *cannot operate unless there is genetic variation
★ Genetic drift; *Cannot operate unless there is genetic variation - The chance dissapearance of individuals who die or do not
reproduce
★ Mutation; a source of genetic variation
★ Migration; As genetically different organisms join a population; their alleles become more frequent in that population

Charles Darwin Identified this as a key mechanism of evolution, the change in heritable traits of a population over time. Under the idea
of the survival of the fittest, organisms17 with favourable traits are most likely to reproduce and pass on the alleles that code for these
traits as they give them an advantage in a particular niche. Over generations, the alleles that mark their variation become more
frequent and eventually whole populations change. This can also lead to speciation whereby new and distinct species are formed in the
course of evolution.

Conservation refers to the maintainance and protection of a living and changing environment in order to maintain biodiversity.

Animal species at risk of extinction can be saved in different ways:

❖ Regions can be established as national parks or protected areas to prevent the further destruction of habitats by human
activity
❖ Zoos can use captive breeding programmes;
➢ Individuals of a species are bred in zoos and parks *stud books and DNA profiles are kept
➢ Genetic diversity is maintained as sperm can be swapped with other zoos (for artificial insemination)
❖ Reintroduction programmes:
➢ Captive-bred animals can be reintroduced to their natural habitats in the wild to restore the original populations
➢ Reintroduction is most successful in national parks or other protected areas. The Californian condors have been
saved in this way.

Problems with captive breeding and reintroduction:

● There isn’t enough space or resources in zoos for all endangered species
● Reintroduction programmes are very expensive and time consuming and they may fail
● Unless the reason for animals being pushed to the brink of extinction is removed, reintroduction to the wild will be
unsuccessful
● It is difficult to provide the right conditions for animals to breed, some are reluctant
● The gene pool of animals held may be reduced
● Animals that have been bred in captivity may struggle to adapt to living unsupported in the wild18

17
All organism face the struggle for survival and different selection pressures can
18
I.e; they may not know how to interact with other animals
 Przewalski’s horses have been successfully reintroduced to a
national park in Mongolia following a captive breeding
programme in the UK

Seed banks can perserve many plants by storing live seeds:

1. hese seeds are collected from the wild, removed from fruits and
cleaned.
2. They are screened using x-rays to ensure that they contain fully
developed embryos.
3. Then they are stored in jars at very low temperatures19 and at
low humidity to prevent them from germinating and to prevent
microbial growth.
4. Most plant seeds store well and are capable of germinating for
up to 200 years.

Scientific research is carried out by zoos and botanic gardens which work closely with university departments. Education regarding
the impacts of falling biodiversity and the principles of conservation can help to raise awareness of conservation issues including the
need for conservation and the available opportunities for it.

*Core practicals; tensile strength, plant mineral deficiencies, antimicrobial properties of plants

19
Between -20 and -40 degrees celsius