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Aircraft Performance
Aircraft Performance: An Engineering Approach, Second Edition introduces flight
performance analysis techniques of fixed-wing air vehicles, particularly heavier-
than-aircraft. It covers maximum speed, absolute ceiling, rate of climb, range, endur-
ance, turn performance, and takeoff run.
Enabling the reader to analyze the performance and flight capabilities of an air-
craft by utilizing only the aircraft weight data, geometry, and engine characteristics,
this book covers the flight performance analysis for both propeller-driven and jet
aircraft. The second edition features new content on vertical takeoff and landing,
UAV launch, UAV recovery, use of rocket engine as the main engine, range for elec-
tric aircraft, electric engine, endurance for electric aircraft, gliding flight, pull-up,
and climb-turn. In addition, this book includes end-of-chapter problems, MATLAB®
code and examples, and case studies to enhance and reinforce student understanding.
This book is intended for senior undergraduate aerospace students taking courses
in Aircraft Performance, Flight Dynamics, and Flight Mechanics.
Instructors will be able to utilize an updated Solutions Manual and Figure Slides
for their course.
Aircraft Performance
An Engineering Approach
Second Edition
Mohammad H. Sadraey
Designed cover image: Steve Dreier
MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The MathWorks
does not warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s use or discussion
of MATLAB® software or related products does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by The
MathWorks of a particular pedagogical approach or particular use of the MATLAB® software.
Second edition published 2024

by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
and by CRC Press

4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
© 2024 Mohammad H. Sadraey
First edition published by CRC Press 2017
Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and
publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of
their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material
reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this
form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and
let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.
Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced,
transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known
or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.
For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access www.copyright.
com or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA
01923, 978-750-8400. For works that are not available on CCC please contact mpkbookspermissions@
tandf.co.uk
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are
used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Sadraey, Mohammad H, author.
Title: Aircraft performance: an engineering approach / Mohammad H Sadraey.
Description: Second edition. | Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press, 2023. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022060247 | ISBN 9781032245157 (hardback) |
ISBN 9781032245171 (paperback) | ISBN 9781003279068 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Airplanes—Performance. | Aerodynamics.
Classification: LCC TL671.4.S234 2023 | DDC 629.133/34—dc23/eng/20230111
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022060247
ISBN: 978-1-032-24515-7 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-032-24517-1 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-27906-8 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003279068
Typeset in Times
by codeMantra
Access the Instructor Resources: routledge.com/9781032245157

To Fatemeh Zafarani, Ahmad, and Atieh for all their love and
understanding
Contents
Preface to the Second Edition ................................................................................xvii
Author .....................................................................................................................xxi
List of Symbols .................................................................................................... xxiii
Chapter 1 Atmosphere ..........................................................................................1

1.1 Introduction ............................................................................... 1
1.2 General Description of Atmosphere ..........................................2
1.3 Major Components ....................................................................3
1.3.1 Oxygen and Nitrogen....................................................3
1.3.2 Carbon Dioxide ............................................................4
1.3.3 Water Vapor ..................................................................4
1.3.4 Aerosols ........................................................................5
1.4 Atmospheric Layers ...................................................................5
1.4.1 Troposphere ..................................................................6
1.4.2 Stratosphere .................................................................. 7
1.5 International Standard Atmosphere .......................................... 7
1.6 Atmospheric Parameters ......................................................... 11
1.6.1 Temperature................................................................ 11
1.6.2 Pressure ...................................................................... 14
1.6.2.1 First Layer ................................................... 16
1.6.2.2 Second Layer .............................................. 17
1.6.3 Air Density ................................................................. 19
1.6.4 Viscosity ..................................................................... 21
1.7 Humidity .................................................................................. 21
1.8 Altitude and Its Measurement .................................................25
1.8.1 Pressure Altimeter ......................................................25
1.8.2 Radar Altimeter ..........................................................26
1.8.3 Global Positioning System .........................................26
1.9 Speed of Sound ........................................................................ 27
1.10 Atmospheric Phenomena ......................................................... 30
1.10.1 Wind ........................................................................... 30
1.10.2 Gust and Turbulence................................................... 32
1.10.3 Icing ............................................................................ 32
Problems ............................................................................................. 32
Chapter 2 Equations of Motion ........................................................................... 35

2.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 35
2.2 Aerodynamic Forces................................................................ 37
2.3 General Governing Equations of Motion ................................ 43
2.3.1 Coordinate System .....................................................44
vii
viii Contents
2.3.2 Un-accelerated Versus Accelerated Flight ................. 45

2.3.3 Flight Phases ..............................................................46
2.4 Airspeed .................................................................................. 47
2.4.1 Airspeed Measurement .............................................. 47
2.4.2 True and Equivalent Airspeeds .................................. 49
2.4.3 Airspeed Indicator...................................................... 50
2.4.4 Airspeed Indicator Corrections .................................. 50
2.4.5 Airspeed and Ground Speed ...................................... 52
2.4.6 The Unit of Airspeed.................................................. 54
2.5 Stall Speed ............................................................................... 55
Problems .............................................................................................60
Chapter 3 Drag Force and Drag Coefficient ....................................................... 65

3.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 65
3.2 Drag Classification ..................................................................66
3.3 Drag Polar................................................................................ 71
3.4 Calculation of CDo.................................................................... 74
3.4.1 Fuselage ...................................................................... 75
3.4.2 Wing, Horizontal Tail, and Vertical Tail.................... 78
3.4.3 High-Lift Devices....................................................... 81
3.4.3.1 Trailing Edge HLDs ................................... 81
3.4.3.2 Leading Edge HLDs ................................... 82
3.4.4 Landing Gear ............................................................. 83
3.4.5 Strut ............................................................................84
3.4.6 Nacelle ........................................................................ 85
3.4.7 External Fuel Tank ..................................................... 85
3.4.8 Cooling Drag .............................................................. 85
3.4.9 Trim Drag ................................................................... 86
3.4.10 Other Parts and Components ..................................... 87
3.4.10.1 Interference ................................................. 87
3.4.10.2 Antenna....................................................... 88
3.4.10.3 Pitot Tube .................................................... 89
3.4.10.4 Surface Roughness ..................................... 89
3.4.10.5 Leakage.......................................................90
3.4.10.6 Rivet and Screw ..........................................90
3.4.10.7 Pylon ...........................................................90
3.4.10.8 Fairing for the Flap Mechanism .................90
3.4.10.9 Compressibility ...........................................92
3.4.10.10 Icing ............................................................ 93
3.4.10.11 Refueling Boom, Receptacle, Hose,
Probe, and Drogue ......................................94
3.4.10.12 External Store .............................................94
3.4.10.13 External Sensors .........................................94
3.4.10.14 Miscellaneous Items ...................................94
3.4.11 Overall CDo ................................................................. 95
3.5 Wave Drag ...............................................................................96
Contents ix
3.5.1 Wave Drag for Wing and Tail .................................... 98

3.5.2 Aircraft Wave Drag .................................................. 104
3.6 CDo for Various Configurations ............................................. 106
3.6.1 Clean Configuration ................................................. 106
3.6.2 Takeoff Configuration .............................................. 106
3.6.3 Landing Configuration ............................................. 107
3.6.4 The Effect of Speed and Altitude on CDo ................. 108
Problems ........................................................................................... 111
Chapter 4 Engine Performance ......................................................................... 119

4.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 119
4.2 Aircraft Engine Classification ............................................... 120
4.3 Piston or Reciprocating Engine ............................................. 121
4.3.1 Piston Engine Configurations................................... 124
4.3.2 Propeller Engine Performance ................................. 125
4.3.3 Supercharged Piston Engines ................................... 128
4.4 Turbine Engine ...................................................................... 130
4.4.1 Turbojet Engine ........................................................ 132
4.4.2 Turbofan Engine ....................................................... 134
4.4.3 Turboprop Engine ..................................................... 137
4.4.4 Turboshaft Engine .................................................... 139
4.4.5 Ramjet Engine .......................................................... 141
4.5 Other Engines ........................................................................ 143
4.5.1 Rocket Engine .......................................................... 143
4.5.2 Electric Engine ......................................................... 146
4.5.3 Solar-Powered Engine .............................................. 147
4.5.4 Human-Powered Engine........................................... 148
4.6 Engine Performance Criteria ................................................. 149
4.6.1 Engine Performance at Various Altitudes and
Speeds ...................................................................... 150
4.6.2 Specific Fuel Consumption ...................................... 150
4.7 Engine Performance Calculations ......................................... 152
4.7.1 Flat Rating ................................................................ 152
4.7.2 Variations of Power and Thrust with Aircraft
Speed ........................................................................ 155
4.7.2.1 Piston-Prop Engine and Turboprop
Engine ....................................................... 155
4.7.2.2 Turbojet Engine ........................................ 155
4.7.2.3 Turbofan Engine ....................................... 156
4.7.3 Variations of Power and Thrust with Altitude ......... 157
4.7.3.1 Piston Engine ............................................ 157
4.7.3.2 Turbojet Engine ........................................ 159
4.7.3.3 Turbofan Engine ....................................... 160
4.7.3.4 Turboprop Engine ..................................... 161
4.7.3.5 Electric Engine ......................................... 162
x Contents
4.7.4 Variations of SFC with Altitude ............................... 163

4.7.4.1 Piston Engine ............................................ 163
4.7.4.2 Turbojet Engine, Turbofan Engine,
and Turboprop Engine .............................. 163
4.7.5 Variations of SFC with Speed .................................. 164
4.7.5.1 Piston Engine ............................................ 164
4.7.5.2 Turbojet Engine ........................................ 165
4.7.5.3 Turbofan Engine ....................................... 166
4.7.5.4 Turboprop Engine ..................................... 166
4.7.6 Power of Electric Engines ........................................ 166
4.8 Propeller Performance ........................................................... 167
4.8.1 Introduction .............................................................. 167
4.8.2 Definitions ................................................................ 169
4.8.3 Propeller Classifications ........................................... 172
4.8.3.1 Fixed-Pitch Propeller ................................ 172
4.8.3.2 Ground Adjustable Propeller .................... 172
4.8.3.3 Variable-Pitch Propeller ........................... 173
4.8.3.4 Constant-Speed Propeller ......................... 173
4.8.3.5 Special Pitch Modes ................................. 174
4.8.3.6 Contra-Rotating Propellers ....................... 176
4.8.4 Calculations .............................................................. 176
4.8.4.1 Propeller Tip Speed .................................. 176
4.8.4.2 Propeller Twist Angle ............................... 177
4.8.4.3 Modified Momentum Theory ................... 179
4.8.4.4 Practical Use of Propeller Charts ............. 184
Problems ........................................................................................... 187
Chapter 5 Straight-Level Flight – Jet Aircraft .................................................. 193

5.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 193
5.2 Fundamental Equations ......................................................... 194
5.2.1 Steady-State Longitudinal Trim Equations .............. 194
5.2.2 Drag, Thrust, and Velocity Relationship .................. 196
5.2.3 Velocity–Angle-of-Attack Relationship ................... 197
5.2.4 Maximum Lift-to-Drag Ratio ((L/D)max) ..................200
5.3 Specific Airspeeds .................................................................206
5.3.1 Maximum Speed (Vmax) ............................................207
5.3.2 Minimum Drag Airspeed ......................................... 213
5.3.3 Maximum Lift-to-Drag Ratio Speed........................ 217
5.4 Range ..................................................................................... 218
5.4.1 Definition .................................................................. 219
5.4.2 Calculation of Range ................................................ 221
5.4.2.1 Flight Program 1: Constant-Altitude,
Constant-Lift-Coefficient Flight ...............224
5.4.2.2 Flight Program 2: Constant-Airspeed,
Constant-Lift-Coefficient Flight ............... 226
Contents xi

Constant-Airspeed Flight ......................... 229
5.4.3 Speed for Maximum Range (VmaxR).......................... 233
5.4.3.1 Constant-Speed Cruising Flight ............... 233
5.4.3.2 Non-Constant-Speed Cruising Flight ....... 235
5.4.4 Calculation of Maximum Range .............................. 235
5.4.4.1 Constant-Altitude, Constant-Lift-
Coefficient Flight ...................................... 236
5.4.4.2 Constant-Airspeed, Constant-Lift-
Coefficient Flight ...................................... 236
5.4.4.3 Constant-Altitude, Constant-Airspeed
Flight ......................................................... 236
5.4.5 Practical Considerations ...........................................240
5.4.5.1 Optimum Fuel Weight ..............................240
5.4.5.2 Wind Effect............................................... 241
5.4.6 Comparison and Conclusion ....................................246
5.5 Endurance ..............................................................................246
5.5.1 Definition of Endurance ........................................... 247
5.5.2 Endurance Calculation .............................................248
5.5.3 Maximum Endurance Velocity ................................ 253
5.5.4 Maximum Endurance ............................................... 254
5.5.4.1 Constant-Altitude, Constant-Lift
Coefficient ................................................. 255
5.5.4.2 Constant-Airspeed, Constant-Lift
Coefficient ................................................. 256
5.5.4.3 Constant-Altitude, Constant-Airspeed
Flight ......................................................... 256
5.5.5 Practical Considerations ........................................... 258
5.5.5.1 Altitude for Maximum Endurance ........... 258
5.5.5.2 Comparison between tmaxR and Emax ......... 258
5.5.5.3 Comparison between VmaxE and VmaxE ....... 259
5.5.5.4 Effect of Wind on Endurance ...................260
5.6 Ceiling ...................................................................................260
5.6.1 Definition ..................................................................260
5.6.2 Calculation ............................................................... 262
5.7 Cruise Performance ............................................................... 269
5.7.1 Cruise Speed ............................................................ 270
5.7.1.1 Based on Engine Performance Charts ...... 271
5.7.1.2 Based on Range Mission........................... 273
5.7.2 Cruise Altitude ......................................................... 274
Problems ...........................................................................................284
xii Contents
Chapter 6 Straight-Level Flight: Propeller-Driven Aircraft ............................. 291

6.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 291
6.2 Basic Fundamentals ............................................................... 292
6.3 Specific Speeds ...................................................................... 294
6.3.1 Minimum Power Speed ............................................ 295
6.3.2 Minimum Drag Speed (VminD) .................................. 303
6.3.3 Maximum Lift-to-Drag Ratio Speed........................304
6.3.4 Maximum Speed ......................................................306
6.4 Range ..................................................................................... 310
6.4.1 Introduction .............................................................. 310
6.4.2 Regular Range Calculation ...................................... 312
6.4.2.1 Constant-Lift-Coefficient Cruising
Flight ......................................................... 313
6.4.2.2 Non-Constant-Lift-Coefficient
Cruising Flight .......................................... 314
6.4.3 Maximum Range Calculation .................................. 318
6.4.3.1 Constant-Lift-Coefficient Cruising
Flight ......................................................... 318
6.4.3.2 Non-Constant-Lift-Coefficient
Cruising Flight .......................................... 319
6.4.4 Maximum Range Speed ........................................... 321
6.4.5 Comparison and Conclusion .................................... 325
6.5 Endurance .............................................................................. 327
6.5.1 Regular Endurance ................................................... 328
6.5.2 Maximum Endurance Speed for Prop-Driven
Aircraft ..................................................................... 332
6.5.3 Maximum Endurance ............................................... 333
Contents xiii
6.5.4 Comparison and Conclusion .................................... 338

6.6 Ceiling ...................................................................................340
6.6.1 Definition ..................................................................340
6.6.2 Absolute Ceiling for Aircraft with Piston-Prop
Engine....................................................................... 341
6.6.3 Absolute Ceiling for Aircraft with Turboprop
Engine....................................................................... 343
6.7 Cruise Performance ...............................................................346
6.7.1 Cruise Speed ............................................................346
6.7.1.1 Based on Engine Performance Chart ....... 347
6.7.1.2 Based on Range Mission........................... 348
6.7.2 Cruise Altitude ......................................................... 349
6.8 Summary and Comparison .................................................... 351
Problems ........................................................................................... 352
Chapter 7 Climb and Descent ........................................................................... 359

7.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 359
7.2 Basic Fundamentals ...............................................................360
7.3 Governing Equations of Climb.............................................. 365
7.4 Fastest Climb ......................................................................... 371
7.4.1 Jet Aircraft................................................................ 372
7.4.1.1 Calculation of Speed for Maximum
ROC .......................................................... 373
7.4.1.2 Calculation of Climb Angle for
Maximum ROC ........................................ 376
7.4.2 Propeller-Driven Aircraft ......................................... 381
7.4.2.1 Airspeed for Maximum ROC ................... 381
7.4.2.2 Climb Angle for Maximum ROC ............. 383
7.5 Steepest Climb....................................................................... 387
7.5.1 Jet Aircraft................................................................ 390
7.5.2 Propeller-Driven Aircraft ......................................... 394
7.5.2.1 Calculation of Aircraft Speed for
Maximum Climb Angle............................ 395
7.5.2.2 Calculation of Maximum Climb Angle .... 397
7.6 Interim Summary .................................................................. 399
7.7 Graphical Analysis ................................................................400
7.8 Most-Economical Climb .......................................................403
7.9 Time to Climb and Fuel to Climb .........................................404
7.10 Descent ..................................................................................409
7.11 Gliding Flight ........................................................................ 415
7.11.1 Gliding Flight with Maximum Ground Distance..... 417
7.11.2 Gliding Flight with Maximum Flight Time ............. 419
Problems ........................................................................................... 425
xiv Contents
Chapter 8 Takeoff and Landing ........................................................................ 433

8.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 433
8.2 Takeoff Principles.................................................................. 435
8.3 Takeoff Performance Analysis .............................................. 443
8.3.1 Ground Segment ....................................................... 443
8.3.2 Rotation Segment ..................................................... 453
8.3.3 Airborne Segment .................................................... 454
8.4 Landing.................................................................................. 463
8.4.1 Landing Segments .................................................... 463
8.4.2 Landing Calculations ...............................................466
8.4.2.1 Approach Section...................................... 467
8.4.2.2 Transition ..................................................469
8.4.2.3 Ground Roll .............................................. 470
8.5 Effect of Wind and Slope on Takeoff and Landing .............. 477
8.5.1 Effect of Headwind on Takeoff ................................ 479
8.5.2 Effect of Slope on Takeoff ....................................... 481
8.6 Launch ................................................................................... 485
Problems ........................................................................................... 486
Chapter 9 Turn Performance and Flight Maneuvers......................................... 493

9.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 493
9.2 Fundamentals of Turning Flight ............................................ 496
9.2.1 Governing Equations ................................................ 496
9.2.2 Load Factor and Bank Angle ................................... 499
9.2.3 Turn Radius .............................................................. 503
9.2.4 Turn Rate ..................................................................506
9.3 Level Turn Performance: Jet Aircraft.................................... 512
9.3.1 Maximum Producible Load Factor .......................... 513
9.3.2 Corner Velocity ........................................................ 514
9.3.3 Maximum of the Maximum Load Factor ................ 517
9.3.4 Airspeed That Corresponds to the Maximum of
the Maximum Load Factor....................................... 519
9.4 Level Turn Performance: Prop-Driven Aircraft .................... 529
9.4.1 Maximum Producible Load Factor .......................... 530
9.4.2 Airspeed That Corresponds to the Maximum of
the Maximum Load Factor....................................... 531
9.4.3 Maximum of the Maximum Load Factor ................ 532
9.4.4 Corner Velocity ........................................................ 533
9.5 Maneuverability: Jet Aircraft ................................................ 537
9.5.1 Fastest Turn: Jet Aircraft .......................................... 539
9.5.2 Tightest Turn: Jet Aircraft ........................................ 547
9.6 Maneuverability: Prop-Driven Aircraft ................................ 557
9.6.1 Fastest Turn: Prop-Driven Aircraft .......................... 557
9.6.2 Tightest Turn: Prop-Driven Aircraft ........................ 563
9.7 Vertical Maneuvers................................................................ 569
9.7.1 Pull-Up and Pull-Out ............................................... 571
Contents xv
9.7.2 Pull-Down................................................................. 575

9.8 Zero-Gravity Flight................................................................ 576
9.8.1 Orbital Flight............................................................. 577
9.8.2 Free Fall Cruise......................................................... 578
9.9 V-n Diagram........................................................................... 583
9.9.1 Flight Envelope......................................................... 583
9.9.2 Load Factor............................................................... 584
9.9.3 Maneuver Diagram.................................................... 586
9.9.4 Gust V-n Diagram...................................................... 588
9.9.5 Flight Envelope: Combined V-n Diagram................. 592
Problems............................................................................................ 599
Chapter 10 Aircraft Performance Analysis Using Numerical Methods

and MATLAB®.................................................................................607
10.1 Introduction............................................................................607
10.2 Take-off Rotation Analysis Using Numerical Methods.........608
10.2.1 Mission Analysis.......................................................608
10.2.2 Governing Equations.................................................608
10.3 Free Fall Simulation............................................................... 613
10.3.1 Flight Analysis.......................................................... 613
10.3.2 Governing Equations................................................. 614
10.4 Take-off Airborne Section Analysis Using Numerical
Methods.................................................................................. 617
10.4.1 Mission Description.................................................. 617
10.4.2 Governing Equations................................................. 619
10.5 Climb Analysis Using Numerical Methods: Construct
the Hodograph........................................................................ 624
10.5.1 Review of Fundamentals........................................... 624
10.6 Fastest Climb Analysis Using Numerical Methods............... 628
10.6.1 Fastest Climb Analysis.............................................. 628
10.7 Time to Climb Analysis Using Numerical Methods.............. 630
10.7.1 Review of Fundamentals........................................... 630
10.8 Parabolic Path for a Zero-Gravity Flight............................... 633
10.8.1 Mission Analysis and Governing Equations............. 633
10.9 V-n Diagram........................................................................... 635
10.9.1 Overview of V-n Diagram......................................... 635
Problems............................................................................................ 638
Appendix A: Standard Atmosphere, SI Units.................................................... 643
Appendix B: Standard Atmosphere, English Units .......................................... 645
Appendix C: Performance Characteristics of Several Aircraft....................... 647
Appendix D: Flight Records................................................................................ 651
References.............................................................................................................. 657
Index....................................................................................................................... 661
Preface to the Second Edition
Flight is the process in which a vehicle moves through the air without any direct mechan-
ical support from the ground. In physics, the science of the action of forces on material
bodies is referred to as mechanics. Mechanics is divided into two branches: (1) dynamics
and (2) statics. The branch of mechanics that deals with the motion of objects in relation
to force, mass, momentum, and energy is referred to as dynamics. Flight mechanics (or
flight dynamics) is the study of the motion of flying objects (e.g., aircraft, missile) through
the air. It covers two main areas: (1) flight performance and (2) flight stability and control.
As an aircraft does not usually have a static motion (except for the case of a
VTOL aircraft during hovering flight), we mostly deal with flight dynamics. On the
other hand, there are two types of aircraft motions: (1) steady-state motion and (2)
perturbed-state motion. It is customary that steady-state motion is studied in a course
called flight dynamics I, and perturbed-state motion is studied in flight dynamics II.
In some institutions, flight mechanics is referred to as flight dynamics I; flight stabil-
ity and control is referred to as flight dynamics II.
The first topic (flight dynamics I) includes subjects such as cruising flight, maxi-
mum speed, absolute ceiling, rate of climb, range, endurance, turn rate, turn radius,
and takeoff/landing run. The second topic (flight dynamics II) is mainly to examine
subjects such as aircraft trim, control, stability, aircraft response to pilot input and
gust, and flying qualities. The subject of aircraft performance mainly deals with the
forces applied to the aircraft, but the subject of flight dynamics concentrates on vari-
ous moments (either aerodynamic or non-aerodynamic) that determine the trajectory.
Time span in “aircraft performance” is mostly in the range of hours, whereas time
span in “flight stability and control” is primarily in the range of seconds/minutes.
The objective of this book is to introduce flight performance analysis techniques
of fixed-wing air vehicles, particularly heavier-than-air craft. This subject will be
interesting for aeronautical/mechanical engineers, aircraft designers, pilots, aircraft
manufacturing companies, airlines, air forces, and primarily students of the field of
aeronautical/aerospace engineering.
This group of individuals often faces the following questions:
1. How fast can this airplane fly on a cruising flight?
3. How far can this airplane fly?

4. How long is the runway for takeoff?
5. How long is the runway for landing?
6. How long can this airplane be airborne?
7. How fast can this airplane climb to a certain altitude?
8. How fast can this airplane turn?
9. How tight can this airplane turn?
10. How capable is this aircraft in a maneuver?
11. What are the limits of this airplane in flight?
12. How much does it cost for this airplane to fly over a certain distance?
xvii
xviii Preface to the Second Edition
And, in one sentence, what is the performance of this airplane?

If one has access to a manufactured airplane, the answers to all these questions
can be found through flight tests. However, the primary objective of this book is to
enable the reader to answer these questions without having access to the aircraft
itself. Therefore, an aircraft designer can predict the performance of an airplane
during the design process, before manufacturing it. In addition, an aircraft buyer can
calculate and evaluate the performance of an aircraft prior to its purchase. In this
way, the buyer can compare the performances of different aircraft and choose the
best one.
The performance of a military airplane is of high importance, since in an aerial
mission, the fighter aircraft that has a high performance will always fulfill the mis-
sion’s purpose and will win a fight. The result of an air fight depends not only on
aircraft weight, configuration, cost, pilot experience, and so on but also on its capa-
bilities, that is, flight performance. This book presents techniques and methods that
enable the reader to analyze the performance and flight capabilities of an aircraft
by utilizing only aircraft weight data, geometry, aerodynamic characteristics, and
engine data.
Chapter 1 is devoted to the atmosphere as the flight condition. The methods to
calculate atmospheric variables such as pressure, temperature, and air density as a
function of altitude are presented. In Chapter 2, the flight governing equations of
motion and of an air vehicle are presented, and the concept of airspeed is defined.
The four major forces acting on an aircraft are weight, engine thrust, lift, and drag
(i.e., aerodynamic forces). Drag and engine thrust need detailed considerations, so
the techniques to calculate these forces are presented in Chapters 3 and 4.
Chapters 5–9 cover all aspects of flight performance analysis for propeller-driven
and jet aircraft. Both constant-speed flights and accelerated flights are covered. In
every case, we start with a mathematical equation that governs that specific flight
condition. Then, an applicable algebraic equation is derived in order to perform the
analysis of various flight performance areas such as maximum speed, maximum
range, maximum ceiling, maximum rate of climb, and maximum endurance. Takeoff
and landing performance is particularly addressed in Chapter 8. In Chapter 9, turn
performance and related topics such as pull-up are covered. The technique to plot
the flight envelope (i.e., V-n diagram) in order to find the maximum g-load on an air
vehicle is presented in this chapter. In addition, advanced materials in flight mechan-
ics such as fastest turn, tightest turn, turn rate, turn radius, and flight maneuvers are
investigated.
There are complex performance cases and flight missions where analysis requires
a long and complex mathematical solution. A popular and powerful technique for
such cases is numerical methods. Chapter 10 is devoted to the performance analysis
of aircraft using numerical methods, mainly using the MATLAB® software package
(i.e., MATLAB codes).
The appendices are devoted to real statistics of current aircraft and flight records
throughout the history of flight. This information gives the readers an insight and a
criterion to compare their calculated and achieved results. This book is prepared such
that it can be covered as an undergraduate course in aerospace/aeronautical engineer-
ing programs at the junior level. Solutions manual and figure slides are available for
qualified instructors adopting the text.
Preface to the Second Edition xix
Currently, the International System of Units (SI), or metric units (Newton, kilo-
gram, meter, second, Watt, and Kelvin) is the standard system of units used around
the world, except in the United States. The English Engineering System, or British/
Imperial Units (pounds, slug, feet, second, and Rankine), is still the primary system
of units in the USA. In addition, many Federal Aviation Regulations (e.g., stall speed
and altitude) are written using British units. This situation is gradually changing,
particularly in the aerospace community.
The United States is making progress toward the voluntary implementation of SI
units in engineering. Several NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)
laboratories have made SI units mandatory for all technical publications, although
units can be shown in duplicate sets. Moreover, the AIAA (American Institute of
Aeronautics and Astronautics) has a policy of encouraging the use of SI units in
papers published in its journals. Hence, in this edition, the unit is more consistent,
and more SI units are implemented in examples, case studies, and problems.
Hence, familiarity with both systems of units is still necessary for engineers and
engineering students. Current engineering students should be familiar and be able
to work professionally with both systems. For this reason, both unit systems are
employed in worked examples and end-of-chapter problems in this book. The read-
ers are encouraged to familiarize themselves with both unit systems. Readers are
expected to have basic knowledge of dynamics, calculus, and aerodynamics.
I am enormously grateful to the Almighty for the opportunity to serve the aero-
space community by writing this book. I acknowledge many contributors and photog-
raphers who contributed to this book. I am especially grateful to those who provided
great aircraft photos to this text: Alex Snow (Russia); Ryosuke Ishikawa (Japan); Kas
van Zonneveld (the Netherlands); Daniel Mysak (Austria); Gustavo Corujo (Canada);
Steve Dreier (United Kingdom); Jan Selig (Germany); Georgi Petkov (Bulgaria);
Maurice Kockro (Germany); Fabian Dirscherl; Capenti Fabrizio (Italy); and Weimeng
(China); and www.airliners.net. In addition, my effort was helped immeasurably by
many insights and constructive suggestions provided by students and instructors in
the past 26 years. Unattributed figures are held in the public domain and are either
from the U.S. government departments and agencies or from Wikipedia.
In this second edition, the entire manuscript was extensively revised and updated,
new materials were added, and a few topics were deleted. All chapters have been
brought up to date to introduce some of the new terminology, concepts, and specific
aircraft systems that have appeared over the past 7 years. Furthermore, this edition
provides real-life case studies (e.g., Cessna 208 Caravan, Cessna Citation, Cessna
560, DC-9-30, Pilatus PC-9, Embraer EMB 312 Tucano, Hawker 800, Cessna 172,
Boeing 737, Boeing 747-400, Boeing 777-200, Gulfstream G-650, Lockheed Martin
F-16 Fighting Falcon, and Boeing F/A-18) that link theory to industry application,
as well as historical and future perspectives with regards to aviation. The revisions
made some of the materials clearer and easier to understand. The typos and errors
have been corrected.
Putting a book together requires the talents of many people, and talented indi-
viduals abound at CRC Press - Taylor & Francis Group. My sincere gratitude goes
to Kyra Lindholm, Editor for Aerospace/Aviation, for initiating and coordinating the
publication process of the second edition. I especially owe a large debt of gratitude to
my students, colleagues, and reviewers. Their ideas, suggestions, and criticisms have
xx Preface to the Second Edition
helped me to write more clearly and accurately and have influenced markedly the
evolution and revision of this edition.
Mohammad H. Sadraey
October 30, 2022
MATLAB® is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. For product informa-

tion, please contact: The MathWorks, Inc.
3 Apple Hill Drive
Natick, MA 01760-2098 USA
Tel: 508-647-7000
Fax: 508-647-7001
E-mail: info@mathworks.com
Web: www.mathworks.com
Author
Dr. Mohammad H. Sadraey is a Professor in the School of Engineering, Technology,
and Aeronautics at the Southern New Hampshire University, and the national presi-
dent of Sigma Gamma Tau honor society. Dr. Sadraey’s main research interests are
in aircraft design techniques, robust nonlinear control, autopilot, design and auto-
matic control of unmanned air vehicles, and manned–unmanned aircraft teaming.
He received his M.Sc. in Aerospace Engineering in 1995 from RMIT, Australia, and
his Ph.D. in Aerospace Engineering from the University of Kansas, USA, in 2006.
He is a senior member of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
(AIAA), and is in Who’s Who in America for many years. He has over 26 years
of professional experience in academia and industry. He is also the author of eight
textbooks including Aircraft Design: A Systems Engineering Approach, Design of
Unmanned Aerial Systems, published by Wiley Publications in 2012, and 2019, and
Aircraft Performance Analysis by CRC in 2016 and “Flight Stability and Control”
by Springer Nature in 2022.
xxi
List of Symbols
Symbols Names Units
a Speed of sound m/s, ft/s
a Acceleration m/s2, ft/s2
a Lift curve slope 1/rad
ac Aerodynamic center —
ac Centripetal acceleration m/s2, ft/s2
AR Aspect ratio —
b Wing span m, ft
C Specific fuel consumption lb/h/lb, N/h/kW, lb/h/hp, 1/s, 1/m
C Mean aerodynamic chord m, ft
CD Drag coefficient —
C Do Zero-lift drag coefficient —
C Di Induced drag coefficient —
C Dw Wave drag coefficient —
Cf Skin friction coefficient —
CL Lift coefficient —
C Lmax Maximum lift coefficient —
cp Center of pressure —
D Drag force, drag N, lb
E Endurance hour, second
e Oswald span efficiency factor —
F Force, friction force N, lb
FAA Federal Aviation Administration
FAR Federal Aviation Regulations
FC Centrifugal force N, lb
g Gravity constant 9.81 m/s2, 32.2 ft/s2
G Fuel weight fraction —
GA General Aviation —
h Altitude m, ft
it Tail incidence deg, rad
iT Engine incidence deg, rad
I Moment of inertia kg m2, slug ft2
I Current Ampere
ISA International Standard Atmosphere —
K Induced drag factor —
KEAS Knot Equivalent Airspeed knot
KTAS Knot True Airspeed knot
knot Nautical mile per hour nmi/h
L Fuselage length m, ft
L Lift force, lift N, lb
(Continued)
xxiii
xxiv List of Symbols
Symbols Names Units

L Lapse rate 0.0065°C/m, 0.002°C/ft
(L/D)max Maximum lift-to-drag ratio —
M Mach number —
mf Fuel mass kg, slug
mTO Takeoff mass kg, slug
MTOW Maximum takeoff weight N, lb
MAC Mean aerodynamic chord m, ft
n Load factor —
ω Turn rate rad/s, deg/s
P Pressure N/m2, Pa, lb/in2, psi
P Power kW, hp
PR Required power kW, hp
PA Available power kW, hp
PEx Excess power kW, hp
q Dynamic pressure N/m2, Pa, lb/in2, psi
Q Fuel flow rate kg/s, lb/s
R Range m, km, ft, mile, mi, nmi
R Turn radius m, ft
R Air gas constant 287.26 J/kg K
R Radius of action km, ft
Re Reynolds number —
ROC Rate of climb m/s, ft/min, fpm
ROD Rate of descent m/s, ft/s
rpm Revolutions per minute Rev/min
S Gross wing area m2, ft2
Sexp Exposed wing area m2, ft2
SA Airborne section of the takeoff run m, ft
SG Ground roll m, ft
SL Landing run m, ft
Sref Reference wing area m2, ft2
St Tail area m2, ft2
STO Takeoff run m, ft
Sw Wing area m2, ft2
Swet Wetted area m2, ft2
SFC Specific fuel consumption N/h kW, lb/h·hp, lb/h/lb
t Time Second, hour
T Engine thrust N, lb
T Temperature °C, °F, K, °R
Treq Required thrust N, lb
Tav Available thrust N, lb
V* Corner speed knot, m/s, ft/s
V Velocity, speed, airspeed m/s, ft/s, km/h, mi/h, knot
VA Maneuver speed m/s, ft/s, km/h, mi/h, knot
VD Dive speed m/s, ft/s, km/h, mi/h, knot
VE Equivalent airspeed m/s, ft/s, km/h, mi/h, knot
(Continued)
List of Symbols xxv
Symbols Names Units

Vft Fastest turn airspeed knot, m/s, ft/s
VLOF Liftoff speed m/s, ft/s, km/h, mi/h, knot
Vg Gust speed ft/d, m/s, knot
VG Ground speed m/s, ft/s, km/h, mi/h, knot
Vmax Maximum airspeed m/s, ft/s, km/h, mi/h, knot
Vmax E Maximum endurance airspeed m/s, ft/s, km/h, mi/h, knot
Vmax R Maximum range airspeed m/s, ft/s, km/h, mi/h, knot
Vmc Minimum controllable speed m/s, ft/s, km/h, mi/h, knot
Vmin D Minimum drag airspeed m/s, ft/s, km/h, mi/h, knot
Vmin P Minimum power airspeed m/s, ft/s, km/h, mi/h, knot
VNE Never exceeded airspeed m/s, ft/s, km/h, mi/h, knot
VR Rotation speed m/s, ft/s, km/h, mi/h, knot
VROCmax Maximum rate of climb airspeed m/s, ft/s, km/h, mi/h, knot
Vs Stall airspeed m/s, ft/s, km/h, mi/h, knot
VT True airspeed m/s, ft/s, km/h, mi/h, knot
VTO Takeoff speed m/s, ft/s, km/h, mi/h, knot
Vtt Tightest turn airspeed knot, m/s, ft/s
VW Wind speed m/s, ft/s, km/h, mi/h, knot
W Weight N, lb
WTO Takeoff weight N, lb
Wf Fuel weight N, lb
Y Side force N, lb
x, y, z Displacement in x, y, and z direction m, ft
Greek Symbols
α Angle of attack degree, radian

β Sideslip angle degree, radian
γ Climb angle degree, radian
θ Pitch angle, pitch attitude degree, radian
θ Temperature ratio —
ϕ Bank angle degree, radian
δ Pressure ratio —
δf Flap deflection degree, radian
σ Air density ratio —
ρ Air density kg/m3, slug/ft3
μ Dynamic viscosity kg/m s, lb s/ft2
μ Friction coefficient —
ηP Propeller efficiency —
Λ Sweep angle degree, radian
ω Angular velocity rad/s, deg/s, rpm
ψ Yaw angle, heading angle degree, radian
1 Atmosphere
1.1 INTRODUCTION
An aircraft, as the name implies, is a vehicle that moves (flies) in air (i.e., atmo-
sphere). The environment is the medium in which an aircraft is flying. Hence, air is a
significant parameter of an aircraft’s flight. Aerospace vehicles are divided into two
major groups: (1) aerial vehicle, aircraft, or airplane; (2) space vehicle, spacecraft,
or space plane. An aircraft is capable of flight inside a gas medium (i.e., air) but
not in vacuum (i.e., space); otherwise, it would be called a spacecraft. A spacecraft
is designed to fly in space, but in order to do that, it must be launched into space.
Spacecraft sometimes returns to Earth, such as the Space Shuttle. In such cases, a
spacecraft is an aircraft as well.
Air is the primary constituent of the atmosphere. To study the performance of an
aircraft, we must comprehend the properties of air. Since there are several param-
eters of air that influence an aircraft’s performance, we have to examine the atmo-
sphere. The major parameters of air are density, pressure, and temperature. These
parameters are functions of altitude, time of year, and location. In this chapter, we
examine the relationship between these parameters as functions of altitude and time
of year. These calculations are a prerequisite for aircraft performance analysis. Since
there must be a benchmark for analysis, we will introduce a standard atmosphere
called the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA). If you are able to analyze an
aircraft’s performance in an ISA condition, it should be easy to determine the perfor-
mance in a nonstandard condition.
The atmosphere is a dynamic system that is continuously changing. There are
several phenomena that influence an aircraft’s performance: wind, gust, disturbance,
lightning, rain, snow, hail, hurricane, tornado, and humidity. Although these are
parameters of meteorology, both the pilot and the aircraft performance engineer
must be familiar with atmospheric conditions for a safe flight. This information helps
pilots to decide whether or not to take off in a specific flight condition. For these
reasons, atmospheric phenomena are also briefly presented.
One of the duties of an aircraft performance engineer is to prepare an instruc-
tion manual for pilots that include tables, charts, graphs, and data. To perform this
job, one must determine and specify the limits of an aircraft and guide pilots to a
safe flight. The major limits of a safe flight are imposed by the atmosphere; hence,
several hints are emphasized to assist the reader in distinguishing safe from unsafe
atmospheric flight conditions.
The certification program of a transport aircraft usually requires the aircraft to be
tested in a variety of atmospheric conditions. For instance, in 2014, an Airbus A350
test aircraft headed to Canada for “cold-weather testing” as part of the A350-900
certification program. Atmospheric research is an ongoing program for NASA. For
example, since 2010, NASA and NOAA scientists have been using a Global Hawk
DOI: 10.1201/9781003279068-1 1
2 Aircraft Performance
unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) to conduct atmospheric research over Guam as part
of the Airborne Tropical Tropopause Experiment.
Two important performance parameters are speed of sound and altitude. Speed
of sound is mostly stated in terms of Mach number. Altitude has several applications
and implications. These two variables are dealt with in more depth and explained
in more detail in this chapter. They are used in a variety of performance problems
throughout this book.
1.2 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF ATMOSPHERE

The Earth is surrounded by a thin gaseous envelope called the atmosphere. The
atmosphere is a dynamic system, with a number of active subsystems. Life on Earth
is supported by the atmosphere, solar energy, and the planet’s magnetic fields. The
atmosphere absorbs energy from the Sun, recycles water and other chemicals,
and works with electrical and magnetic forces to provide a moderate climate. The
atmosphere also protects us from high-energy radiation and the frigid vacuum of
space. The energy exchange that continually occurs between the atmosphere and
the Earth’s surface and between the atmosphere and space produces a phenomenon
called weather.
The atmosphere is a gaseous layer surrounding the Earth and is held by the Earth’s
gravity. The atmosphere has a mass of about 5 × 1018 kg, three-quarters of which are
within about 11 km (36,000 ft) of the Earth’s surface. More than 99% of the atmo-
sphere [1] is within 30 km of the sea level. This thin gaseous blanket is an integral part
of the planet. The thickness of the atmosphere is about 100 km or 62 miles, beyond
which the sky is not blue anymore, it is black. Figure 1.1 illustrates the Earth, its
atmosphere, an aircraft in an atmospheric trajectory, and a satellite in a space orbit.
When one views the atmosphere from the ground, it seems to be extremely deep.
100 km
FIGURE 1.1 The Earth, aircraft trajectory, and satellite orbit.

Atmosphere 3
But when the thickness of its visible section is compared to the radius of the Earth
(6,371 km), the atmosphere is seen to be a shallow layer.
The major component of the atmosphere is air. It not only provides the air that we
breathe but also acts as a shield to protect us from dangerous radiation emitted by
the Sun. If, like the Moon, the Earth had no atmosphere, our planet would not only
be lifeless, but many of the processes and interactions that make the surface such a
dynamic place could not operate.
There is no definitive answer to the question, “how much is the thickness of the
atmosphere?” since the atmosphere gets thinner at a higher altitude. The atmosphere
does not abruptly end at any given altitude but becomes progressively thinner with
altitude. At altitudes of about 300 km, there is about one molecule of air per cubic
kilometer. There is no universally accepted definition of how much air in a given
volume constitutes the presence of an atmosphere. However, there are two answers to
this question. From the astronautic point of view, the atmosphere thickness is 100 km
(62 miles).
By international convention, the Karman line marks the beginning of space where
human travelers are considered astronauts. This is the commonly accepted border
of space (and is called Karman line), since the sky is black beyond this altitude.
However, air may be found even up to an altitude of 1,000 km [2] from the Earth’s
surface, so the atmosphere thickness may be assumed to be 1,000 km.
Aerial vehicles are able to fly only in lower sections of the atmosphere. The aero-
dynamic forces and moments by which an aircraft is able to suspend and move are
generated only in the presence of air. The knowledge of properties of air enables the
reader to analyze an aircraft’s performance accurately.
1.3 MAJOR COMPONENTS

The major component of the atmosphere is called air. Even today, the term “air” is
sometimes used as if it were a specific gas, which, of course, it is not. The envelope
of air is a mixture of many discrete gases, each with its own specific physical prop-
erties, in which varying quantities of tiny solid particles and water droplets are sus-
pended. The composition of air is not constant; it varies from time to time, and from
place to place. If the water vapor, dust, and other variable components were removed
from the atmosphere, we would find that its makeup is very stable up to an altitude
of about 80 km. In general, the concentration of the gas in the atmosphere exists in a
steady-state condition.
The air is primarily composed of nitrogen (N2, 78%), oxygen (O2, 20.9%), and
argon (Ar, 0.93%). A myriad of other very influential components are also present,
which include water (H2O, 0%–4%), “greenhouse” gases or ozone (O3, 0.01%), and
carbon dioxide (CO2, 0.01%–0.1%). In the following sections, the major components
of air and their features are introduced.
1.3.1 Oxygen and nitrOgen

Two gases, nitrogen and oxygen, make up 99% of the volume of clean, dry air.
Although these gases are the most plentiful components of the atmosphere and are
of great significance to life on Earth, they are of little or no importance in affect-

ing weather phenomena. The remaining 1% of dry air is mostly the inert gas argon
(0.93%) plus tiny quantities of a number of other gases. Oxygen is the most important
element of air in generating the engine thrust for air-breathing engines. Even though
nitrogen makes up more than 78% of the atmosphere, it is relatively unimportant in
terms of thrust generation. The concentration of nitrogen and oxygen in the atmo-
sphere is almost stable.
1.3.2 CarbOn diOxide

Carbon dioxide, although present in only minute amounts (0.04%), is nevertheless a
meteorologically important constituent of air. The concentration of carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere is not stable, and it varies from time to time and location to loca-
tion. Natural sources of generation of carbon dioxide are volcanos and burning trees
(wildfire). Although the proportion of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is relatively
uniform, its percentage has been rising steadily for more than a century. This overall
rise is attributed to the burning of fossil fuels, such as coal and oil. Parts of the addi-
tional carbon dioxide are absorbed by the waters of the ocean or is used by plants,
but nearly a half remains in air.
Carbon dioxide is of great interest to meteorologists because it is an efficient
absorber of energy emitted by Earth (through ground surface radiation) and thus
influences the heating of the atmosphere. The precise impact of the increased car-
bon dioxide is difficult to predict, but most atmospheric scientists believe that it will
bring about the warming of the lower atmosphere (i.e., global warming) and thus
will trigger global climate change. Carbon dioxide has a negative impact on aircraft
performance as it causes an air-breathing engine to generate less thrust.
1.3.3 Water VapOr

The amount of water vapor in air varies considerably, from practically none at all
up to about 4% by volume. Water vapor is the source of all clouds and precipita-
tion. However, water vapor has other roles. Like carbon dioxide, it has the ability
to absorb heat radiated by Earth as well as some solar energy. When water changes
from one state (e.g., liquid) to another (e.g., vapor), it absorbs or releases heat. Water
vapor in the atmosphere transports this latent heat from one region to another, and it
is the energy source that helps drive many atmospheric hazardous phenomena such
as storms and hurricane.
Because the source of water vapor in the atmosphere is evaporation from the
Earth’s surface (such as lakes and oceans), its concentration usually decreases rap-
idly with height, and most water vapor is found in the lowest 5 km of the atmo-
sphere. Near the Earth’s surface, the water vapor content ranges from a fraction
of 1% over deserts and polar regions to about 4% in tropical regions. Water vapor
affects the air density as discussed in Section 1.7. The aircraft aerodynamic forces
and moments, which influence the flight performance, are directly proportional to
the air density.
Atmosphere 5
1.3.4 aerOsOls
The movements of the air are sufficient to keep a large quantity of particles suspended
within it. Although visible dust sometimes clouds the sky, these relatively large par-
ticles are too heavy to stay in air for very long. Still, many particles are microscopic
and remain suspended for considerable periods of time. They may originate from
many sources, both natural and human made, and include sea salts, fine soil blown
into air, smoke and soot from fires, pollen from trees and plants, and ash and dust
from volcanic eruptions. These tiny solid and liquid particles are called aerosols.
Aerosols are most numerous in the lower atmosphere near their primary source.
However, the upper atmosphere is not free of them because some dust is carried to
high altitudes by rising currents of air, and other particles are contributed by meteor-
oids that burn and disintegrate as they enter the atmosphere.
Aerosols can absorb and reflect incoming solar light and radiation. For example,
when ash fills the sky following volcanic eruption, the amount of sunlight reaching
the Earth’s surface will be significantly reduced. In addition, many act as surfaces
on which water vapor may condense; this is an important function in the formation
of clouds and fog. Furthermore, aerosols contribute to an optical phenomenon we
have all observed – the varied hues of red and orange at sunrise and sunset. Aerosols
affect aircraft performance and can cause flight hazards to aircraft, such as shutting
down aircraft engines and reduced visibility. For instance, on May 5, 2013, in an
area important to air traffic between North America and Asia, thousands of flights
canceled or diverted after Alaska’s Mount Cleveland volcano eruptions spew ash
nearly 15,000 ft.
1.4 ATMOSPHERIC LAYERS

The blanket of air that surrounds the Earth reaches over 500 km [3], and its enve-
lope changes from the ground. Various organizations [4] and countries have different
classifications of atmospheric layers, which have been grouped [5] into four to seven
layers. In practice, these classifications are based on aviation, astronautics, and mete-
orology. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) is a civilian body that
administers the civil flights and airlines. The ICAO has named the five layers of the
atmosphere as follows: (1) troposphere, (2) stratosphere, (3) mesosphere, (4) thermo-
sphere or ionosphere, and (5) exosphere. Figure 1.2 shows the features of these layers.
These five distinct layers have been identified using thermal characteristics, chemical
composition, movement, and density. No aircraft can fly in the mesosphere, iono-
sphere, and exosphere due to lack of sufficient air. This section introduces mainly
the first two layers.
An altitude of 18,000 ft is the altitude after which oxygen is not enough for breath-
ing. Any aircraft that is flying beyond this altitude must be equipped with the air
pressure system. According to Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR) [6] Part 91
(Section 91.211), no person may operate a civil aircraft at cabin pressure altitudes
above 12,500 ft unless they use supplemental oxygen.
In a civil transport aircraft, a section of fuselage is pressurized to provide a com-
fortable place for pilots, crew, and passengers. An air-conditioning system increases
1000
Ionosphere
Thermosphere
400
Mesosphere
Altitude (1000 ft)
200
Speed of Relative
Stratosphere Temperature
sound viscosity
100
82
50 Tropopause
36
Relative density
20
Troposphere Relative pressure
10
5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Relative pressure, relative
–100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
density, relative viscosity
Temperature (°C)
900 1000 1100 1200
Speed of sound (fps)
FIGURE 1.2 Atmospheric parameters of various layers.
the air pressure from about 0.2 atm up to about 0.85 atm. In military fighters, instead
of a pressurized cabin, pressurized air is provided through a special hose just for the
pilot. Above 120,000 ft altitude, there is not enough air (to be mixed with fuel) for
combustion of the aircraft engine. Thus, this altitude is assumed to be the absolute
ceiling of all types of air vehicles.
1.4.1 trOpOsphere
The troposphere (the first layer) starts at the Earth’s surface and extends up to a
mean of about 11 km high (36,089 ft). This part of the atmosphere is densest. As you
climb higher in this layer, the temperature drops from about 15°C to −56°C. The
troposphere is known as the lower atmosphere. The troposphere is the region where
almost all weather phenomena take place and the region of rising and falling packets
of air. The air pressure at the top of the troposphere is only 10% of that at sea level
(0.1 atm). The troposphere is thicker over the tropics than over the polar regions and
thicker during the summer than winter. The average decrease of temperature in the
troposphere is about 6.5°C per 1,000 m or 3.5°F per 1,000 ft.
There is a thin buffer zone between the troposphere and the next layer called the
tropopause. Almost all general aviation (GA) and turboprop aircraft fly within this
region. Most large jet transport aircraft fly close to this zone due to the reasons dis-
cussed in later sections. Despite being the shallowest of the atmosphere’s five layers,
the troposphere contains 80% of the atmosphere’s mass.
Atmosphere 7
1.4.2 stratOsphere
Above the troposphere is the stratosphere (the second layer), where airflow is mostly
horizontal. The stratosphere starts just above the troposphere (11 km; or 36,000 ft)
and extends to 50 km high. Compared to the troposphere, this layer is dry and less
dense. The temperature in the lower region of the stratosphere (up to 20 km) remains
relatively constant at −56°C and then increases gradually from −56°C to −3°C in the
upper region, due to the absorption of UV radiation. The ozone layer, which absorbs
and scatters the solar UV radiation, is in this layer. The stratopause separates the
stratosphere from the next upper layer. The stratosphere contains about 19.9% of the
total mass of the atmosphere. Therefore, 99% of “air” is located in the troposphere
and the stratosphere.
In the upper stratosphere, heating is almost exclusively the result of UV radia-
tion being absorbed by the ozone layer. In the lower stratosphere where tempera-
ture does not vary with height, heating is the result of both absorption of solar
UV radiation and absorption of thermal radiation from the Earth’s surface. The
temperature characteristics of the stratosphere avoid vertical motions of the air
masses. The stratosphere has very low moisture content and features strong hori-
zontal winds.
Modern jet transport aircraft cruise in the lower stratosphere. The turbojet-powered
supersonic passenger airliner Aerospatiale-BAC Concorde (retired on November 26,
2003) used to fly in the stratosphere well above the tropopause. When early aircraft
first started to fly at a high altitude, conditions were very uncomfortable for the crew.
The low density and pressure meant that oxygen masks had to be worn, and, at low
temperatures, even the heavy fur-lined clothing was barely adequate. Nowadays, the
cabins of high-altitude airliners are pressurized, and air is heated so that passengers
are unaware of the external conditions.
Above every seat in an airliner, there is an emergency oxygen mask to be used in
the event of a sudden failure of the pressurization system. Despite the low external
air temperature in the stratosphere, supersonic aircraft has a problem that surface
friction heats the aircraft up during flight, so it is important to provide a means to
keep the cabin cool enough. An altitude of 65 km is where aerodynamic heating of
NASA’s Space Shuttle became important during re-entry into the Earth’s atmosphere
from space.
1.5 INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE

Any aircraft is expected to perform in a variety of air and flight conditions (i.e.,
altitudes, temperature, and pressures). These consist of various temperature and pres-
sure values that the aircraft is desired to fly in its lifetime. On any given day, it is
very likely that the atmosphere will not be standard. When an aircraft is taking off
from an airport and lands on another airport, the air conditions at both places are not
necessarily the same. One of the requirements that are given to an aircraft designer is
aircraft flight conditions. To provide a common basis for comparing the performance
features of various aircraft, it is desirable to establish standards for atmospheric
properties. The standards will also allow for the calibration of mechanical altimeters.
In addition, for flight tests of an aircraft, the results would be different, if the tests
were performed on different days of a year. However, the results can become compa-
rable when they reduced to standard conditions.
Although the aircraft is designed to fly in a variety of flight conditions, when it
comes to performance specifications, they must be defined so that other people can
evaluate the aircraft’s performance. Therefore, there must be a flight condition in
which the performance of several aircraft could be compared. In a specific country,
this could be a major city in a dominant atmospheric condition (i.e., the first day of
spring).
Most aircraft are designed to be sold to other countries or are expected to be able
to fly under the atmospheric conditions in other countries. In addition, the atmo-
spheric condition varies throughout the year. This necessitates the definition of a uni-
fied atmospheric condition. The ICAO has defined a unique atmospheric condition
that is internationally accepted. It is called the International Standard Atmosphere
[7], which is based on the 1959 ARDC Model Atmosphere [8]. It is noticeable that
the U.S. standard atmosphere is the same as the ICAO atmosphere for altitudes below
20,000 m. The difference is due to the specific latitudes of the United States.
When we consider the ISA condition, we do not need to know what the season of
the year is or where the flight place is located. Thus, the performance of all aircraft
could be compared based on this unified and internationally accepted flight condi-
tion. The standard ISA atmospheric conditions seldom exist.
One of the reliable sources of statistics for an aircraft’s performance is Jane’s
All the World’s Aircraft [9]. It is published yearly and introduces the latest aircraft
data that are produced by all countries in the world. The data include aircraft type,
manufacturer, year of production, details of wing, tail, landing gear, powerplant,
geometry, weight, and the most important one – performance specifications. It is
notable that the performance specifications of most aircraft in Reference [9] are
defined frequently in ISA condition. This standard leads to having a unique crite-
rion among airlines, pilots, designers, performance engineers, and even marking and
sales representatives.
There are considerable variations in those properties of the atmosphere with which
an aircraft’s performance is concerned, namely, temperature, pressure, and density.
Since the performance of aircraft and engine depends on these three factors, it will be
obvious that the actual performance of an aircraft does not give a true basis of compari-
son with other airplanes. This is another reason that the ISA has been adopted.
The properties assumed for this standard atmosphere in temperate regions are
those given in Figure 1.3. If the actual performance of an airplane is measured under
certain conditions of temperature, pressure, and density, it is possible to determine
what would have been the performance under the conditions of the standard atmo-
sphere. Thus, it can be compared with the performance of some other airplane that
has been similarly reduced to standard conditions.
The cornerstone of the standard atmosphere is a defined variation of temperature
with altitude, based on experimental evidence. It consists of a series of straight lines,
some vertical and some inclined. The ISA condition is defined as the atmospheric
condition at the altitude of sea level (0 m) as follows:
Atmosphere 9
–94 –56 –30

16
14
12
11 ISA
Altitude (km)
10
ISA +30
(Equator)
8
ISA -65
(Polar)
6
0
–100 –80 –60 –40 –20 0 20 40 60 Temperature (°C)
FIGURE 1.3 Difference in temperature variations at three locations.
Pressure:
Po = 101,325 N/m 2 = 14.7 psi = 2,116.2 lb/ft 2 = 760 mm Hg = 29.92 in.Hg

Temperature : To = 15°C = 288.15K = 518.69°R = 59°F
Air density: ρo = 1.225 kg/m 3 = 0.002378slug/ft 3 (1.1)
Air: Dry perfect gas
Temperature gradient: From sea level to the start of the second layer
(i.e., tropopause) at which the temperature is −56°C, it is −0.002°C
per foot.
These are the base values [10] for the standard atmosphere. The subscript o indi-
cates that these parameters are defined at sea level. Pressure, temperature, and
air density at higher altitudes are calculated by the mathematical models that
are presented in the next section. It must be clarified that the term “sea level” is
the level of the free seas or oceans, not other seas. The levels of seas that are not
connected to oceans are higher or lower than free sea level. Moreover, the term
“sea level” does not mean that the aircraft must necessarily fly by having flown
exactly at this level, since it is not safe to fly while part of the aircraft has contact
with water.
Figure 1.3 illustrates temperature variations at three locations of the Earth,
namely, standard (ISA), tropical (nonstandard) or ISA + 30, and polar (nonstandard)
100
80
Altitude (km)
60
40
slope: –6.5 K/1000 m

20 (first layer)
11
288.15
216.15
0
160 200 240 280 320
Temperature (K)
FIGURE 1.4 Temperature distribution in the standard atmosphere.
or ISA − 70 weather for the first two layers. The middle graph shows the variation
of the temperature in ISA condition. Based on this graph, the temperature is 15°C at
sea level, then decreases with a linear rate up to 11,000 m altitude, and then remains
constant at −56°C above this altitude. The right graph demonstrates the variation of
the temperature in tropical condition that is 45°C at sea level and decreases with a
linear rate up to about 11,540 m at −30°C. Then, the temperature remains constant
in the second layer. The left graph is for polar condition and starts at −50°C. This
figure shows the highest and lowest temperatures at sea level. Figure 1.4 illustrates
the variations of temperature for all atmospheric layers up to 100,000 km.
Since there could be infinite numbers of nonstandard conditions, we first have to
specify their differences and then all parameters are calculated. In most cases, pres-
sure in any condition (standard and nonstandard) may be assumed as constant and
only a function of altitude, not of location on Earth. The main difference between
standard and nonstandard conditions is their temperatures [11]. Other parameters
could be readily found through calculations. For instance, when we say an aircraft is
flying at ISA + 12, we mean that the temperature at sea level is 15°C + 12°C or 27°C.
Then, the pressure is the same for standard cases, but the air density must be calcu-
lated through the tools that are presented in the next section.
Atmosphere 11
Temperature (°C) 20
10
–10 Point Barrow, Alaska

Winnipeg, Manitoba
–20 St Louis, Missouri
Capetown, South Africa
Iquitos, Peru
–30
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Month
FIGURE 1.5 Mean monthly temperatures for five cities located at different latitudes.
Figure 1.5 illustrates the mean monthly temperatures [12] for five cities located at
different latitudes. Note that Cape Town, South Africa, and Iquitos, Peru experience
winter in June, July, and August, since they are located at the southern hemisphere.
These cities only have a few days in ISA condition in a year.
Such a table is given in Appendix A for SI units and in Appendix B for English
engineering units. Look at these tables carefully and become familiar with them.
They are the data for the standard atmosphere. The first column gives the geometric
altitude. The second, third, and fourth columns give the corresponding standard val-
ues of temperature, pressure, and density, respectively, for each altitude. We empha-
size again that the standard atmosphere is a reference atmosphere only and does not
certainly predict the actual atmospheric properties that may exist at a given time and
place.
1.6 ATMOSPHERIC PARAMETERS

Aircraft performance depends heavily on atmospheric parameters. All atmospheric
parameters could be measured at any altitude and location through flight test by
using an appropriate measurement device. This book is about analysis and calcula-
tion; thus, we are going to calculate atmospheric parameters by employing the engi-
neering techniques and mathematical calculations. This section introduces the tools
to calculate temperature (T), pressure (P), air density (ρ), and viscosity (μ). Since
current air vehicles are able to fly only up to about the middle of the second layer, we
will discuss how to calculate these four atmospheric parameters only for the first two
atmospheric layers (troposphere and stratosphere).
1.6.1 temperature
Although we are all familiar with temperature as a means of hotness or coldness,
it is not easy to provide a definition for it. Even thermodynamics textbooks such as
Reference [2] do not provide an exact fundamental physical definition for tempera-
ture. The temperature of a body is often explained as a quantity that indicates how
hot or cold the body is. The temperature is an indication of the amount of heat energy
stored inside a control volume of gas, liquid, or solid. The temperature is related to
the mean velocity of free molecules of a body. By virtue of the molecular motion,
a molecule’s kinetic energy is sensed as the temperature of the body. Due to this
definition, the mean velocity of free molecules at absolute zero temperature is zero.
The heat is transferred from a body at a higher temperature to the one at a lower
temperature.
Air is a type of gas; when the thermal energy is added (i.e., heat is transferred), its
temperature increases. As air moves from place to place, its temperature varies based
on the amount of heat that is transferred into or out of it. The main source of the air
energy is the Sun; since the Earth absorbs the Sun’s energy faster than the atmo-
sphere, the Earth’s heat energy is also transferred into air. During the day, air absorbs
thermal energy from the Sun’s radiation, and heat is also transferred from the Earth
to air. During the night, the Earth’s energy and air’s thermal energy are transferred
out to space through radiation. Thus, the air temperature changes throughout the day
and night, and also place to place.
As Figure 1.3 shows, the air temperature varies as we climb. In the first layer
(up to 11,000 m or 36,000 ft), the temperature is constantly decreasing. At the lower
region of the second layer (from 11,000 m up to 21,000 m altitude, or from 36,000 ft
up to 70,000 ft altitude), the temperature is constant at −56°C (in ISA condition).
In addition, in the upper region of the stratosphere (from 21,000 m up to 47,000 m
altitude, or from 70,000 ft up to 155,000 ft altitude), the temperature increases again
and approaches 1°C at 47,000 m (155,000 ft) altitude. Therefore, in the first layer, the
temperature is linearly decreased but is constant at the lower region of the second
layer.
A number of different temperature scales have been introduced; two popular
choices in the SI system are the Celsius (formerly Centigrade) and Kelvin scales. The
Kelvin temperature and the Celsius temperature are related by
T ( K ) = T (°C) + 273.15 (1.2)
In the British unit system, the Rankine scale is related to the Fahrenheit scale by
T ( R ) = T (°F) + 460 (1.3)
The temperature scales in the two unit systems are related by
T ( R ) = 1.8 T ( K ) (1.4)
T (°F ) = 1.8T (°C) + 32 (1.5)

Atmosphere 13
In engineering calculations, we only use the Kelvin scale or Rankine scale, since
they are absolute temperature scales.
Based on the atmospheric empirical values (linear variation in the first layer), the
temperature of the first layer (troposphere) in ISA condition is mathematically mod-
eled by the following equation:
TISA = To − Lh (1.6)
In the lower region of the second layer (stratosphere), the temperature will be
TISA = −56°C (1.7)
where h denotes altitude, TISA temperature in ISA condition, To temperature at the

sea level and ISA condition, and L represents the rate of temperature change with
altitude or lapse rate that is 0.0065°C/m or 0.0065 K/m or 0.002°C/ft or 0.0035 °R/
ft or 0.0035 °F/ft.
As the name implies, lapse rate is the rate of decrease of temperature with alti-
tude. The lapse rate is to show that the temperature is decreased 6.5° (in °C or K)
every 1,000 m or 2° (in °C or K) every 1,000 ft.
However, in the upper region of the stratosphere (from 21,000 m up to 47,000 m
altitude, or from 70,000 ft up to 155,000 ft altitude), the temperature increases at a
rate of 2.1°C per 1,000 m, or 7°C per 1,000 ft, and approaches 1°C at an altitude of
47,000 m (155,000 ft).
The ratio between the temperature (in ISA condition) at any altitude and that at the
sea level is called temperature ratio (θ) and is
TISA TISA
θ= = (1.8)
To 288.15K
The temperature in non-ISA condition is
T = TISA + ∆T (1.9)
where ΔT is the temperature difference between non-ISA and ISA conditions.

Appendices A and B provide the temperature for any altitude in ISA condition.
Example 1.1
Determine the temperature at 20,000 and 50,000 ft altitudes assuming ISA

conditions.
Solution
At sea level, the temperature is 518.69°R = 59°F
a. 20,000 ft
This altitude is located in the first layer (troposphere), so
(
TISA = To − Lh = 518.7 − 0.0035 × 20,000 )
= 447.7°R = − 12°F = − 24.4°C (1.6)
b. 50,000 ft
This altitude is located in the lower region of the second layer (strato-
sphere), so
TISA = −56°C = −68.8°F (1.7)
Example 1.2
The temperature in a city on a summer day is ISA + 32 and on a winter day is

ISA − 25. Determine the temperature on both days in Celsius. This city has an
elevation of 3,000 m.
Solution
TISA = To − Lh = 15 − ( 0.0065 × 3,000 ) = − 4.5°C (1.6)
a. Summer day:
T = TISA + ∆T = − 4.5 + 32 = 27.5°C (1.9)
b. Winter day:
T = TISA + ∆T = − 4.5 − 25 = − 29.5°C (1.9)
1.6.2 pressure
Pressure is another important atmospheric variable that influences an aircraft’s per-
formance. Pressure is basically defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid (gas or
liquid) per unit area on which the force acts. Pressure has the unit of Newton per
square meter (N/m2 or Pascal) or pound per square inch (lb/in2 or psi).
Atmosphere 15
36
28
Altitude (km)
20
12
50% of air lies
below this altitude
Mount. Everest
0 200 400 600 800 1000

Pressure (millibar)
FIGURE 1.6 Atmospheric pressure variation with altitude.
The weight of air (i.e., force) above any surface produces pressure at that surface.
The higher we ascend in the atmosphere, the less will be the weight of air above us,
so the less will be pressure. The average pressure at sea level due to the weight of the
atmosphere is 101,325 N/m2, a pressure which causes the mercury (Hg) in a barome-
ter to rise about 760 mm. This pressure is sometimes referred to as “one atmosphere”
(i.e., 1 atm), and high pressures are then spoken of in terms of “atmospheres”.
Another common metric unit of pressure is the millibar (mb), which is 1/1,000th
of a bar: a bar being 105 N/m2. One bar is very close to the standard atmospheric pres-
sure at sea level. It had been adopted by meteorologists many years before the metric
SI unit system was introduced, and the reader may often encounter atmospheric pres-
sure given in millibars. However, for most straightforward performance calculations,
we will use N/m2.
Pressure with altitude is not decreased linearly (Figure 1.6). The rate at which
pressure decreases is much greater near the Earth’s surface than at altitude (i.e.,
nonlinear). Rather, the pressure decreases rapidly near the Earth’s surface and more
gradually at greater heights. Between sea level and 10,000 ft, pressure has been
reduced from 1,013 to 697 mb, a drop of 316 mb; for the corresponding increase of
10,000 ft (between 20,000 and 30,000 ft), the decrease of pressure is from 466 to 301
mb, a drop of only 165 mb; between 70,000 and 80,000 ft, the drop is only 17 mb.
The pressure at an altitude of 16 km is about 1/10th of the atmosphere, at an altitude
of 31 km is about 1/100th of the atmosphere, and at an altitude of 48 km is about
1/1,000th of atmosphere.
This is because air is compressible; the air near the Earth’s surface is compressed
by the air above it, and, as we climb higher, the air becomes less dense, so the pres-
sure becomes less. Air would become thinner from the Earth’s surface upward; the
FIGURE 1.7 Mean sea level pressure for June–July–August.
final change from the atmosphere to space being is so gradual such that it is indistin-
guishable. In this respect, air differs from liquids such as water; in liquids, there is
a definite dividing line or surface at the top; and beneath the surface of a liquid, the
pressure increases in direct proportion to the depth because the liquid, being practi-
cally incompressible, remains of the same density in all depths. In the following
sections, a few equations are presented to calculate pressure in the first layer (tropo-
sphere) and the second layer (stratosphere).
Figure 1.7 illustrates the mean sea level pressure for June–July–August. Note that
the mean sea level pressure is varying throughout the year and at various locations.
However, the difference between the highest and lowest mean sea level pressures is
ignorable (about 3%).
1.6.2.1 First Layer

To derive a relationship for pressures as a function of altitude, we use the thermo-
dynamics energy equation and notice physics laws. The rate of change of pressure
with respect to a change in altitude (h) is mainly a function of the air density. Air is
assumed to be in hydrostatic equilibrium, so it will satisfy the differential equation:
dP = −ρgdh (1.10)
where g is the gravitational constant. For calculating pressures below 30 km

(100,000 ft), it has been customary to assume g to be constant. In addition, the air
density (ρ) is a function of pressure and temperature as stated by ideal gas law or gas
equation of state:
P = ρRT (1.11)
In this equation, R is referred to as gas constant and for air R = 287 J/kg K. By divid-
ing Equation 1.10 by Equation 1.11, we obtain
dP gdh
=− (1.12)
P RT
Atmosphere 17
Differentiation of Equation 1.6 yields
dT
dT = − Ldh ⇒ dh = − (1.13)
L
Substitution of this equation into Equation 1.12 results in
dp g dT
= (1.14)
P RL T
This equation may be integrated between the pressure at any altitude and the pressure
at a reference altitude (i.e., sea level). The integration yields the following expression:
g / LR
P2  T2 
= (1.15)
P1  T1 
Since three parameters of g, L, and R are known to have constant values (as
defined earlier), the power of Equation 1.15 (in SI units) will be g/LR = 9.81/
(0.0065 × 287) = 5.256. With the substitution of this number and generalizing
Equation 1.15 for the ISA condition, we have
5.256
P T
= ( θ ISA )
5.256
= (1.16)
Po  To 
Please note, in this equation, temperature is in terms of the absolute scale (i.e., Kelvin
[not Celsius] or Rankine [not Fahrenheit]). Moreover, both pressure and temperature
are in ISA condition. The pressure in ISA and non-ISA conditions is assumed to be
the same. To find the pressure at any altitude, one must first calculate temperature
from the technique offered in Section 1.6.1, or read the value from standard tables
(e.g., Appendix A or B), and then determine pressure from Equation 1.16.
1.6.2.2 Second Layer

Since in the lower region of the second layer (stratosphere), the temperature is con-
stant (isothermal region at −56°C), we directly integrate Equation 1.12 to obtain
 P  g ( h − href ) P  g ( href − h ) 
ln   =− ⇒ = exp  (1.17)
 Pref  RTref Pref  RTref 
where Pref , Tref , and href are the values of pressure, temperature, and altitude at the
start of the isothermal region (i.e., tropopause). By taking the reference altitude (ho)
to be sea level, the following is obtained for sea level pressure or Po:
P P Pref
= (1.18)
Po Pref Po
The reference temperature (Tref ) at the tropopause is −56°C or 217 K. Thus, the pres-
sure ratio (using Equation 1.16) at the tropopause is
5.256 5.256
Pref  Tref  −56 + 273 
= =  = 0.2234 (1.19)
Po  To   15 + 273 
However, at the tropopause, the altitude is 11,000 m or 36,089 ft. By inserting

Equation 1.19 into Equation 1.18, the pressure is referenced to sea level as
P  11,000 − h 
= 0.2334 exp  (1.20)
Po  6,342 
P  36,089 − h 
= 0.2234 exp  (1.21)
Po  20,807 
The altitude (h) is in terms of meters in Equation 1.20 and in feet in Equation 1.21.
The subscript o refers to the sea level, and h is measured from sea level.
Example 1.3
Determine the pressure of air at 40,000 ft and in ISA condition.
Solution
Since this altitude belongs to the second layer, and its unit is in feet, we use
Equation 1.21:
P  36,089 − h   36,089 − 40,000 

= 0.2234 exp  = 0.2234 exp  = 0.1851 (1.21)
Po  20,807   20,807 
The pressure at sea level is 14.7 psi = 2,116.2 lb/ft 2 = 29.92 in. Hg. Hence,
lb
P = 2116.2 × 0.1851 = 391.7 = 5.538 in.Hg = 18,757.2 Pa
ft 2
The ratio between the pressure at any altitude and the pressure at sea level is
assigned a symbol of δ as follows:
P
δ= (1.22)
Po
Appendices A and B provide the pressure ratio at any altitude. This is an alternate
and easier way to find pressure, since the results are calculated based on the equa-
tions of this section. The actual pressure at different points in the flow without
any dynamic effect is called static pressure. When we use the word “pressure”, it
always means static pressure unless otherwise stated.
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face. With all her soul Lady Wynde loved this man, and her voice
trembled as she murmured:
“Oh, Craven, I am glad that my life of hypocrisy is over at last, that
there is no longer fear of discovery, and that we are free to enjoy our
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upon our conspiracy which has placed me where I am! I was a
widow with a meager income and expensive tastes. You were a
widower with a son to educate, and a beggarly home and a beggarly
income, so that you could not afford to marry. How well I remember
that night in London, when you told me that if I had courage and
boldness proportionate to my beauty, I could make our fortunes and
our happiness. I eagerly asked how I could do this, and you showed
me a copy of a Court Journal in which was a paragraph to the effect
that ‘Sir Harold Wynde had gone down to Brighton, and that his
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“Was it not a clever idea, and cleverly executed?” said Mr. Black
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Lady Wynde blushed as she murmured assent. She was essentially
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Black with her whole heart, and with a fervor that astonished herself.
After the death of her first husband, Lady Wynde had first met
Craven Black. They had fallen in love with each other, as the phrase
goes, at their first meeting. He was a gambler, dissolute—an
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possessed but a scanty settled income; yet, from his nefarious gains
at the gambling table, and in other ways, he managed to keep up the
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Lady Wynde, in the days of her first widowhood, had been but little
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Craven Black in the then state of their fortunes, even had he desired
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out her share in the foul conspiracy against Sir Harold, the reader
knows.
“Four thousand pounds a year and a good house are worth serving
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waited long enough, Octavia. When are you going to marry me?”
“Not before September,” declared Lady Wynde decisively. “I must
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must order some jewels for myself. Let us appoint our marriage to
take place in October. People will talk if it occurs sooner.”
Craven Black smiled cynically.
“Shall you care what people say?” he inquired. “I thought you were a
law unto yourself.”
“Indeed I am not. No woman in the world has a greater regard for
‘they say’ than I have,” returned Lady Wynde emphatically. “You see
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be a social leader, and to become so, I must give people faith in my
knowledge of the proprieties of life. I occupy a high position here as
the widow of Sir Harold Wynde, and he was a sort of idol here, so
that, I dare say, people will be jealous of my marrying at all. And
then, again, I desire to gain the love and confidence of my step-
daughter before I remarry. Her guardianship is worth three thousand
a year to me. I shall have that sum annually as a recompense for
chaperoning her.”
“I would be willing to chaperon several young ladies on such terms,”
said Mr. Black. “How old is she?”
“About eighteen.”
“And how large an income has she?”
“Seventy thousand a year.”
An eager light came into Craven Black’s eyes, and an eager glow
mounted to his fair face.
“A handsome sum,” he ejaculated. “She has a glorious inheritance.
What sort of girl is she?”
“A bread-and-butter school-girl, I suppose. I have never met her. She
was Sir Harold’s idol, and he was always wanting her to come home,
but I did not want her jealous eyes spying on me, so I contrived to
keep her away. She has not been at Hawkhurst since my coming.”
“You correspond with her?”
“I write to her now and then, and she sends me a duty letter, as I call
it, once a month. I generally read a line or two and throw them
aside.”
“Has she any love affair?” inquired Mr. Black thoughtfully.
“Of course not. A girl in a French boarding-school might as well be in
a convent, as far as love affairs are concerned. What are you
thinking of, Craven?” and Lady Wynde looked at him jealously.
The glow on Craven Black’s face deepened, as he hastened to
answer:
“I was thinking what if this girl were to take a liking to my son Rufus?
If we could bring about a marriage between her and Rufus, we
should retain her fortune in the family, and Rufus should agree to
allow us ten thousand a year for using our influence with her. What
do you think?”
Lady Wynde looked startled—pleased.
“The very thing!” she exclaimed. “I have been thinking that I should
not long be allowed to remain mistress of Hawkhurst after Neva’s
return. An heiress like her will not want for suitors, and she will
marry, and I cannot prevent it. The proper way is to direct her
marriage for our own benefit. Is Rufus likely to please a romantic
school-girl?”
“I think he cannot fail to please her. He is not yet one and twenty,
well-looking, accomplished, well educated, rather weak-willed and
easily governed, and like clay in my hands. He has romantic notions
about love and marriage, and if he is on the ground first I am sure he
will win the girl’s heart. I had a quarrel with him some weeks ago,
and he went away from me at my command, and has taken cheap
rooms somewhere and is trying to live by painting cheap pictures, or
some such thing. I’ll send for him, and have him up at Wyndham
directly.”
“Why did you quarrel with him, Craven? I thought you were so fond
of him.”
“I was—I am. But he dared oppose his will to mine, and I turned him
adrift, to let him try how he could get along without me. He is not
long out of his university, and is perfectly helpless about earning
money, but he has some high-flown notions which hardship will cure.
To be frank, our quarrel was about a little music teacher that the boy
thought himself in love with. He has given her up, and will be glad
enough to be summoned to me. When will Miss Wynde be here?”
“I had a letter to-day from Madame Dalaut, Neva’s preceptress,
inquiring my wishes in regard to the girl. Neva has completed her
studies, and Madame Dalaut insinuates that she ought to be
removed from school and be allowed to enter society. Moreover, the
midsummer holidays have commenced, and the other pupils are
gone to their homes. I have concluded to send Artress over to Paris
to-night to bring Neva home.”
“Do so. My son shall also be at Wyndham to-morrow, and shall be
introduced to the heiress the day after her return. I will engage
rooms for Rufus and myself at the Wyndham inn, so that I can be
near you until our marriage. Is this plan agreeable to you?”
“Perfectly. We must be prompt in our actions. Neva must become
engaged to Rufus before she actually enters society here. Her
marriage can take place at the same time with our own in October.
Elise can do the two trousseaux at the same time. It is an admirable
plan, and a worthy continuation of our little game.”
They talked further, disclosing to each other their nefarious plans of
self-aggrandizement. Craven Black talked in lover-like fashion, and
even the exacting Lady Wynde was persuaded that his passion for
her had received a new impulse, and that he loved her as she loved
him—with an utter devotion.
As the dinner hour drew near Mr. Black took his departure, not caring
to excite the gossip of the household upon his first visit to Lady
Wynde. Directly after dinner, Artress, attired in gray travelling suit,
set out in a carriage for Canterbury, on her way to Paris, whence she
was to bring to her own home the heiress of Hawkhurst.
CHAPTER VII.
NEVA’S FIRST LOVER.
The dingy little packet-boat from Calais to Dover, carrying the mails,
bore her usual complement of passengers upon the bright
midsummer day upon which young Neva Wynde returned after years
of absence to her own country.
A few tall, mustached Frenchmen, with cigars in their mouths; a
German or two with the inevitable pipe; a few students returning from
foreign universities; a few pedestrian tourists with hobnailed shoes,
preposterous alpenstocks, and a proudly displayed Bradshaw or
Murray; several stout and puffy Englishmen, with singularly pale
faces, and the usual number of rotund ill-dressed English women,
with flimsy muslin dresses and fur tippets in odd contrast—a
conjunction much affected by the average British lady—made up the
majority of the passengers. Some of these people walked about,
affecting to enjoy the fresh breeze; others studied the now useless
guide-book, recalling their adventures; and others scanned the blue
shores of France alternately with the chalk cliffs of England through
the tourist glasses slung from their shoulders, and wondered aloud if
the passage would be accomplished in the usual ninety minutes.
An odd feature of a Channel packet is the total disregard of
appearances manifested by the passengers upon it.
Very few, if any, persons go below into the stuffy little cabins, and
doubting souls provide themselves with ominous white bowls at the
outset of the voyage, and should illness come upon them they
proceed to make themselves comfortable upon the deck, or moan, or
swear, according to the sex of the sufferer, totally unmindful and
oblivious of lookers on.
In a corner by herself, at one side of the boat, her thick green vail
over her face shrouding a bowl that filled her lap, sat Artress, Lady
Wynde’s gray companion, in a condition of abject misery. She had no
thought of any one but herself in that crisis of her physical career,
and gave no heed to her young charge, the one great desire of her
soul being to find herself once more upon solid land.
At the opposite side of the boat, leaning lightly upon the rail, and
looking back with wistful, longing eyes upon the fading blue of the
French shores, stood a young girl who was strangely lovely. She was
slender and graceful as a swaying reed, and her lithe, light figure
carried itself with a slight hauteur that was inexpressibly charming.
Her high-bred manner, her evident gentleness and sweetness,
betrayed thorough culture of heart and mind. Her face was a rare
poem. The features were slightly irregular, and even in repose, with
a grave shadow upon her fair brows, her countenance had a bright,
piquant witchery. Her complexion was very pure and fair, her lips a
vivid scarlet, and under her broad forehead a pair of wondrous red-
brown eyes sparkled and glowed with strange brilliancy. Her hair,
very abundant, and of a reddish-brown tint as rare as beautiful, was
gathered into braids at the back of her small, noble head.
She was dressed in a traveling suit of black cashmere, and wore a
black hat surmounted with a scarlet wing.
She was Neva Wynde, the owner of Hawkhurst, one of the greatest
heiresses in England, and now the object of the sinister
machinations of her handsome step-mother and Craven Black.
Her school-days were over, and she was on her way to a home she
had not visited for years, and to a guardian whom she did not know,
and who was secretly her enemy. She had emerged from the
pleasant security of the school-room into a region of perils. A
premonition of the dangers before her seemed almost to come upon
her now, and into her glowing eyes crept a look of sorrowful
yearning, and of passionate protest against the friendlessness of her
lot.
A few feet distant from her, also leaning upon the railing, stood a
young man, whose gaze, ostensibly fixed upon the French coast,
now and then rested upon the girl’s speaking face with an
expression of keen admiration and interest. He thought in his own
soul that he had never seen a being so fresh, so dainty, so pure, so
rarely beautiful. She seemed utterly alone. No one inquired how she
felt, nor offered her a seat, nor looked after her, and her young
admirer wondered if she were all alone in the world, as she seemed.
He was speculating upon the subject when a sudden lurch of the
boat upon the short, chopping Channel waves, caused Neva to
involuntarily loosen her hold upon the railing, and pitched her
abruptly along the deck toward him. He sprang forward and caught
her in his arms. She recovered her equilibrium upon the instant, and
again grasped the railing, blushing, confused, and murmuring her
thanks for his civility.
“The Channel is rough to-day,” remarked the young gentleman.
“Shall I not find you a seat?”
“Thank you, no,” returned Neva, in her sweet, low, cultured voice. “I
prefer standing.”
The words were simple enough, and her manner was quiet and
reserved, but her voice went to the young man’s heart, thrilling it with
a strange sensation. He did not attempt a retreat, and Neva looked
up at him with something of surprise in her glorious red-brown eyes.
As he encountered her full gaze, his face flushed, his eyes glowed,
and a warm smile curved his mouth.
“I beg your pardon,” he said, “but are you not Miss Wynde of
Hawkhurst?”
Neva bowed assent, with an increasing surprise.
“I was sure, when I met your full glance, that you were Neva Wynde,”
cried the young gentleman. “You do not remember me, I see; and
yet, when you went away to that odious Paris school you and I
parted with tears, and you promised to be true to me, little Neva. And
you have forgotten me—”
“No, no,” cried the young girl, an answering glow in her face, and her
eyes shining like suns. “Is it really you, Arthur? How you have
changed!”
She held out her hand to him, and he clasped it with a warm,
lingering pressure. Her eyes scanned his face in an earnest scrutiny,
and she blushed again when she saw how handsome he was, and
how like he was to an ideal she had long cherished in the very
depths of her young soul.
He was fair, with warm blue eyes, golden hair, and a mustache of
tawny gold. He had a frank, noble face, and his sunny eyes betrayed
a generous soul. One who ran might read in his countenance a
brave, dauntless soul, a grand, unselfish nature, an enlightened
spirit, quick sympathies, and an honest, truthful, resolute character.
Neva thought, as she shyly regarded him, that he was very like a
hero of romance.
“I can hardly believe that it is Arthur,” she said, smiling, her face
softly flushing. “You are not at all like the Arthur Towyn I knew, and
yet I can see the old boyish gayety and brightness of spirit. Your
mustache has changed your looks greatly, Lord Towyn.”
“It makes me look older perhaps,” said Lord Towyn gravely, “and as I
am but three and twenty, and have a ward who is eighteen years old,
it becomes me to produce as venerable an appearance as possible.
Of course you are aware Neva, that I am one of the three trustees or
guardians of your entire property, appointed by your father in his
will?”
“Yes, I knew it a year ago,” replied Neva, the brightness fading a little
from her face. “Mr. Atkins wrote me about papa’s will. Mr. Atkins and
Sir John Freise are the two other executors. You are very young for
such an appointment, are you not, Lord Towyn?”
“That is a fault that time will mend,” said his lordship, smiling. “I am
young for the post, but Sir Harold Wynde knew that he could trust
me, especially with two older heads to direct me. I am only the least
of three, you know, and my youth was meant to balance Sir John
Freise’s age. Your school life is over, is it not, Miss Wynde?”
“Yes, it is over,” and Neva sighed. “I am on my way to a new sort of
life, and to new acquaintances and friends. I feel a sort of terror of
my future, Lord Towyn. I am foolish, I know, but a dread comes over
me when I look forward to going home. Home! Ah, all that made the
old house home has vanished. My poor brother George lies in an
Indian grave. Papa—poor papa—”
Her voice broke down, and she averted her head.
Young Lord Towyn came nearer to her. He longed to press her hand
and to offer her his sympathy. He comprehended her desolation, and
the unhealed wound caused by Sir Harold’s fate. His heart bled for
her.
He had known Neva Wynde from her earliest childhood. They had
played together in the woods and gardens of Hawkhurst and before
Neva had been sent to her foreign school the child pair had
betrothed themselves and vowed an eternal fidelity to each other.
The late Earl Towyn, the father of Arthur, and Sir Harold Wynde had
been college-mates, and it had been their dearest wish to unite their
families in the persons of their children, but they had been too wise
to broach the idea to the young couple. They had, however,
encouraged the affection of Arthur and Neva for each other, and had
looked forward hopefully to the time when that childish affection
should possibly ripen into the love of manhood and womanhood.
Soon after Neva’s departure for school Lord Towyn had died, and his
son, then at college, had become earl in his stead. A mysterious fate
had also removed Sir Harold Wynde, and Neva’s step-mother, as is
known to the reader, had schemes of her own in regard to Neva’s
marriage.
The young earl’s mute sympathy seemed to penetrate to Neva’s
heart, for presently she turned her face again to him, and although
her mouth quivered her eyes were brave, as she said brokenly:
“You will think me unchristian, Lord Towyn, but I cannot become
reconciled to the manner of papa’s death. If he had but died as
George died, peacefully in his bed; but his fate was so horrible—so
awful! I sometimes fancy in the night that I can hear his cries and
moans. In my own imagination I have witnessed his awful death a
thousand times. The horror of it is as fresh to me now as when the
news first came. Shall I ever get used to my sorrow? Will the time
ever come, do you think, when I can think of papa with the calmness
and resignation with which I think of my poor brother?”
“It was horrible, even to me, beyond all words to describe,” said the
young earl softly. “I loved Sir Harold only less than my own father,
and I have mourned for him as if I had been his son. All ordinary
words of consolation seem a mockery to one who mourns a friend
who perished as he did. He was vigorous and young for his years,
noble and true and good. Let us hope that his pangs and terrors
were but brief, Neva. Perhaps his death was not so terrible to him as
it seems to us. It were better so to die than to languish for years a
prey to some excruciating disease. And let us remember ‘whatever
is, is right.’ Instead of dwelling on the manner of his death, let us
remember that his death was but the opening to him of the gates of
life eternal.”
Neva did not answer, but her face was very grave and tender, and
her sun-like eyes glowed with a softer radiance. There was a brief
silence between them, and finally Neva said, with an abrupt change
of the subject:
“Do you know Lady Wynde, Lord Towyn?”
“I have met her several times, but not since Sir Harold’s death,” was
the reply. “Is she traveling with you?” and the young earl glanced
around the deck.
“No, she sent her companion for me. That is Artress, on the other
side of the boat. I have never seen Lady Wynde.”
Lord Towyn looked his astonishment.
“Have you not been home since your father’s marriage, nor since his
death, Miss Wynde?” he asked.
“No. Papa came once to see me at my school after his marriage, but
he did not bring his wife. I have a picture of her which papa sent me.
He must have adored her. His letters were full of loving praises of
her, and in the last letter he wrote he told me that he desired me to
love and obey her as if she were my own mother. His wishes are
sacred to me now, and I shall try to love her. Is she very handsome?”
“She is considered handsome,” replied Lord Towyn. “She is dark
almost to swarthiness, and has a gypsy’s black eyes. Sir Harold
almost worshiped her.”
“Then she must be good?”
Lord Towyn hesitated. He knew little of the handsome Lady Wynde,
but he had an instinctive distrust of her.
“She must be good,” he answered thoughtfully. “Had she not been
good, Sir Harold would not have loved her.”
“Ah, yes, I have thought that a hundred times,” said Neva. “I shall try
to win her love. She is to stay at Hawkhurst as my personal guardian
during my minority, and there can be no indifference between us. It
must be peace or war. I intend it shall be peace. You see, Lord
Towyn, that I shall be almost completely dependent upon her for
society and friendship. I am coming back a stranger to my
childhood’s home. Years of absence have estranged me from the
friends I knew, and I have no one outside of Hawkhurst to look to,
save Mr. Atkins and Sir John Freise.”
“And me,” said Lord Towyn earnestly. “I am associated with them,
you know. But you will not be so utterly friendless as you think. The
old county families will hasten to call upon you, and you can select
your own friends among them. The Lady of Hawkhurst will be feted
and welcomed, and made much of. Your trouble will soon be that you
will have no time to yourself. I desire to add myself to your list of
visitors. I am staying this summer at a place of mine on the Kentish
coast. But here is the Dover pier straight ahead, Miss Wynde. We
have made the voyage in good time, despite the roughness of the
Channel.”
There was no time for further conversation. The suggestive bowls
were being hidden under benches by the late sufferers, and bundles,
boxes and bags were being sought after with reviving energies.
Artress arose, found her traveling bag and umbrellas, and then
sought for her charge. As her gaze encountered Neva’s piquant face
upturned to the admiring glances of a handsome young gentleman,
she looked shocked and horrified, and her sharp, ashen-hued
features became vinegary in their expression. She approached the
young lady with unseemly haste, and exclaimed:
“Miss Wynde, I am surprised—”
“Pardon me,” said Neva, quietly interposing, although her face
flushed haughtily, “but I desire to introduce to you, Mrs. Artress, my
old friend Lord Towyn.”
The young earl bowed, and Mrs. Artress did the same, divided
between her desire to be polite to a nobleman and her anger that
Neva should have renewed his acquaintance while under her
charge. Artress was deep in the confidence of Lady Wynde and
Craven Black, and her interests were identical with theirs. She had a
keen scent for danger, and in the attitude of Lord Towyn toward Neva
she recognized an admiration which might easily deepen into love.
“Come, my dear,” said Mrs. Artress anxiously. “The boat is at the
pier, and we must hasten ashore. Give me your dressing bag—”
She paused, seeing that Lord Towyn had already possessed himself
of it. The young earl offered his arm to Neva, and she placed her
hand lightly upon it, and was conducted along the boat to the place
of landing. Mrs. Artress followed, biting her lips with chagrin.
The landing and examination of baggage were duly accomplished,
and Lord Towyn conducted his charges to a first-class coach of the
waiting train, seated them, and took his place beside Neva.
“Are you going to Hawkhurst also, my lord?” inquired Mrs. Artress
sourly, as he fed the guard handsomely, in order that no other
travelers might be ushered into their compartment.
“No, madam, not to-day,” answered the young earl pleasantly. “I am
on my way to Canterbury to consult with Sir John Freise and Mr.
Atkins concerning some business relative to the Hawkhurst property,
and I shall probably do myself the honor to call with them upon Miss
Wynde in a day or two.”
“Lady Wynde will be happy to see you and to consult with you,” said
Mrs. Artress, with ill-concealed annoyance. “Miss Wynde is too
young, I should judge, to understand anything about business.
Besides, her friends should spare her all trouble of that description.”
“I shall be always ready to consult with you about business, Lord
Towyn,” said Neva in her clear, low voice. “I desire to fit myself for
my position as owner and dispenser of a large income. I regard the
money intrusted to me as a talent for which I shall be called to
account, and I want to learn to manage my affairs properly, and with
prudence and discretion. I think,” she added lightly, “that I shall take
Miss Burdett Coutts as my exemplar in this matter. She is a business
woman, I understand, and I should like to be like her.”
Mrs. Artress was silenced, but she thought within herself:
“Our young lady has opinions of her own, and has the courage to
express them. I am afraid that she is not the bread and butter
school-girl we expected. I am afraid that we shall have trouble with
her.”
The journey to Canterbury was accomplished only too quickly for
Lord Towyn and Neva. They talked of their childhood, but no allusion
was made to their childish betrothal, although both doubtless thought
of it. The young earl explained that he had been over to Brussels for
a week, and had no thought of meeting her on his way home, and
his face as well as his tones told how glad he was of that meeting.
The Hawkhurst carriage with its liveried servants was in waiting at
the Canterbury station when they alighted. Lord Towyn assisted the
ladies into the vehicle, bade them adieu, and as they drove away
followed them with a lingering gaze.
“How beautiful Neva is!” he murmured to himself. “And so pure and
sweet and tender, yet spirited! I wonder if she remembers our
childish betrothal? I don’t like that Artress, and I do not quite like
Lady Wynde. I hardly think Neva will be happy with her, their natures
being so dissimilar. I must go out to Hawkhurst to-morrow, and judge
whether they are likely to get on together. If Neva does not like her
step-mother, she has but one avenue of escape from her dominion
before she becomes of age, and that avenue is marriage. If she
would only marry me. I love her already. Love her! I could adore her.”
A passionate flush arose to his fair cheek, and a tender glowing light
to his warm blue eyes, and he descended the steps and strode out
of the station, his heart thrilling with the strange and new sensation
which he now knew was love. And as he walked along the street, he
vowed within himself that he would woo and, if he could, would win
young Neva Wynde to be his wife.
Ah, he little knew the gulfs that would arise between him and her—
the dangers, the perils, the sorrows, they two must taste. And even
as he strode along, acknowledging to his own soul that he was
Neva’s lover, Neva was speeding across the pleasant country toward
the home where her enemy awaited her with schemes perfected,
and an evil heart hidden under a smiling face.
CHAPTER VIII.
THE SON OF THE HONORABLE CRAVEN BLACK.
Upon the morning of the day on which Neva Wynde and Lord Towyn
so strangely encountered each other upon the dingy packet-boat—
an encounter that was destined to be fateful—a scene transpired in
one of the London suburbs to which we would call the attention of
the reader.
In an upper room, in one of the dingiest houses of one of the dingiest
crescents at New Brompton, a young man, a mere youth, was
engaged in painting a picture. The room was bare and comfortless,
with threadbare carpet, decrepit and worn-out furniture, and
springless sofa-bed—one of the poorest rooms, in fact, a lodging-
house of the fourth rate can furnish. There were two windows without
curtains, and provided only with torn and faded blue paper shades,
rolled up and confined with cotton cord. A few ashes were in the
grate, showing that although the season was summer, a fire had
lately burned there.
The picture which the youth was painting stood upon an easel before
one of the windows, and was but little better than a daub. It had been
sketched by a bold and vigorous hand, but was faulty in conception
and ill-colored. The light upon it was bad, and the hand that wielded
the brush was trembling and impatient, weakened by fasting and
emotions.
The painter looked a mere boy, although he was full twenty years of
age. His complexion was florid, his eyes hazel in hue, and he wore
his brown hair long, artist fashion, and tossed back from his high
white forehead. He was handsome, with an honest look in his eyes,
and a pleasant mouth, but his chin was short, and weak in its
expression, and his countenance betrayed a character full of good
and noble impulses, yet with a weakness, indecision, and irresolution
that might yet prove fatal to him.
He was dressed in a shabby velveteen jacket, daubed with paints
and out at the elbows. His garments, like his lodging, betrayed
poverty of the most unmitigated description.
This young man was Rufus Black, the only son of Craven Black who
was Lady Wynde’s lover. And it was Rufus Black whom his father
and Lady Wynde had planned should marry Neva Wynde, and thus
play into their hands, enabling them to possess themselves of a
portion of Neva’s noble fortune.
As Mr. Black had said, he had quarrelled with his son some weeks
before, and cast him off, penniless and destitute of friends, to shift
for himself. He had drifted to his present lodgings, and was trying to
keep soul and body together by painting wretched pictures, which he
sold to a general dealer for wretched pay.
“The picture don’t suit me,” he said, pushing back his chair, that he
might get a better view of the painting. “It’s only a daub, but it’s as
good as the pay. I’ve been three days at it, and it won’t bring me in
even the fifteen shillings I got for the last. It will do to stop up a
chimney-place, I suppose—and I had such grand ideas of my art,
and of my talents! I meant to achieve fame and fortune, and here I
am without food or fuel, with the rent due, and with my soul so
fettered by these cares, so borne down by despair and remorse, that
I am incapable of work. I am gone to the dogs, as my father told me
to go—but, oh, why did I not travel the downward road alone? Why
must I drag her down with me?”
A despairing look gathered on his face; the tears filled his eyes; a
sob escaped him. He looked haggard, worn and despairing. He was
in no condition for work, yet he resumed his task with blinded eyes,
and painted on at random with feverish haste.
He had grown somewhat calmer, with the calmness of an utter
despair, when the door opened, and a girl came in bearing a large
basket heavily loaded. She was a slender young creature, not more
than seventeen years old, and her pale face and narrow chest
betrayed a tendency to consumption. Her complexion was of a clear
olive tint; her hair was of a blue-black color, and was worn in braids;
her eyes were dark and loving, with an appealing expression in
them; and, despite the circumstances of her lot, she maintained a
hopeful, sunshiny spirit and a sunshiny countenance.
She was the young music-teacher for whose sake Rufus Black had
quarrelled with his father. She was the last member of a large family
who had all died of consumption. She had lost her situation in a
ladies’ school about the time that Rufus had separated himself from
his father; and after the young man had abandoned his parent, he
had hastened to her and begged her to marry him. He was full of
hope, ambitious, determined to achieve fame and fortune by his
painter’s brush, and she was weak and worn, sorrowful and nearly ill,
and quite penniless. Believing in his talents and ability to support
them both, she had accepted the refuge he offered her, and one
week after Craven Black had turned his son adrift, the young pair
were married, and moved into their present dingy quarters.
They had joined their poverty together, and soon discovered that the
achievement of fame and wealth was uphill work. Rufus was fresh
from his university, unused to work for his bread, and he had
overrated his talent for painting, as he presently discovered. He
found it hard work to sell his poor efforts, and he could not paint
enough at first to bring him in twenty shillings a week. It was now
three months since his marriage, and one by one his books, his
better articles of clothing, his watch, and other trinkets, had been
sold or pledged to buy necessaries or pay the rent. Upon this
morning they had had no breakfast.
“How big your eyes are, Rufus!” laughed the young wife, throwing off
her battered little hat. “You look as if I had brought you some
priceless treasure; but you well may, for I have the nicest little
breakfast we have had for a week.”
“Where did you get it?” inquired the young artist, his thin cheeks
flushing with an eagerness he would have concealed. “Have you
prevailed on the grocer to give us credit?”
“No, I could not do that,” and the young wife shook her head. “I’m
afraid his heart is as hard as the nether mill-stone we read about. He
thinks I’m a humbug—a cheat! But our landlady, Mrs. McKellar, you
know, has faith in your picture, and I borrowed two shillings of her.
See what a sumptuous repast we shall have,” and she proceeded to
display the contents of her basket, unpacking them swiftly. “Here’s
two-pence worth of coffee, a pennyworth of milk, a threepenny loaf,
and a superb rasher of ham of the kind described by the Irishman as
‘a strake of fat and a strake of lane.’ And here’s a bundle of wood to
boil the coffee; and I’ve gone to the extravagance of a sixpenny pot
of jam, your appetite is so delicate. And now for breakfast.”
She piled her wood skillfully in the grate, put on her coffee-pot and
frying pan, and lighted her fire.
Then while her breakfast was cooking, she laid her table with her
scanty ware, and bustled about like an incarnate sunbeam, and no
one would have suspected that she too was weak and hungry, and
that she was sick at heart and full of dread for the future.
“So breakfast is provided for,” murmured Rufus Black, in a tone in
which it would have been hard to tell which predominated, relief or
bitterness. “I began to fear we should fast to-day, as we did
yesterday.”
The young wife turned her rasher of ham in the pan, and put her
small allowance of coffee in the pot, before she answered gravely:
“Rufus, I think I might get another situation to teach music. I have
good references, you know. I don’t like being so utterly dependent
upon you. You have not been used to work. I’m afraid we did very
wrong in getting married.”
“What else could we do?” demanded Rufus Black. “I could not see
you working yourself to death, Lally, when a little care would save
you. You had to go out of doors in all weathers, and you were going
into a galloping consumption. I expected to be able to support you,
but I’m only a useless fellow, after all. I thought I had talent, but it has
turned out like the fairy money—it has turned to dead leaves at the
moment of using it. I have a university education, and would be
thankful for a situation as usher in a dame’s school. I am willing to
dig ditches, only I’m not strong enough. Oh, Lally, little wife, what is
to become of us?”
Lally Black—she had been christened Lalla by her romantic mother,
after the heroine of Moore’s poem, but her name had lost its
romantic sound through years of every-day use—approached her
young husband, and softly laid her cheek against his. She stroked
his hand gently as she said:
“It is I who am useless, Rufus. You ought to have married a rich wife
instead of a poor little music-teacher. I’m afraid you’ll reproach me in
your heart some day for marrying you—there, there, dear boy! I did
not mean it. I know you will never regret our marriage, let what will
be the result!”
She caressed him tenderly, and then hurried to the fire intent upon
her breakfast. The coffee was steaming, and the ham was cooked.
The busy little housewife made a round of toast, and then
announced that breakfast was ready. Rufus drew up his chair to the
table, and Lally waited upon him, and was so gay and bright and
hopeful that he became infected with her spirit.
But when the delicious breakfast was over he became grave and
haggard again, and bowed his face on his hand and sat in silence,
while she washed the dishes and carefully put away the remnants of
the meal. Then she came to him and sat on his knee, and drew his
hand from his face, and whispered:
“Rufus, is your father rich?”
“He has some three or four hundred pounds a year—that’s all,”
answered Rufus. “Why do you ask?”
“Could he not assist us a little, if he wished?” ventured Lally. “I have
no relative to apply to. I had a great-aunt who married a rich man,
and I think she lives in London, but I don’t know her name, and she
probably never heard of me, so I can’t write or go to her. Let us
humble ourselves to your father, dear—”
“To what purpose?” interposed Rufus half fiercely. “My father is a
mercenary, villainous—Don’t stop me, Lally. I am telling the truth, if
he is my father. Thank God, I took after my poor mother. My father
does not know we are married, and I dare not tell him. If I fear
anybody in this world, I fear my father.”

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Aircraft Performance: An Engineering

Approach, 2nd Edition Mohammad H

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Second edition published 2024

and by CRC Press

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

© 2024 Mohammad H. Sadraey

First edition published by CRC Press 2017

Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

ISBN: 978-1-032-24515-7 (hbk)

Access the Instructor Resources: routledge.com/9781032245157

Chapter 1 Atmosphere ..........................................................................................1

Chapter 2 Equations of Motion ........................................................................... 35

2.3.2 Un-accelerated Versus Accelerated Flight ................. 45

Chapter 3 Drag Force and Drag Coefficient ....................................................... 65

3.5.1 Wave Drag for Wing and Tail .................................... 98

Chapter 4 Engine Performance ......................................................................... 119

4.7.4 Variations of SFC with Altitude ............................... 163

Chapter 5 Straight-Level Flight – Jet Aircraft .................................................. 193

5.4.2.3 Flight Program 3: Constant-Altitude,

Chapter 6 Straight-Level Flight: Propeller-Driven Aircraft ............................. 291

6.5.4 Comparison and Conclusion .................................... 338

Chapter 7 Climb and Descent ........................................................................... 359

Chapter 8 Takeoff and Landing ........................................................................ 433

Chapter 9 Turn Performance and Flight Maneuvers......................................... 493

9.7.2 Pull-Down................................................................. 575

Chapter 10 Aircraft Performance Analysis Using Numerical Methods

1. How fast can this airplane fly on a cruising flight?

3. How far can this airplane fly?

And, in one sentence, what is the performance of this airplane?

MATLAB® is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. For product informa-

Symbols Names Units

Symbols Names Units

α Angle of attack degree, radian

1.2 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF ATMOSPHERE

FIGURE 1.1 The Earth, aircraft trajectory, and satellite orbit.

1.3 MAJOR COMPONENTS

1.3.1 Oxygen and nitrOgen

of great significance to life on Earth, they are of little or no importance in affect-

1.3.2 CarbOn diOxide

1.3.3 Water VapOr

1.4 ATMOSPHERIC LAYERS

FIGURE 1.2 Atmospheric parameters of various layers.

1.5 INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE

–94 –56 –30

FIGURE 1.3 Difference in temperature variations at three locations.

Po = 101,325 N/m 2 = 14.7 psi = 2,116.2 lb/ft 2 = 760 mm Hg = 29.92 in.Hg

slope: –6.5 K/1000 m

FIGURE 1.4 Temperature distribution in the standard atmosphere.

–10 Point Barrow, Alaska

1.6 ATMOSPHERIC PARAMETERS

T ( K ) = T (°C) + 273.15 (1.2)

T ( R ) = T (°F) + 460 (1.3)

The temperature scales in the two unit systems are related by

T (°F ) = 1.8T (°C) + 32 (1.5)

TISA = −56°C (1.7)