DATA TYPES:

Data collection plays a very crucial role in the statistical analysis.

• The first method of statistics is collection of data
• The data may be obtained either from primary source or secondary source
• Primary source is one which is collected for the first time
• Secondary source is the available data which were collected or produced by others.
Depending on the source, data are classified into two types. They are
1. Primary data; 2. Secondary data
Primary data: If the data are being collected for the first time for statistical treatment, they
are known as primary data.
In other words as data collected by personal investigation from the original source, by
performing some experiments is called primary data
• These data are original and have not been classified. They are in the form of raw
material.
• It will give scientific solution, exhibit clarity and non-offending.
• Primary data advantages are precise information and disadvantages are time consuming
and expensive.
• The data cab be collected through various methods like, surveys, observations, physical
testing, mailed questionnaires, personal interviews, indirect oral interviews, Telephonic
interviews, case studies, experimental method, etc.
• For biological researches, data are collected only from personal experimental study.
• The primary data is of two types:
1. Qualitative: According to quality or attributes the data is called qualitative.
2. Quantitative: According to magnitude the data is called quantitative.
Secondary data:
When the primary data are used for any other purpose, they are termed as secondary data.
• It is the readily available form of data collected from various sources and this data have
been statistically treated and have been display in the form of table, charts etc.
• Secondary data have several advantages as it is easily available, save time and cost of
the researcher.
• But there are some disadvantages associated with this, as the data is gathered for the
purposes other than the problem in mind, so the usefulness of the data may be limited
in a number of ways like relevance and accuracy.
Difference between Primary and secondary data
Primary data Secondary data
It provides with detailed information Here some information may be suppressed
It is free from transcribing errors and Here data may contain such errors
estimation errors
Primary data contain information regarding Do not contain any information
methods of procuring data
Real time data Past data
It is cost expensive and time consuming It is economical and less time consuming
It is specific to the researchers needs It is may or may not be specific to the
researchers needs
The data available in raw form and The data available in refined form and
accuracy and reliability more accuracy and reliability less
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION:
The collection of data may be different ways, they are:
1. Direct observation
2. Experiments
3. Surveys
Depending upon the nature of the variable data is classified into 2 broad categories
1. Quantitative methods
2. Qualitative methods

Quantitative methods Qualitative methods

Focus groups Surveys, questionnaires
Unstructured interviews and Tests and existing databases
documentations

Data collection methods: Data collection methods are techniques and procedures used to
gather information for research purpose.
• These methods can range from simple self-reported surveys to more complex
experiments.
• Some common data collection methods are: Surveys, Interviews, Case study,
Observation, Group assessment, Tests, Focus grouped, Photographs and videotapes,
Diaries, Journals, Secondary data etc.
Importance of data collection methods: Data collection methods play a crucial role in the
research process as they determine the quality and accuracy of the data collected. Major
importance of data collection methods are:
• Determines the quality and accuracy of collected data
• Ensures that the data is relevant, valid and reliable.
• Helps reduce bias and increase the representativeness of the sample.
• Facilitates achievement of research objectives by providing accurate data.
• Supports the validity and reliability of research findings.

Type of data collection methods: The choice of data collection method depends on the
research question being addressed, the type of data needed, and the resources and time
available. Data collection methods are two type:
1. Primary methods of data collection
2. Secondary methods of data collection
Primary data collection methods: It is collected from first time data
• The data gathered by primary data collection methods are specific to the researchs
motive and highly accurate.
• Common primary data collection methods are including surveys, polls, interviews,
focus groups, questionnaire etc.
• It can be divided into two categories:
1. Quantitative methods; 2. Qualitative methods.
Quantitative methods: Quantitative techniques for market research and demand forecasting
usually use statistical tools. These methods of primary data collection are generally used to
make long-term forecasts.
Qualitative methods: Qualitative methods are especially useful in situations when historical
data is not available.
• Qualitative research is closely associated with words, sounds, feeling, emotions,
colors and other elements that are based on experience, judgment, emotion, etc.
• Qualitative methods do not provide the motive behind participants responses. Hence,
it is best to combine quantitative methods with qualitative methods
Secondary data collection methods: Secondary data is the data that has been used in the past.
• The researcher can obtain data from the data sources, both internal and external, to the
organization.
• Internal sources of secondary date are: Financial statements, Magazines, Mission and
Vision statements, Records, etc.
• External sources of secondary data are: Government reports, Libraries, Internet, Press
releases etc.
• The secondary data collection methods can also involve qualitative and quantitative
techniques.
• This data is easily available and hence, less time-consuming and less expensive.
SAMPLE AND SAMPLING METHODS
Sample: A sample is the small collection of the population selected with the objective to show
or tell properties of the concerned population.
• The word population or universe as used in statistic denotes the aggregate from which
the sample is to be taken.
Sampling methods: The methodology of sample is known as sampling. In sampling technique
instead of every unit of the population or universe, only a part of the population or universe is
studied and the conclusion are drawn on that basis for the entire population or universe. In fact
a sample is a sub-set of population unit
or
Sampling is technique of selecting individual members or a subset of the population to make
statistical inference from them and estimate the characteristics of the whole population.
• It is also a time convenient and cost-effective method and hence forms the basis of any
research design.
• In fact, sampling is only a tool which helps to know the characteristics of the universe
or population by examining only a small part of it.
• The values obtained from the study if a sample, such as the average and variation, are
known as statistics.
• Sample selection, data collection and estimation are all interwoven and each has an
impact on the others.
• For useful sample results, it is necessary that a sample processes the following
essentials, Representativeness; Adequacy; Independence and Homogeneity.

Methods of sampling: There are various methods of sampling techniques available to get
relevant results from population. The two different types if sampling methods are
1. Probability sampling or Random sampling
2. Non-probability sampling or Non-random sampling
 Probability sampling or Random sampling: Probability sampling is a sampling technique
where a researcher selects a few criteria and chooses members of a population randomly. All
the members have an equal opportunity to participate in the sample with this selection
parameter. This method is more time consuming and expensive.
• Probability sampling is a technique in which researchers choose samples from a larger
population based on the theory of probability.
• Probability sampling methods are further classified into four different types:
1. Simple random sampling
2. Systematic sampling
3. Stratified random sampling
4. Cluster sampling
Simple Random Sampling: In this sampling technique, every item in the population has an
equal and likely chance of being selected in the sample. It is also known as method of chance
selection or representative sampling.
Ex: For example, we went to select a simple random sample of 200 students from a college.
Here, we can assign a number to every student in the school database from 1 to 500 and use a
random number generator to select a sample of 200 students.
Systematic sampling: In systematic sampling method researchers use to choose the sample
members of a population at regular intervals. It requires selecting a starting point for the sample
and sample size that can be repeated at regular intervals.
Ex: For example, a researcher intends to collect a systematic sample of 500 students in a college
total students of 5000. The numbers each students of the college from 1-5000 and will choose
every 10th individual to be a part of the sample.
Stratified random sampling: In a stratified sampling method, the total population is divided
into smaller groups to complete the sampling process. The small group is formed based on a
few characteristics in the population. While sampling, the groups can be organized, and then
draw a sample from each group separately.
Ex: for example, a researcher looking to analyse the characteristics of students belonging to
different marks divisions will create groups according to the marks. Ex. Less than 40%, 50%,
60%, 80%, above 90% etc. By doing this, the researcher concludes the characteristics of
students belonging to different marks groups.
Clustered sampling: Cluster sampling is a method where the researchers divide the entire
population into a sections or clusters representing a population. Clusters are identified and
included in a sample based on demographic parameters like age, sex, location etc.
Ex: for example, an educational institution has ten branches across the country with almost the
number of students. If we want to collect some data regarding facilities and other things, we
can’t travel to every unit to collect the required data. Hence, we can use random sampling to
select three or four branches as clusters.

Non-probability sampling or Non-random sampling:

The non-probability sampling method is a technique in which the researcher select the
sample based on subjective judgment rather than the random selection. In this method, not all
the members of the population have a chance to participate in the study. Non-probability
sampling methods are further classified into five different type:
1. Convenience sampling
2. Consecutive sampling
 3. Quota sampling
4. Judgmental sampling
5. Snowball sampling

Convenience sampling: In a convenience sampling method, the samples are selected from the
population directly because they are conveniently available for the researcher. The samples are
easy to select, and the researcher did not choose the sample that outlines the entire populations.
Ex: for example, startups and NGO’s usually conduct convenience sampling at a mall to
distribute leaflets of upcoming events or promotion, they do that by standing at the mall
entrance and giving out pamphlets randomly.
Consecutive sampling: It is similar to convenience with a slight variation. The researcher
picks a single person or a group of people for sampling.
Quota sampling: In Quota sampling, members in this sampling technique selection happens
based on a pre-set standard. In this case, as a sample is formed based on specific attributes, the
created sample will have the same qualities found in the total population. It is a rapid method
of collecting samples.
Judgmental sampling: In Judgmental sampling, the samples are selected only based on the
researchers knowledge. As their knowledge is instrumental in creating the sample, there are the
chances of obtaining highly accurate answers with a minimum marginal error. It is also known
as Purposive or Authoritative sampling.
Snowball sampling: Snowball sampling is a sampling method that researchers apply when the
subjects are difficult to trace. For example, Surveying shutterless peoples will be extremely
challenging. In such cases, using the snowball theory, researchers can track a few categories to
interview and derive results.

Merits and demerits of sampling:

Samplings have various benefits to us
Some of the merits are:
• Sampling saves time to a great extent by reducing the volume of data. In the sampling
method you do not go through each of the individual items.
• Sampling avoids monotony in works. You do not again to all the individual data.
• When you have limited time, survey without using sampling becomes impossible.
• Sampling allows us to get near accurate results in much lesser time
• When you use proper methods, you are likely to achieve higher level of accuracy by
using sampling.
• By using sampling, you can get detailed information on the data even by employing
small amount of resources.
Sampling also has some demerits, they are
• Since choice of sampling method is a judgmental task, there exist chances of biasness
as per the mindset of the person who chooses it.
• Improper selection of sampling techniques may cause the whole process to defunct.
• Selection of proper size of sample is a difficult job.
• Sampling may exclude some data that might not be homogenous to the data that are
taken.
Technical and Biological replicates:
Technical replicates: A test performed on the same sample multiple times or technical
replicates are repeated measurements of a sample.
Biological replicates: A test performed on biologically distinct samples (ex. the same type of
organism treated or grown in the same conditions), which show biological variation.
Biological and technical replicates:
• Experimental units vs. sampling units
• The experimental unit (EU) is the smallest entity that can receive or accept one
treatment combination.
• The sampling unit (SU) is the smallest entity that will be measured or observed in the
experiment.
• Experimental and sampling units are not always the same.
Example: EU and SU are different
• 20 flowers are planted in individual pots
• 10 flowers are randomly chosen to receive dry fertilizer pellets and 10 flowers are
randomly chosen to receive liquid fertilizer.
• All six petals are harvested from each flower and petal length is measured as the
response variable.
• Therefore EU=Plant; SU= Petals
• Sometimes, experiments use multiple experimental units to investigate multiple sources
of error with a statistical model.
Ex: When measurements are inaccurate, you want to estimate variation between
subjects and multiple measurements.
• These kinds of experiments must be analysed with appropriate statistical methods.
Split-plot methods evaluate multiple experimental units in one model.