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RAymond Et Al - 2013 - ES and Beyond Multiple Metaphors To Understand H-Envi Relantionship
RAymond Et Al - 2013 - ES and Beyond Multiple Metaphors To Understand H-Envi Relantionship
Ecosystem services research has been focused on the ways that humans directly benefit from goods and services, and economic valuation tech-
niques have been used to measure those benefits. We argue that, although it is appropriate in some cases, this focus on direct use and economic
quantification is often limiting and can detract from environmental research and effective management, in part by crowding out other under-
standings of human–environment relationships. Instead, we make the case that the systematic consideration of multiple metaphors of such
relationships in assessing social–ecological systems will foster better understanding of the many ways in which humans relate to, care for, and
value ecosystems. Where it is possible, we encourage a deliberative approach to ecosystem management whereby ecosystem researchers actively
engage conservationists and local resource users to make explicit, through open deliberation, the types of metaphors salient to their conserva-
tion problem.
BioScience 63: 536–546. ISSN 0006-3568, electronic ISSN 1525-3244. © 2013 by American Institute of Biological Sciences. All rights reserved. Request
permission to photocopy or reproduce article content at the University of California Press’s Rights and Permissions Web site at www.ucpressjournals.com/
reprintinfo.asp. doi:10.1525/bio.2013.63.7.7
(c) does not account for ecosystem interactions beyond per- decisionmaking: “Metaphors both highlight and hide”
ceived stocks and flows (Norton and Noonan 2007, Norgaard (Larson 2011, p. 209). This means that each metaphor
2010); and (d) implicitly deemphasizes the notions that inherently accounts for only a partial understanding and
organisms and ecosystems are important in and of them- privileges different perspectives, methods, management
selves (intrinsic value) or that they may be of benefit to objectives, indicators, conservation ethics, and decision
people in the future (future value)(Chan et al. 2012a). Some outcomes. Similarly, sharing multiple metaphors may not
have even argued that the economic production metaphor improve environmental decisions because of the power
does not incorporate important moral and ethical concerns dynamics between individuals and institutions. Some meta-
that humans have for nature (Luck et al. 2012), which are phors are likely to receive more attention than others for
embedded in held values, beliefs, and norms about nature a variety of reasons, and these will probably dominate
(Raymond et al. 2011) and in the multiple and complex environmental decisionmaking in that domain, even if
values that humans attribute to the environment (Kosoy and the popular metaphors are more appropriate as a tool for
Corbera 2010, Daniel et al. 2012). communication than as a framework for management. The
issues are appropriate valuation techniques) to a completely of the metaphors and their associations that they apply in
subjectivist perspective that human–environment relation- their studies.
ships should be considered in terms of the interconnections Below, we compare the economic production and closed-
among spiritual, natural, and social realms within a given loop production metaphors on the basis of their context
context. Together, these five metaphors form logical end- for application and assumptions, the prominence and role
points from which ecosystem researchers and conservation of their valuation, and the related decisionmaking outputs.
practitioners can begin to understand human–environment We then repeat this comparative analysis for the steward-
relationships. ship, web-of-life, and ecocultural-community metaphors.
We recognize that metaphors are incomplete, simplified, Together with the economic production and closed-loop
or generalized, in that they are rarely applied in a pure form production metaphors, these metaphors provide examples
without elements of other metaphors. Ecosystem research- and pathways for characterizing human–environment rela-
ers and managers often apply multiple metaphors in their tionships. For clarity’s sake, we simplify each metaphor
studies and often modify the mix of metaphors depend- to crystallize key insights. We focus on the ways in which
ing on the research question, the context of management, human–environment interactions are conceptualized and
and the prevailing needs of the funding body. Moreover, on how this might affect management outcomes. The name
although metaphors pertaining to human–environment that we give to each metaphor is partly for convenience,
relationships do not in and of themselves prescribe parti and we note that there may be variants of a metaphor.
cular management objectives, our experiences and the litera-
ture seem to suggest that their application is often associated The stewardship metaphor. The stewardship metaphor com-
with different management ethics, objectives, and indicators pares the Earth to a household in which humans hold the
of success (figure 2). Because of these associations, which position of a steward whose responsibility and obligation
may be triggered unwittingly by the use of a metaphor, it is to care for that household. Stewardship is a unifying
it behooves researchers and managers to be explicitly aware metaphor that embraces the notion that humans’ moral
concerns drive the protection of ecosystems (Ratner 2004). have a responsibility to manage ecosystems on the basis of
This metaphor was eloquently expressed by Leopold (1949) the connections among the spiritual, physical, and social
in what is commonly known as the land ethic: “We abuse worlds (figure 2). The level of integrity among these worlds
land because we regard it as a commodity belonging to us. is an indicator of management success. The ecocultural-
When we see land as a community to which we belong, community metaphor has been presented in the comanage-
we may begin to use it with love and respect” (p. viii). In ment literature, with specific reference to how indigenous
applying this stewardship metaphor, one recognizes that and other long-resident peoples manage their landscape and
humans hold multiple values and concerns for nature, resources (Turner and Berkes 2006). It also encompasses the
which derive from their affective and cognitive interactions Nuu-chah-nulth concept of hishuk ish tsawalk. Employing
with other species and ecosystems. Monetary considerations the ecocultural-community metaphor also involves intrinsic
alone are not sufficient to drive environmental management connections among land, family, ancestors, and the spiri-
(Ludwig 2000), but rather, humans manage ecosystems out tual realm (Bohensky and Maru 2011; see also Atleo 2011).
of moral concern for them (figure 2). A variety of theories These connections can be explored but not quantified. The
Case 2: The closed-loop production metaphor in Hawaii. Kame- goal is to better understand how humans interact with
hameha Schools, an educational trust and the largest private ecosystems, such as the extent to which landholders have
landowner in Hawaii, undertook a comprehensive land- planted native vegetation on private land. Consistent with
planning process on the island of Oahu that was intended to the stewardship metaphor, the study findings highlighted
balance environmental, economic, cultural, and community that humans’ moral concerns partially drive the protection
values (Kamehameha Schools 2000). Kamehameha Schools of ecosystems.
and local stakeholders considered a range of future scenarios
for the use of the land. They considered restoration activi- Case 4: The web-of-life metaphor in British Columbia. On the
ties, such as invasive species removal, restoring degraded west coast of Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada,
agricultural lands for biofuel production, diversified agri- the reintroduction of a well-known keystone predator, the
culture and forestry, and residential development. This sea otter, has caused the decline of multiple shellfish on
suite of options encompassed their goals of maintaining which coastal communities had come to rely. The narrow
and enhancing the environmental and cultural resources in conceptions of sea otters as directly good (e.g., for tourism)
role of the newly formed Tsawout Land Stewardship Society, be appropriate if researchers are examining land manage-
registered in June 2012. Their beliefs (Tsawout First Nation ment practices from the perspective of individual land
2012) include the notions that “the origin of the living managers but may be inappropriate if the land management
things of this world are our ancient relatives and that they practice under investigation affects multiple landholders or
must be treated with respect, and… the islands, the salmon, a regional community. The web-of-life metaphor empha-
and the living things can be called upon for help to sur- sizes the complex interactions among humans and nature at
vive in this life.” The inextricable relationship and oneness larger scales (from individual to community and ecosystem
between humans and all the other entities of the environ- scales) and can therefore highlight indirect pathways of
ment, including those concerning spirituality, are embodied interaction that affect things of value. However, the inter-
in these beliefs and reflected in the stories, ceremonies, connections among the physical, social, and spiritual worlds
and resource management actions of the Tsawout, as they are missing from this metaphor, and it is difficult to trans-
are in those of many other indigenous peoples. late the metaphor into practical decisionmaking. Implicit
in the ecocultural-community metaphor is the recogni-
Conclusions
Economic Monetary valuation for the Human–environment relationships Focused on the monetary Informs the cost–benefits
production services that ecosystems can be quantified in monetary benefits that humans derive analysis of different policy
provide for human well-being terms from ecosystems and is the options
main decision criterion
Closed- Quantification of the services Production pathways (stocks and Modified by the extent to Identifies pathways through
loop that ecosystems provide to flows) allow for an assessment of which human actions degrade, which ecosystems provide
production humans and those that humans the impact that humans have on maintain, restore, or enhance for human well-being and
provide to ecosystems, not the ecosystem ecosystem function vice versa
necessarily in monetary terms
Stewardship Explores or explains the A combination of economic, Behavior may be related to This metaphor identifies the
factors that contribute to moral, and instrumental nonmarket values; instead, factors that enable or constrain
conservation (nonmarket) factors influence conservation the antecedents (drivers) of conservation behavior for
behavior behavior and can be stewardship may be explored targeted policy development
anthropocentric or ecocentric, or explained using multiple
depending on school of ethics methods
Web of life Helps represent the inter- Human–environment Valuation may not be directly This metaphor helps identify
and intraspecific relationships interactions can be reduced considered; instead, the what components of the natural
among humans and other to and quantified within understanding of complex world are the most important
species their component parts; the ecology can lead to drivers of change and through
metaphor is ecocentric unforeseen outcomes that what pathways
can inform valuation (using
multiple methods)
Table 3. Strengths and limitations of the economic production, closed-loop production, stewardship, web-of-life, and
ecocultural-community metaphors.
Metaphor Strengths Limitations
Economic production This metaphor includes a valuation comparison across It only involves half of the loop in human–environment
sites and aligns with existing economic and policy relationships and from a production perspective; it does not
paradigms. account for the importance of diverse human–environment
linkages.
Closed-loop production This metaphor includes quantified feedback processes. It is focused on feedbacks within a production metaphor;
intangible services tend not to be incorporated because of
the difficulty in quantifying them.
Stewardship This metaphor can quantify the nonmarket drivers of It generally explains only a small portion of the relevant
conservation decisions that are beyond the scope of the behavior; theory development is limited to the body of ideas
production metaphor. held by a research community in what has been defined
as a top-down view of reality; it is often considered an
anthropocentric metaphor.
Web of life This metaphor can highlight indirect pathways of interaction It is often constrained to system interactions within the
that affect things of value and points out nonintuitive and biophysical world and this metaphor, alone, does not
unforeseen aspects of the environment that are important. translate into practical decisionmaking.
Ecocultural community Theory development is guided by conservation It is difficult to quantify the interactions among humans, land,
practitioners; this metaphor includes interactions among and spirituality and to translate these values into practical
the human, physical, and spiritual realms. decisionmaking, particularly in relation to the management of
ecosystems by nonindigenous communities.
to make explicit, through open deliberation, the types of There is an empirical literature that indicates substantial
metaphors salient to their conservation problem and how advantages of a deliberative approach, including greater
each metaphor can be systematically considered as part of buy in by participants (e.g., Sabatier et al. 2005). However,
ecosystem research or management. A deliberative approach we acknowledge that there are drawbacks associated with
would involve (a) appreciating the importance of the social this deliberative approach to ecosystem management. They
context of ecosystem research and management; (b) respect- include the opportunity costs associated with the time
ing a diverse set of knowledge cultures, values, and beliefs; required to engage multiple communities in ecosystem
(c) actively engaging multiple types of communities (e.g., management and to systematically consider the multiple
rural landholders, urban residents, conservation practitio- metaphors, the ideological conflicts among those who
ners, indigenous peoples) in ecosystem research and man- espouse different metaphors and models for valuating
agement decisions; (d) respecting that each metaphor has ecosystems, the challenges associated with the commensu-
different assumptions and contexts for application and can rability of the different valuation systems associated with
contribute to decisionmaking in a unique way (table 1); and different metaphors, and the potential for some groups to
(e) more generally respecting the notion that humans are feel marginalized if the metaphors to which they subscribe
part of nature rather than separate from it. are not integrated into environmental planning or policy.
In some cases, good economic accounting of the services A deliberative approach also requires the development of
provided by the environment may be all that is necessary, new institutional arrangements that are flexible and respon-
and therefore, a monistic approach may be appropriate. In sive to local contexts and that are applicable at a variety of
other cases, there may be no common ground among stake- scales of management. The international arena is currently
holders and no scope for deliberation. dominated by a global monetary system that treats natural
In this light, both monistic and deliberative approaches resources as largely fungible, even when science suggests
to metaphor use have their advantages and disadvantages. otherwise (Koellner 2011). Creative institutional contexts
We believe that the deliberative approach may be most that are buffered, to a degree, from the overriding logic that
applicable when key stakeholders in the conservation prob- characterizes the broader global system could be encouraged
lem have different types and levels of knowledge about in order to balance the single logic of the dominant metaphor.
human–environment relationships (Raymond et al. 2010) Norgaard (2010) noted, “Fully thinking through ecosystem
and when there is evidence that stakholders are navigat- service projects from multiple perspectives means [that]
ing among multiple metaphors of human–environment society must establish standing institutional mechanisms for
Tools that can be used to describe human–environment Advanced Studies at the University of British Columbia for
relationships from different perspectives are crucial to funding the workshop (led by KMAC and Terre Satterfield)
such decisionmaking processes. Research could be directed and all participants for their contribution to the ideas
to the development of innovative tools that incorporate presented here. We would also like to thank three internal
ecological, social, and economic values for ecosystems at reviewers, Anne Salomon, Sarah Klain, and Rachelle Gould,
specific locations and that account for the costs and benefits for their valuable insights and edits.
of different management strategies and process activities
(building on Smith et al. 2011). The outputs of these tools
could be used at different points of the deliberative decision References cited
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