GEOG111

Introduction to Physical Geography

GEOMORPHOLOGY
SU-8: Earth Materials,
Plate Tectonics, and
Volcanism – Part 1
Lecturer: Dr Brigitte Language

Office: Building E4, Office G35

E-Mail: 23034149@nwu.ac.za

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 Module Outcomes

After engaging with the module content, you should be able to:
1. Basic knowledge and informed understanding of systems in climatology,
biogeography, and geomorphology.
2. Appreciate the interactions between subsystems that include climatology,
biogeography, and geomorphology.
3. The ability to report on their skills in respect of identifying idealized cases
of atmospheric circulation and geomorphological processes and landforms.
4. Appropriate practical skills, including map reading, basic aerial photo
interpretation and visual representation of geographical data. - link back to
climatology, biogeography, and geomorphology.
5. Recognition of the ethical issues involved in the study of physical
Geography.
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 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

8.A. - Understand the different types of earth materials and their formation
processes.
8.B. - Explain the theory of plate tectonics and its significance in shaping the
Earth's surface.
8.C. - Describe the various types of volcanism and their associated landforms.

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 PART 1:
LO(s) 8.A

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 Overview of Earth’s Planetary Structure

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 Section Outcomes

At the end of this section, you should be able to:

1. Compare the relative sizes and physical properties of Earth's three layers:
core, mantle, and crust.
2. Explain the principal variations/differences between oceanic and
continental crust.
3. Differentiate between the lithosphere and the asthenosphere.

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 LO(s) 8.A. – Chapter 13; Petersen et al., 2022

The Earth’s Planetary Structure

Importance of extending knowledge about the structure,

composition, and processes operating within the Earth:
• Enhances our understanding of such lithospheric phenomena as
• earthquakes,
• volcanic eruptions,
• the formation and distribution of mineral deposits,
• and the origin of continents.

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The Earth’s Planetary Structure

The main layers of the Earth:

• Crust (1.4%)
• Continental Crust
• Oceanic Crust
• Mantle (82.5%)
• Upper Mantle
• Lower Mantle
• Lithosphere
• Asthenosphere
• D” (dee double prime) Title: Earth’s Interior.
Right: Crust, mantle, and outer and inner core to scale.
• Core-Mantle Boundary
Left: Cutaway showing continental and ocean crust, and upper mantle layers. The
• Core (16.1%) lithosphere is the crust plus the uppermost layer of the mantle.
Source: Karla Panchuk (2018) CC BY 4.0. Earth photo by NASA (n.d.) Public
• Outer Core Domain
• Inner Core
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The Earth’s Planetary Structure

Crust:
• Radius of 5-70 km
• Solid exterior
• Floats on the mantle
• Density from 2.7 (continent) to 3.0 (ocean) g/cm3
• Collision will force oceanic crust below continent crust.
• Two types of crust:
• Continental Crust
• Landmasses – exposed to the atmosphere – density 2.7 g/cm3 – thicker than oceanic crust
– lighter color rocks – granitic composition – felsic (richer in silica)
• Oceanic Crust
• Basalt – heavy – dark color – iron-rich rock – high Si – high Mg – density 3.0 g/cm3 – few
km thick – mafic (less silica)
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The Earth’s Planetary Structure

Mantle:
• Radius of 2885 km
• Largest of the zones
• Less dense than the core ranging from 3.3 -5.5 g/cm3
• Seismic P and S waves move through the Mantle
• Solid rock material
• Ultramafic in composition Upper mantle:
Peridotite - minerals olivine and
• Silicate rocks (high silicon & oxygen), iron, and magnesium pyroxene.
• Thermal Convection Currents Lower mantle:
Extreme pressures transform minerals
• driven by the decay of radioactive materials and create rocks like eclogite, which
• Mohorovicic Discontinuity (Moho) contains garnets.

• interface between the mantle and overlying crust that is marked by a significant
change in density

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The Earth’s Planetary Structure

Inner Core:
• Radius of 960 km
• Very high density: 13 g/cm3
• 6900°C
• Hottest part of the Earth
• P-waves traveling through the inner core
• Solid
• Iron and nickel

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The Earth’s Planetary Structure

Outer Core:
• Radius of 2400 km
• Very high density: 10 g/cm3
• 4800°C
• Earth’s Magnetic field
• iron is a metal and conducts electricity (even when
molten), its motion generates a magnetic field.
• S-waves do not travel through the outer core, but P-
waves reflect Title: Magnetic Field
Description: Earth’s magnetic field depicted as the field of a bar magnet coinciding
• Molten = liquid with the core. The south pole of the magnet points to Earth’s magnetic north pole. The
• Iron and nickel red and white compass needles represent the orientation of the magnetic field at various
locations on Earth’s surface.
Source: Karla Panchuk (2018) CC BY-SA 4.0

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The Earth’s Planetary Structure

Two most important components of the Earth’s

uppermost layers:
• Lithosphere
• Asthenosphere

Why?
• Crucial to understanding the…
• formation of geological features
• behavior of tectonic plates

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The Earth’s Planetary Structure

Structural Lithosphere:
• Uppermost mantle and overlying crust
• ~100 km
• Chemical composition of the mantle
• Responds to applied stress like the crust
• Elastic Solid:
• Materials are rigid and brittle
• Do not flow
• Withstands a certain amount of stress with little
deformation
• At threshold value = elastic solids fail by fracture
• Forms a single structural unit = LITHOSPHERE
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The Earth’s Planetary Structure

Asthenosphere:
• ~180 km of the upper mantle
• Plastic Solid:
• responds to stress by deforming and flowing
• Rocks can flow vertically or horizontally
• Few cm’s per year
• Drags segments of the overlying lithosphere along.
• Drives TECTONIC FORCES!
• Tectonic Forces:
• Large-scale forces that break and deform the
structural lithosphere
• Earthquakes, mountain building etc.
• Results in Convection Currents deeper in the
mantle = interior heat of planet

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The Earth’s Planetary Structure

Imaging Earth’s Interior through SEISMOLOGY:

• The study of vibrations within Earth.
• Seismic waves:
• Travel at different speeds through different materials.
• Travelling time = understand Earth's layers and structures.
• P-waves can travel through both liquids and solids.
• S-waves only travel through solids and are slower.
• Observing where P-waves travel, and S-waves do not, help us identify regions within
the Earth that are melted.

Title: Seismic waves and seismic rays.

Description: The paths of seismic waves can be represented as rays.
Seismic ray paths are bent when they enter a rock layer with a
different seismic velocity.
Source: Karla Panchuk (2018) CC BY 4.0
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The Earth’s Planetary Structure

Discoveries due to Seismic Waves:

• The Moho
• Where Crust Meets Mantle
• Boundary between the crust and the Title: Moho
mantle Description: Depiction of seismic waves emanating from an
earthquake (red star). Some waves travel through the crust to the
• Mohorovičić discontinuity seismic station (at ~6 km/s), while others go down into the mantle
• Depth: (where they travel at ~8 km/s) and are bent upward toward the
surface, reaching the station before the ones that travelled only
• 60 – 80 km beneath major through the crust.
mountain ranges, Source: Steven Earle (2016) CC BY 4.0
• 30 – 50 km beneath most of the
continental crust, and
• 5 – 10 km beneath the ocean
crust.

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The Earth’s Planetary Structure

Discoveries due to Seismic Waves:

• The Core-Mantle Boundary
• Arguments for a liquid outer core
were supported by a distinctive
signature in the global distribution of
seismic waves from earthquakes.
• When an earthquake occurs, there is
a zone on the opposite side of Earth
where S-waves are not measured.
• This S-wave shadow zone begins Title: Seismic Wave Propagation
103° on either side of the Description: Patterns of seismic wave propagation through Earth’s
earthquake, for a total angular mantle and core. S-waves do not travel through the liquid outer core,
distance of 154° (left). so they leave a shadow on Earth’s far side. P-waves do travel through
the core, but because the waves that enter the core are refracted, there
• There is also a P-wave shadow zone are also P-wave shadow zones.
on either side of the earthquake, Source: Steven Earle (2016) CC BY 4.0
from 103° to 150° (right).

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The Earth’s Planetary Structure

Seismic Waves within Earth’s Layers:

• Earth’s layers are detectable as changes in
velocity with depth.
• Asthenosphere:
• Visible as a low-velocity zone within the upper mantle.
• There is an abrupt increase in P-wave velocity at 420
km, showing the depth at which minerals transform
into structures that are more stable at higher
pressures and temperatures.
• Upper- and lower mantle boundary:
• Visible at 660 km as a sudden change from rapidly
increasing P- and S-wave velocities to slow or no
change in P-wave and S-wave velocities.
• Core-mantle boundary:
• Sudden drop in P-wave velocities, where seismic
waves move from solid mantle to liquid outer core. Title: Seismic Wave in Earth’s Layers
• Outer- and inner core boundary: Description: P-wave and S-wave velocity variations with depth from
• Sudden increase in P-wave velocity after 5000 km, the crust through the upper mantle (left) and from the crust through to
where seismic waves move from a liquid back into a the core (right).
solid again.
Source: Karla Panchuk (2018) CC BY 4.0, modified after Steven Earle
(2016) CC BY 4.0
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The Earth’s Planetary Structure

Earth’s Interior Heat:

• Temperature increases with depth.
• Geothermal gradient (GG) is 15° to
30°C/km within the crust;
• drops off dramatically through the
mantle;
• increases more quickly at the base of the
mantle,
• and then increases slowly through the
core.
• Lithosphere GG varies depending on the Title: Earth’s Interior Heat
tectonic setting. Description: Geothermal gradient (change in temperature with depth).
• Gradients are lowest in the central parts Left- Geothermal gradient in the crust and upper mantle. The
of continents, geothermal gradient remains below the melting temperature of rock,
except in the asthenosphere. There, temperatures are high enough to
• higher where plates collide, and melt some of the minerals. Right- Geothermal gradient throughout
• higher still at boundaries where plates Earth. Rapid changes occur in the uppermost mantle, and at the core-
are moving away from each other. mantle boundary.
Source: Karla Panchuk (2018) CC BY 4.0, modified after Steven Earle
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The Earth’s Planetary Structure

Earth’s Interior Heat (cont.):

• Convection:
• Temperature gradient is much lower in the main part of the mantle than in the
lithosphere has been interpreted as evidence of convection in the mantle.
• When the mantle convects, heat is transferred through the mantle by
physically moving hot rocks.
• Mantle convection is the result of heat transfer from the core to the base of
the lower mantle.
• The material near the heat source becomes hot and expands, making it
less dense than the material above. Buoyancy causes it to rise, and cooler
material flows in from the sides.
• Mantle convection occurs at rates of centimetres per year.

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The Earth’s Planetary Structure

Earth’s Interior Heat (cont.):

• Convection (cont.):
• Essential feature of plate tectonics, because the higher rate of heat transfer is
necessary to keep the asthenosphere weak.
• Earth’s mantle will stop convecting once the core has cooled to the point
where there is not enough heat transfer to overcome the strength of the rock.
• Conduction:
• Conduction is heat transfer by collisions between molecules.

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The Earth’s Planetary Structure

Earth’s Interior Heat (cont.):
• Model of Mantle Convection:
• Whole-mantle convection:
• Hot rock from the base of the mantle
moves all the way to the top of the mantle
before cooling and sinking back down again.
• Diff. conv. Paths:
• May be some locations where convection
goes from the bottom of the mantle to the
top, and some where it doesn’t
• Double-layered convection:
• They point to slabs of lithosphere that are Title: Earth’s Interior Heat
sinking back into the mantle, some of which Description: Models of mantle convection. Left- whole mantle
seem to perch on the boundary between convection. Rocks rise from the core-mantle boundary to the top of
the upper and lower mantle, rather than the mantle, then sink to the bottom again. Right- Two-layer
sinking straight through. convection, in which upper and lower mantle convect at different
• Chemical differences in magma originating rates. Middle- Convection paths vary depending on the
in different parts of the mantle—
differences that are not consistent with the circumstances.
entire mantle being well stirred. Source: Karla Panchuk (2018) CC BY 4.0

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The Earth’s Planetary Structure

Isostasy:
• The state in which the force of gravity
pulling the plate toward Earth’s centre is
balanced by the resistance of the mantle
to letting the plate sink.
Title: Isostatic Relationship – Crust and Mantle
• Tectonic plates are floating on the Description: Isostatic relationship between the crust and the
mantle, rather than resting on the mantle mantle. Mountain building adds mass to the crust, and the
like a raft sitting on the ground. thickened crust sinks down into the mantle (left). As the
mountain chain is eroded, the crust rebounds (right). Green
• How high the lithosphere floats will arrows represent slow mantle flow.
depend on the balance between gravity Source: Karla Panchuk (2018) CC BY 4.0

pulling the lithosphere down, and the

force of buoyancy as the mantle resists
the downward motion of the lithosphere.
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 Earth Material and Formation Processes

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 Section Outcomes

At the end of this section, you should be able to:

1. Distinguish between minerals and rocks.
2. Differentiate between the major types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic.
3. Draw and expalain the rock cycle and explain how rocks transform from one
type to another over time.

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Rocks and Minerals

Know the difference between “Minerals” and “Rocks”:

• Minerals
• Building blocks of rocks
• Defined as:
• “An inorganic, naturally occurring, crystalline substance represented by a specific
chemical formula.”
• Crystalline:
• “Displays a specific, repeated, 3-D structure at the molecular level.”
• Distinctive and recognizable physical characteristics:
• Shape, hardness, color, luster, cleavage, the tendency to fracture, and specific
gravity.
• Luster - shininess of mineral
• Cleavage - how it breaks along a preferred plane
• Fracture - nature of irregular breaks not along preferred planes

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Rocks and Minerals

Know the difference between “Minerals” and “Rocks”:

• Minerals (cont.)
• Categorized into groups based on the chemical composition
• Silicon, oxygen, and carbon combine readily with other elements, thus the most
common mineral groups are:
• Silicates
• 92% of Earth’s crust
• Compounds: silicon + oxygen + one or more metals and/or bases
• Molten rock matter cools and solidifies = crystallization at successively lower
temperatures and pressures.
• Higher temps.: Dark color; Heavy; Iron-rich silica minerals
• Lower temps.: Light color; Lower density; Iron-poor minerals
• Oxides
• Carbonates
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Rocks and Minerals

Know the difference between “Minerals” and “Rocks”:

• Rocks
• Defined as:
• “A consolidated aggregate of various types of minerals or a consolidated aggregate
of multiple individual pieces (grains) of the same kind of mineral.”
• Minerals in a rock remain separate and retain their own distinctive
characteristics.
• Rock properties = a composite of the properties of the minerals
• The major rock categories based on the mode/process of formation:
• Igneous
• Sedimentary
• Metamorphic

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Igneous Rocks

Igneous Rocks:
• Molten rock material cools and solidifies.
• Magma (below surface)
• Lava (at surface)
• Two major categories of igneous rocks:
• Extrusive (above the surface)
• Called “Volcanic Rock”
• Made from lava
• Pyroclastic
• Fine fragments – dust-sized or larger
• Tephra – settle out of the air
• Fast-cooled, fine crystals

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Igneous Rocks

Igneous Rocks (cont.):

• Two major categories of igneous rocks (cont.):
• Intrusive (beneath the surface)
• Molten magma solidifies (freezes)
• Plutonic
• Slow-cooled, coarse crystals
• Classified based on:
• Texture
• coarse-grained, fine-grained, glassy
• Mineral Composition
• felsic, intermediate, mafic, ultramafic

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Igneous Rocks
Differentiate between Felsic, Intermediate, and Mafic igneous rocks:
FELSIC INTERMEDIATE MAFIC
• High silica content (>65%) • Moderate silica content (between 52-65%) • Low silica content (<52%)
• Light-colored (usually white, pink, or light gray) • Gray to brown in color • Dark-colored (usually black or dark gray)
• Rich in minerals such as feldspar, quartz, and muscovite • Contain minerals such as plagioclase feldspar, • Rich in minerals such as pyroxene, amphibole, and
• Lower density and lower melting temperature amphibole, and pyroxene olivine
• Common rock types include granite, rhyolite, and • Higher density and melting temperature than felsic • Higher density and melting temperature than felsic and
pumice rocks intermediate rocks
• Common rock types include andesite and dacite • Common rock types include basalt and gabbro

Rhyolite Andesite Basalt

Fine Crystals
Extrusive

Granite Diorite Gabbro

Coarse Crystals
Intrusive

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Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary Rocks:
• Formed by the accumulation and cementation of sediment particles (such
as sand, mud, and gravel) or the precipitation of minerals from water.
• Classified based on:
• the size and shape of their sediment particles (clastic), or the
• composition of the minerals they contain (biochemical, chemical, organic)
• Four major categories of igneous rocks:
• Clastic
• Organic
• Chemical
• Biochemical

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Sedimentary Rocks
Differentiate between Clastic, Organic, Biochemical, and Chemical:
CLASTIC
Breccia • Composed of particles of pre-existing rocks (sediment) that have been transported
and deposited by water, wind, or ice.
• Classified by the size of the particles (gravel, sand, silt, clay).
• Examples: breccia, conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, and shale.

Conglomerate Sandstone Siltstone Shale

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Sedimentary Rocks
Differentiate between Clastic, Organic, Biochemical, and Chemical (cont.):
ORGANIC
Chalk • Formed from the remains of once-living organisms, such as plants or animals.
• Classified by the type of organic material present (coal, peat).
• Example: chalk, coal, diatomite, some dolomites, and some fossiliferous limestones.

Coal Diatomite Dolomite Fossiliferous Limestone

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Sedimentary Rocks
Differentiate between Clastic, Organic, Biochemical, and Chemical (cont.):
CHEMICAL
Chert • Formed from the precipitation of minerals from solution, usually in water.
• Often form in arid or evaporative environments, such as salt flats or hot springs.
• Example: chert, some dolomites, flint, iron ore, limestones, and rock salt.

Flint Iron-ore Rock Salt Limestone

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Sedimentary Rocks
Differentiate between Clastic, Organic, Biochemical, and Chemical (cont.):
BIOCHEMICAL
Coal • Formed from the accumulation of biological debris, such as shells or coral.
• Composed of minerals that were precipitated by organisms or organic matter.
• Examples: coal, chert, chalk, limestone.

Chert Chalk Coquina Limestone

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Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary Rocks:
• Sediment tends to accumulate in distinct layers/strata that remain visible
after lithification.
• Process by which sediment is transformed into solid rock through compaction
and cementation.
• Sedimentary structures are…
• Features that form in sediment as it is being deposited.
• Identified by
• observable patterns in the sedimentary bedding or
• distinct shapes within the sediment.
• Provide a lot of information about the environment in which they formed, including
processes that were occurring when sediment was deposited, the environment of
deposition, the direction sediment was traveling, and/or the mechanism for
transporting the sediment (wind, water, or ice).

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Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary Rocks:
• Sedimentary structures include the following:
1. Stratification/Beds/Laminations
2. Dunes and Ripple Marks
3. Cross-Bedding
4. Graded Bedding
5. Mud Cracks
6. Raindrop Impressions
7. Sole Marks
8. Unconformity

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Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary Rocks (cont.):

• Sedimentary structures include the following (cont.):
1. Beds/Stratification/Laminations
BEDS STRATIFICATION LAMINATIONS
• Refers to the overall arrangement of layers. • Refers to the arrangement of layers in any • Refers specifically to the very fine-scale
• Each individual layer is called a bed, and beds type of rock. layering that can occur within individual beds
can vary in thickness, texture, and • Strata = >1cm or layers.
composition. • Laminae = <1cm thickness
• Visible to the naked eye and can be used to • Can be composed of very fine-grained
interpret the depositional environment of the sediment.
sediment. • Lamination can be formed by a variety of
• Thickness (open to interpretation), but processes, including the settling of sediment
example: in still water, the accumulation of sediment in
• Thick beds: greater than 100 cm (greater a delta, or the deposition of volcanic ash.
than 1 m)
• Moderate beds: 10 cm - 100 mm
• Thin beds: 1 cm - 10 cm

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Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary Rocks (cont.):

• Sedimentary structures include the following (cont.):
2. Dunes and Ripple Marks
• As water or wind moves across sediment, it can shape the grains into wavy patterns called:
• Dunes (>10 cm)
• Ripples (<10 cm)
• Symmetrical:
• Symmetrical limbs = both sides of the ripple dip at about the same angle.
• Caused by bidirectional flow i.e. back-and-forth motion
• Formed by wave or tide action shaping sediment on the ocean floor.
• Rarely preserved in the rock record.
• Example: most common in sandstones from shallow marine environments.

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Sedimentary Rocks
A B A) Modern symmetrical
ripples from the Bahamas.

B, C, and D) Symmetrical
ripples in Devonian-
Missippian age sandstone
from Ohio, USA. These are
all views from the top.

C D Image credits: James St.

John, CC BY.

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Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary Rocks (cont.):

• Sedimentary structures include the following (cont.):
2. Dunes and Ripple Marks
• Asymmetrical:
• Caused by unidirectional flow i.e. water moving in one direction, like a river.
• Limbs = not equal, with one side that is more shallow and one side that is steeper.
• Indicates which direction the river was flowing
• Sediment moves up the shallow side of the ripple and gets deposited on the steep side.
• i.e. The deposition on the steep side of the ripple allows the ripple to move in the same
direction that water is flowing.
• Wind can also create asymmetrical ripple marks at different scales.
• Ripple marks at smaller scales can usually be found along a beach.
• Large-scale ripple marks are called dunes and are common in deserts and some coastal
environments.

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Sedimentary Rocks
A B Three views (A, C, and D)
are from the top, and B is
from the side.

A) Modern asymmetrical
ripples from the Bahamas.

B and C) Asymmetrical
ripples in sandstone from
C D Colorado, USA.

D) Precambrian
asymmetrical ripples in
quartzite from Wisconsin.

Image credits: James St.

John, CC BY.

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Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary Rocks (cont.):

• Sedimentary structures include the following (cont.):
3. Cross Bedding
• Forms when ripples (1-2cm height)/dunes (>0.5m height) migrate due to wind or
water current.
• The steep side of a ripple always angles downward toward the direction the water or
wind was moving
• Both planar and trough cross-bedding is common in my depositional environments:
• eolian, shoreface, tidal (if strong enough), and fluvial (in point sequence where
velocity increases)
• Two main types of cross-bedding include:
• Planar/Tabular cross-bedding
• Formed by linear ripples or dunes
• Trough cross-bedding
• Produced by linguloid (tongue-shaped) ripples or dunes

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Sedimentary Rocks

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Sedimentary Rocks
Cross-bedding from ancient sand dunes in
Coyote Gulch, part of the Canyons of the
Escalante, Utah.
The upper image is uninterpreted; the lower
image shows interpretations of four dunes as
yellow dashed lines and the cross-beds in blue.
Image credit: G. Thomas, Public Domain.
https://uhlibraries.pressbooks.pub/historicalgeologylab/chapter/chapter4-
sedimentary-structures/

YELLOW LINES = individual dunes.

BLUE LINES = steep side of a ripple always angles

downward toward the direction the water or wind
was moving.

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Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary Rocks (cont.):

• Sedimentary structures include the following (cont.):
3. Cross Bedding (cont.)
MOST
• Herringbone Cross Stratification MOST
RARE COMMON

SYMMETRICAL TIDE

Tangential cross-bedding in quartzose

sandstones of the Allegheny Group
(Desmoinesian, Middle Pennsylvanian).
Some have geometries transitional into
angular cross bedding (= tabular cross-
FLOOD DOMINANT bedding). The original current direction
– NO EBB DEPOSIT was from right to left

Image credit: James St. John

ASYMMETRICAL TIDE –
FLOOD DOMINANT
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Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary Rocks (cont.):

• Sedimentary structures include the following (cont.):
4. Graded Bedding
• Change in grain size can be observed within a single sedimentary bed.
• Mainly coarse particles at the bottom (older), which get progressively smaller as you move
vertically up the bed (younger).
• Represent depositional environments in which transport energy decreases over time, like
the changing water velocity in a river.
• Can also form during rapid depositional events, most commonly from turbidity currents.
• Turbidity currents are essentially underwater avalanches of sediment that move downslope,
usually starting at the edge of the continental shelf and flowing down the continental slope.
• The sediment deposited from a turbidity current is called a turbidite, which often has graded
bedding with the coarsest particles at the bottom of the bed and the smallest at the top.

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Sedimentary Rocks
Graded bedding from the Precambrian of
Tennessee, USA. (public display, Geology
Department, Wittenberg University, Springfield,
Ohio, USA)

Graded bedding is a type of sedimentary

structure that consists of a change in grain size
within a bed. Normal-graded bedding is the
more common of the two varieties - it has
larger grains at the bottom and smaller grains at
the top. This usually forms after a local flood or
storm. The pebble horizon near the bottom of
the photo marks the base of a bed - it grades
upward from conglomeratic sandstone to
pebbly sandstone to sandstone.

Image credit: G. Thomas, Public Domain.

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Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary Rocks (cont.):

• Sedimentary structures include the following (cont.):
5. Mud Cracks / Desiccation Cracks
• When wet sediment, typically clay-rich, dries out = cracks develop, which form polygons on
the surface of the mud.
• Modern mud cracks along the margins of rivers or in desert valleys that periodically get
inundated with floods.
• After a mud crack forms, it can be filled in with new sediment.
• Typically wider at the top of the crack and get progressively smaller toward the bottom of
the crack.
• A good way-up indicator if you can see a cross-section view of the crack.
• a characteristic is seen in sedimentary or volcanic rock that makes it possible to determine
whether they are still the right way up (i.e. originally deposited)

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Sedimentary Rocks
A) Mud cracks in limestone (Makgol
A B Formation, Ordovician; outcrop along the
Yonchi River, Gangwon South Province,
South Korea)
Image credit: James St. John, Public
Domain.
B) Modern mud cracks in Castle Trail-
Fossil Exhibit Trail area, White River
Badlands, South Dakota, USA.
Image credit: James St. John, Public
Domain.
C) Mud cracks in sandstone in the

C D Cambrian of Maryland, USA. Filled.

Image credit: James St. John, Public
Domain.
D) Mud cracks on base of sandstone bed
(Kayenta Formation or Navajo Sandstone,
Lower Jurassic; Potash-Poison Spider
dinosaur track site, Williams Bottom,
southwest of Moab, Utah, USA)
Image credit: James St. John, Public
Domain.
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Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary Rocks (cont.):

• Sedimentary structures include the following (cont.):
6. Raindrop Impressions
• Small, concave imprints made by rain when it falls on soft sediment.
• Good way-up indicators. If you were to see only the bottom of the impression, it would
look like a raised bump (convex).
• Tend to be found in fine-grained rocks like siltstones and shale but not in coarser-grained
sandstones.
• The impressions likely represent the end of a rainstorm as rain is letting up because any
previously formed impressions would be destroyed by subsequent rainfall.
• That’s why most raindrop impressions are very scattered rather than occurring all over the
surface.
• Then, the impressions need to be filled in with sediment before the next rainstorm to be
preserved.

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 LO(s) 8.A. – Chapter 13; Petersen et al., 2022

Sedimentary Rocks
A) Raindrop imprints in sandstone in the
A Cretaceous of Colorado, USA.
Image credit: James St. John, Public
Domain.

B) Raindrop imprints in siltstone from the

Permian of New Mexico, USA.
Image credit: James St. John, Public
Domain.

C) Modern raindrop imprints in the

B C Leucite Hills of Wyoming, USA.

Image credit: James St. John, Public
Domain.

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Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary Rocks (cont.):

• Sedimentary structures include the following (cont.):
7. Sole Marks
• Appear as impressions or grooves in sediment.
• Cast (the raised bump) is at the bottom and the mold side (the impression) is filled with sediment.
• This makes sole marks good way-up indicators since the cast side is facing down.
• Includes:
• Flute Casts: Created by turbidity currents - movement of sediment avalanches underwater can scour the ocean
floor - creating an elongated impression - usually closely spaced and can be stacked - tapered end of the flute
cast points in the direction of flow.
• Tool Marks: Made when an object is dragged across sediment by a current and leaves behind what looks like
scratches in the soft sediment - elongated scratches can be used as an indicator of the paleocurrent.
• Groove Casts: Raised parallel ridges - spaced closely together - appearing in sets of 2 and 3 - do not occur on
top of one another like flute casts.
• Load Casts: Form when dense, sandy sediment is deposited on less dense, water-saturated sediment, usually
silt or clay - dense sand load pushes into the soft layer below, creating bulb-like impressions.

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Sedimentary Rocks
A) Plan view of turbidite bed with sole
A B marks (flute casts) on its base,
Laingsburg, South Africa.
Image credit: Dr. David L. Reid.

B) Tool marks.
Image credit: Callan Bentley

C) Groove casts of fault plane slickenside.

C D Image credit: Abdula et al. 2018

D) Load casts with flute marks on the

upper surface of shale.
Image credit: Abdula et al. 2018

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Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary Rocks (cont.):

• Sedimentary structures include the following (cont.):
8. Unconformity
• Gaps or breaks in the geological record = periods of time where no sediment was deposited
or where erosion occurred.
• Typically formed by tectonic activity, changes in sea level, or other geological events.

The De Chelly-Shinarump contact is a significant unconformity - an erosion

surface representing missing time. There are several types of unconformities -
this is a disconformity, which has sedimentary rocks over sedimentary rocks,
with parallel bedding geometries ("flat over flat"). Don't let the tilted bedding in
the lower lighter-colored rocks fool you - this is not an angular unconformity.
The tilted beds are cross beds, which form in a one-direction current by wind or
water.
Image credit: James St. John, Public Domain.

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Metamorphic Rocks
Moderate Pressure

Metamorphic Rocks:
• Formed by the alteration of existing rocks
due to heat, pressure, and chemical
Greater Pressure – realignment of minerals
processes. perpendicular to applied stress
• Recrystallization:
• Mineral grains are rearranged into a new
form that is more stable at a higher
temperature and pressure.
Even Greater Pressure – broader
• Classified based on: foliation layers can occur
• texture (foliated, non-foliated)
• parent rock from which they were formed
• Often have a banded or layered appearance
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Metamorphic Rocks
Differentiate between foliated and non-foliated metamorphic rocks:

FOLIATED
• Have a layered or banded appearance, with visible parallel planes or bands of minerals that have been flattened or
stretched by pressure.
• Have a clear preferred orientation of minerals or elongated grains, giving them a distinct alignment or "foliation."
• Tend to form under directed pressure, such as compression or shear, which causes the minerals to align in the
direction of pressure.
• Example: gneiss, phyllite, schist, and slate
Slate Schist Gneiss Phyllite
(Fine) (Medium) (Coarse)

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Metamorphic Rocks
Differentiate between foliated and non-foliated metamorphic rocks (cont.):

NON-FOLIATED
• Do not have a layered or banded appearance, and their mineral grains are not visibly aligned.
• Can be composed of a single mineral or several minerals that have recrystallized without forming any preferred
orientation.
• Tend to form under conditions of uniform pressure and temperature, without significant directed pressure or
deformation.
• Examples: hornfels, marble, novaculite, quartzite, and skarn.
Marble Hornfels Quartzite Skarn

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The Rock Cycle

The fundamental view of Earth’s Material is the “Rock Cycle”:

• It is a conceptual model for understanding processes that generate, alter,
transport, and deposit mineral materials to produce different types of rocks.

Draw & Describe/Explain!!!

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Transportation Weathering
The Rock Cycle
Deposition
Uplift & Exposure 1. Weathering
Igneous Rocks
2. Erosion
Sediments
(Extrusive)
3. Deposition
Lithification 4. Compaction &
Cementation
Sedimentary Rocks 5. Heat & Pressure
6. Melting
Metamorphism Igneous Rocks
(Intrusive) 7. Solidification
Metamorphic Rocks 8. Upheaval & Erosion
Crystallization

Melting
Magma

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 Reflection

Reflect on the following for Earth Materials:

1. Explain the variations in the composition and characteristics of Earth’s
different layers.
2. Explain how seismic data can be used to understand the structure of Earth’s
interior.
3. Explain the difference between P-waves and S-waves.
4. Describe the temperature variations within Earth and their implications for
internal processes such as mantle convection.
5. Describe the isostatic relationship between the crust and the mantle and
the implications of that relationship for geological processes on Earth.

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 Reflection

Remember:
• Do your activities for SU8 on eFundi.
• It is a prerequisite to access SU9 on eFundi.
• Please give feedback/comment on SU8 on eFundi.

Next class:
• SU8 – Part 2: Plate Tectonics
• Prepare for class by reading the required material and doing the activities on
eFundi.

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