HISTORY OF JAPAN

INTERNAL ASSESMENT ASSIGNMENT

Question: Critically assess the economic and industrial transition under the Meiji regime in
Japan?

Answer: Meiji Restoration, in Japanese history, the political revolution in 1868 that
brought about the final demise of the Tokugawa shogunate (military government)—thus
ending the Edo (Tokugawa) period (1603–1867)—and, at least nominally, returned
control of the country to direct imperial rule under Mutsuhito. The economic
transformation of Meiji Japan has evoked a great deal of interest and attention because
Japan represents the most successful attempt at industrialization by an Asian country.
This success has led scholars to examine the policies and programmes adopted by Meiji
leaders in this regard. There has been an extensive debate on whether Westernization
and modernization mean the same thing and the example of Japan shows that an
industrial society need not necessarily come to resemble the Western society.
The leaders of the Meiji Restoration were primarily young samurai from feudal domains,
particularly Chōshū in far western Honshu and Satsuma in southern Kyushu. These individuals
had historically opposed Tokugawa authority and were driven by domestic issues and the
perceived threat of foreign intervention. The fear of foreign encroachment stemmed from Western
powers' attempts to "open" Japan in the 1850s after centuries of isolation, coupled with concerns
about potential imperialist pressures similar to those witnessed in nearby China.
These leaders believed that Japan needed to modernize and strengthen itself to avoid
subjugation by Western powers. They saw constitutionalism, industrialization, and a well-
trained military as crucial for national unity, material strength, and security, respectively.
Embracing the slogan "Enrich the country, strengthen the army" ("Fukoku kyōhei"), they aimed
to transform Japan into a nation-state capable of competing with Western powers on equal
footing.
Recognizing the importance of Western knowledge, they sought to establish goodwill with
Western nations to renegotiate the unequal treaties that granted foreign countries judicial and
economic privileges in Japan through extraterritoriality. This vision guided their efforts to
modernize Japan and assert its independence in the face of foreign threats.
The new Meiji Government faced significant challenges inherited from the Tokugawa Bakufu,
with financial debt being among the most critical. The Bakufu's financial issues, along with
increasing debts of the han (feudal domains), contributed to the downfall of the Tokugawa
regime. Managing this substantial debt, compounded by expenses from restoration wars, was a
primary concern for the new leadership. To secure a stable revenue source, the government
relied on the agricultural sector and reduced samurai stipends to alleviate debts. Samurai
stipends, constituting a significant portion of revenue during the Tokugawa era, were commuted
into government bonds or lump sum payments to ease the fiscal burden. The Meiji period
witnessed economic and social transformations alongside its political changes. While agriculture
remained significant, the government prioritized industrialization, steering the development of
key industries, transportation, and communication networks. The construction of the first
railway occurred in 1872, and by 1890, Japan boasted over 1,400 miles (2,250 km) of railroads.
Telegraph lines interconnected all major cities by 1880. Government financial backing
encouraged private firms, complemented by the establishment of a European-style banking
system in 1882.
These modernization efforts necessitated Western scientific and technological expertise.
Embracing the motto "Civilization and Enlightenment" ("Bunmei kaika"), Japan actively
promoted Western culture, spanning intellectual trends, attire, and architectural styles.
The major features of Meiji economic development were characterized by several key elements.
Firstly, the Meiji leaders inherited a complex economic system and bureaucratic structure from
the Tokugawa Bakufu, which they reformed through direct intervention in key areas. The vast
financial problems inherited from the Bakufu contributed to political change, while the removal
of the samurai ruling class from direct land control facilitated adaptation to new policies. The
Meiji Government prioritized building infrastructure, such as transportation, communication,
and energy sectors, alongside strengthening the military, reflecting the principle of "fukoku
kyohei" (rich country, strong army). They imported and sold new industries to businessmen at
low prices, supported by selective investment guarantees, subsidies, and resource allocation to
foster indigenous industry development. Economic policies were forged through collaboration
between the government and business leaders, fostering a dual-sector economy consisting of
modern and traditional sectors. While the traditional sector played a significant role in economic
growth, political centralization underpinned these policies. Foreign loans were minimized to
safeguard Japan's sovereignty, with growth primarily financed through exports and controlled
internal consumption. The Meiji oligarchy balanced suppressive measures with policies fostering
loyalty to the state, particularly through loyalty to the Emperor, which encouraged national
sacrifice for economic advancement. The development policies imposed burdens on both the
populace and neighbouring nations due to expansionist tendencies. Militarism and
expansionism were closely linked to Japan's economic growth, with the state playing a crucial
role in protecting the economy from foreign competition, nurturing indigenous industry, and
aligning business interests with political objectives. However, these policies came at high costs to
the people and the environment, driven by political control.
During the Meiji period, the government also focused on promoting industry and modernizing
enterprise to foster capitalism in Japan. One of the initial steps was to dismantle feudal barriers
to industrial development, including internal checkpoints, post stations, and merchant guilds.
The establishment of new infrastructure was crucial, such as the introduction of the first
telegraph line between Tokyo and Yokohama in 1869. Within five years, the telegraph network
expanded from Nagasaki to Hokkaidō, with an undersea line connecting Nagasaki to Shanghai.
In 1871, a modern postal service replaced the previous courier system, with post offices
nationwide selling stamps and postcards at fixed prices. Japan also joined the Universal Postal
Union in 1877, integrating its postal service globally. Additionally, the country imported its first
telephones in the same year. The launch of a rail service between Tokyo and Yokohama in 1872
marked another significant development, heavily reliant on British assistance for financing, train
cars, and the expertise of chief civil engineer Edmund Morel. Subsequent rail expansions
included linking Kobe to Osaka in 1874, which then connected to Kyoto in 1877. By the turn of
the century, the railway network spanned the entire nation. The government also invested in
upgrading major roads, facilitating smoother transportation of goods via carts and other
vehicles. During the Meiji era, the government initiated a series of reforms aimed at fostering
capitalism in Japan. Key measures included the abolition of the feudal system, merchant guilds,
and the checkpoint system, which had hindered industrial growth. Infrastructure development
was prioritized, highlighted by the establishment of the first telegraph line between Tokyo and
Yokohama in 1869. The modernization of the postal service in 1871 replaced the existing courier
system, with post offices nationwide selling stamps and postcards at fixed prices. Japan's
integration into the Universal Postal Union in 1877 further connected its postal services globally,
coinciding with the importation of the country's first telephone sets. Rail services commenced
between Tokyo and Yokohama in 1872, alongside government-led upgrades to major roads,
facilitating efficient goods transportation across Japan. The Meiji government also encouraged
the establishment of private businesses through patronage, supporting companies like
Mitsubishi, Mitsui, and Ono, which operated numerous factories producing industrial and
agricultural goods. During this period, Japan experienced significant population growth, leading
to an abundant labour force but also straining resources and stability. To address societal
needs, the government introduced a universal education program focusing on science,
technology, and fostering national loyalty. Concurrently, the indigenous religion of Japan,
Shintoism, gained renewed popularity, emphasizing reverence for nature spirits and ancestors.
The adoption of Western influences extended beyond education, with the incorporation of the
calendar, metric system, and Western clothing styles, as well as personal hygiene practices.
Despite these modernizations, population growth led to a decline in the birth rate, as
urbanization and factory labour reduced the necessity of children. Traditional gender roles
persisted, maintaining the view of women as subordinate within the household, while formal
dining etiquette and manners remained upheld in society. Japan's foreign policy underwent
significant changes due to its shifting economic power, culminating in its alignment with
imperialist nations by the 1890s. This shift not only stimulated nationalist sentiments among
the populace but also provided a sense of purpose for exiled samurai. The growing demand for
raw materials in Japan exerted pressure for expansion. In 1894–1895, Japan engaged in a
conflict with China over Korea, resulting in a swift victory that showcased Japan's emergence as
a new Asian power. By forming an alliance with Britain in 1902, Japan attained equal footing in
the great power diplomatic system. Tensions with Russia escalated into war in 1904, resulting in
another victory for Japan and the subsequent annexation of Korea in 1910. Japan's ascent
transformed the global diplomatic landscape by the early twentieth century, prompting Western
concerns about the perceived "Yellow Peril" as they observed Japan's rise to prominence.
Living conditions declined in crowded cities. The country's political changes brought about
frequent elections, which sparked other dynamic changes, including quarrels between emperors
and ministers and assassinations of prominent figures. Several basic materials need to be
included in the island nation, including the essential burnable rock known as coal. They had to
contend with high import fees and tariffs on the products they could manufacture. The
Japanese Industrial Revolution significantly contributed to the country’s capitalism, economic
development, and industrial growth. Additionally, it signalled the end of the Tokugawa
shogunate policy of the Japanese military system of the Edo period (1603 to 1868), which
supervised both the government and the Daimyo. The Meiji era introduced concepts and ideas
that sparked the Japanese Industrial Revolution. Less than 30 years after the Meiji Restoration
in 1868, the country had established a capitalist economy.