Aspects of Cohesion and Coherence in AFL Student-Written Texts

Author(s): Abdullah Shakir and Hussein Obeidat

Source: Al-'Arabiyya , 1992, Vol. 25 (1992), pp. 1-28
Published by: Georgetown University Press

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/43192671

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Al-cArabiyya (1992) 25, 1-28

Aspects of Cohesion and

Coherence in AFL
Student-Written Texts

Abdullah Shakir
Hussein Obeidat

Two textual aspects are dealt with in this study: cohesion and
coherence. Five AFL (Arabic as a foreign language) texts, drawn from a
corpus of AFL student-written texts, are analyzed for cohesion and
coherence. The analysis is based on text linguistic aspects, e.g.,
contextualization of topic, schematic organization of content, substantia-
tion of general and abstract ideas, appropriate employment of Arabic
cohesive connectives, naturalness of exposition as manifested in appro-
priate use of collocations, and absence of Lļ (English) interference in the
AFL student- written texts. Incoherent texts are shown to suffer from lack

of contextualization, inappropriate use, or absence, of cohesive connectives,

especially conjunctives, fragmentary textual components, inappropriate
coupling of lexical items, and salient interference of Li in L2 (Arabic)
syntactic structure.

1. Introduction

Research in discourse analysis and text linguistics has shown a growing

interest in text as a unit of language beyond the sentence. A number of
approaches have been developed in an attempt to understand the fundamental
properties of a text and what constitutes a text as opposed to a sequence of
juxtaposed or unrelated sentences. Halliday and Hasan's (1976) cohesion
theory provided a system of text analysis whereby the relationships that hold
between textual components are discovered by means of identifying those
cohesive connectives that bring together textual components. According to
Halliday and Hasan (1976), the semantic unity of a text is achieved by means

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2 Aspects of Cohesion and Coherence in AFL Student-Written Texts

of semantic and syntactic links, i.e., cohesive connectives. In their view,

cohesion is the cause/creator of texture. Texture to them is a matter of

meaning relations, and cohesion is based on semantic relations. In such a

view, one may justifiably ask about the difference between "meaning rela-
tions" and "semantic relations," and, further, about the grounds on which the
two terms, texture and cohesion, can be distinguished (Shakir and Farghal 1 992).
Research following Halliday and Hasan's (1976) seminal work has taken
various routes in the process of analyzing a text and identifying how it coheres.
In addition to Halliday and Hasan's five categories of cohesive connectives
(reference, ellipsis, substitution, conjunctives, and lexical cohesion), tense and
aspect have been considered as other textual features that help establish cohesion
in a given text. According to de Beaugrande and Dressier (1981), the organiza-
tion of these categories varies from one language to another. Natural languages
have categories for distinguishing "past, present, and future times, continuity vs.
single points; antecedent vs. subsequent; and finished vs. unfinished" [14].
Some of these categories reflect the perspective of the text-users at the moment,
whereas others result from the organization of events in the context of the
situation. Modifiers or juncti ves are used when the verb systems do not explicitly
show such distinctions. Coherence for de Beaugrande and Dressier (1981)
reaches beyond explicit connectivity among pairs of sentences to accommodate
underlying relationships perceivable only in the light of awareness on the part
of the text recipient of six more standards of textuality (cohesion, informativity ,
situationality, intentionality, acceptability, intertextuality).
Witte and Faigley (1981) and Carrell (1982) also make clear the distinc-
tion between cohesion and coherence. They argue that cohesion contributes
to establishing coherence, but it does not cause it. Coherence is brought to the
text by the text recipient, who relies on his/her world knowledge in the process
of perceiving the underlying relationships that interrelate the facts that
constitute the content of the text in question. In addition to semantic unity,
texts must have pragmatic unity, i.e., unity of the text and the world of the
reader (Ferara 1985). This pragmatic dimension of textual coherence is what
qualifies a text of a certain type and function to be communicatively
acceptable and processable. A text must conform to factors outside it, i.e., to
certain contextual elements that influence the choice of lexical and grammati-
cal items in the text, as well as to the form of its content organization. Such
factors include the function of the text, the audience addressed, the nature of
relationship between the writer and the audience, the intentions of the writer,
etc. To this effect, Fillmore (1977:92) writes that "the sentences constructed

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 Abdullah S ha kir and Hussein Obeidat 3

of a text are partly justified by lexical and grammatical

and partly by interpreter's own contributions, the latter
he knows about the current context, what he knows about
and what he assumes the reader's intentions might be."
In a similar argument, van Dijk (1977) notes that ther
coherence: local (cohesion) and global (coherence). H
coherence has to do with the schema and the overall structure and order of

propositions in a text. Awareness of such schemata can help the reader

anticipate upcoming textual information as to how the content of a given text
or a given function can best be organized.
Hence, coherence depends not only on cohesion, but also on fulfillment of
the recipients' view of how the textual world (extralinguistic elements, such
as the writer's intentions, the nature of the audience addressed, the relation-
ship that holds between the writer and the audience, etc.) is configured in the
text in question.
The recipient's ability to perceive characteristic features of a given text
and consequently assign it to a certain text type with a characteristic typologi-
cal focus figures as another dimension to textual coherence. Researchers, e.g.,
Kress (1982), van Dijk (1980), Mosenthal (1985), Hatem (1985), Hatem and
Mason (1990), have dealt with text typological focus as a superordinate
discoursal notion to which surface structural configurations serve as subordi-
nates, viz., cohesive connectives, lexical and grammatical alike, and content
organization are employed to realize the writer's intentions and, consequently,
the rhetorical orientation of the text. In this context, the roles sentences and
clauses take on in a given text have also been studied in the light of the text's
rhetorical/typological focus. Lendeberg (1985), for instance, investigated the
functional role of sentences in student's compositions written to realize certain
rhetorical functions. Among the main points she studied was the writer's ability
to move from general to specific, from abstract to concrete in the process of
creating text. The student's ability, in Lendeberg' s view, to concretize general
abstract statements is an indicator of his/her ability to establish coherence. To
this effect, she writes, "if students are brought to see the functional relations
between segments in their own writing, surely they will begin to find it easier to
structure their information and to see whether it coheres" [344].
Cohesion and coherence in Arabic have been studied by researchers on
sociolinguistic and cultural bases. For example, Kaplan (1966, 1976, 1980,
1982, 1983), Ruzic and Thompson (1984), Koch (1982), Holes (1984),
Williams (1984), and Kharma (1985) have focused on aspects related to

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4 Aspects of Cohesion and Coherence in AFL Student-Written Texts

contrastive rhetoric in both Arabic and English, pointing out the difficulties
a native speaker of English encounters as he/she reads an EFL student- written
text. They tend to attribute such difficulties to the writers' inability to free
themselves from the influence of Lļ (Arabic in this case) on the English texts
they produce. To them, EFL student- written texts tend to have a "non-English
feel to them" (Holes 1984) mainly because of Li interference at the lexical,
syntactic, and, more importantly, rhetorical and organizational levels. Such
texts do not cohere.

Cohesion, collocational expressions, absence of Lļ interference at both

lexical and syntactic levels, levels of generality and specificity, appropriate-
ness of lexical and structural choices in the texts concerned, and awareness of
the target audience's anticipations in texts written in Arabic by AFL (Arabic
as a foreign language) students have not been given due attention. The central
focus of this paper is to explore them in a sample of AFL student- written texts.

2. The Present Study

This study deals with two major textual aspects, viz., cohesion and
coherence in AFL student-written texts. The literature reviewed in section 1
has shown that these two areas have not received due attention from AFL

researchers. Research has focused on areas related to structural aspects of the

Arabic sentence, in addition to mechanics of writing. Only recently have
researchers (Shakir and Obeidat 1992) extended the scope of research to
accommodate writing aspects reaching beyond the sentence boundary. The
present study attempts to identify how and why coherence breaks down in a
group of texts written by a group of American students learning Arabic at
Yarmouk University, Jordan.

2.1 Purpose of the Study

The central aim of the study is to analyze a sample of AFL student- written
texts for cohesion and coherence, with a view to identifying the factors that
contribute to rendering a text coherent or incoherent. The study also aims to
provide suggestions, based on the results of the analysis, as to the methods of
teaching writing to AFL students.

2.2 Subjects and Materials

Eighteen AFL essays were collected and analyzed for cohesion and
coherence. The essays were written by American students attending an
advanced intensive Arabic course at Yarmouk University during the summer

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 Abdullah Shakir and Hussein Obeidat 5

of 1990. The essays were written on topics of the

represent different text types.

2.3 Procedure

The analysis is based on insights from recent research in text linguistics

(cf. the literature reviewed in section 1), and is informed by analyzing
schemes, e.g., Bamberg's (1984), Connor and Lauer's (1985), Giora's
(1985), Hamdan's (1988), Shakir's (1991a), Shakir's (1991b). The texts are
explored for the following textual aspects:

1. topic development: elaboration on general statements and

completeness of content progression;
2. appropriateness of content organization as entailed by the
rhetorical function of the text in question;
3. relevance of the content to the global topic;
4. audience awareness and contextualization;
5. use of cohesive connectives appropriate to the type of text
under consideration;
6. use of verb tenses appropriate to the function of the text;
7. naturalness of exposition: appropriate use of collocational
expressions, L' interference, etc.

3. The Analysis
The texts vary with regard to the rhetorical function they perform. Some
are narrative; others are descriptive; while some others are analytical. The
analysis will draw upon factors that contribute to establishing coherence in
the text. It will also identify some of the factors that impair coherence in the
same texts. For convenience of reference, the sentences in each of the sample
texts are numbered. A representative sample of the texts will be analyzed. The
sample comprises two groups: Group 1 represents those texts rated high by
the AFL teachers; Group 2 those rated low.

3.1 Group 1: High-rated texts

Text 1

This text deals with economic problems in Tanzania (see Appendix) and
discusses the causes and effects of the problems.

3.1.1 Factors enhancing coherence

The content of the text lends itself to schematic organization based on
cause-effect relationship. The text begins with an introduction which sets the

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6 Aspects of Cohesion and Coherence in AFL Student-Written Texts

scene and puts forth a general statement in sentence 1 (sentence will

henceforth be referred to as S), followed by three more general statements: Ss
2, 3, and 4. These three statements do not elaborate on Si, but introduce
notions relevant to it and arouse the reader's anticipations as to what the text
may unfold. The rest of the paragraphs are employed to substantiate the two
major topics raised in paragraph 1: the failure of the development plans in
Tanzania, and reasons behind the failure. To illustrate, we see that the
expression masãkil muhayyira "puzzling problems," in which the focus
lexical item muhayyira arouses anticipations of the "why" and "how" type,
is substantiated throughout the text. The item muhayyira collocates with
yaqülu baïdu l-mu/brrixma Panna ... "some historians explain that ..." in
paragraph 2, Sö- The lexical item fallãhm "farmers," S6, collocates with
fallāhm , Sļ^. The expression al-judüri t-tãrãiyya "the historical roots/
causes" in Si8 collocates with muParrixîn "historians" in S 19 and qabla
xamslha sana "fifty years ago" in S20- The clause wa stamarrat hãdihi l- hãla
sanawãtin ka/īra "this situation continued for many years," S28» links up with
the concessive expression wa lãkinna taraddf hãda l-Pízdihãra . . . "yet the
decline of this flourishing. . ." in S29. And so on.
At the global level, the text coheres by virtue of topic continuity and
schematic organization of its content. The first paragraph contextualizes the
topic: an economic problem that has confused historians and experts in the
field of economic development. The content here is organized in such a way
that any reordering of the sentences of the paragraph will impair content
progression. Different interpretations for al-fa/al "failure" of the different
economic plans in Tanzania have been provided in the subsequent para-
graphs. The text thus takes on a cause-effect mode of exposition. Paragraph
2 provides an interpretation which specifies the relationship between the
government and the farmers. This is signalled by fašilat "failed," Ss, and
tuqaddimu l-hukūma "the government provides," S9, taflub "demands", S 10,
and yarfudün "refuse", Su. The whole network of relations connects with
fašalxitati t-tatwîr "failure of development plans," Si, paragraph 1. Para-
graphs 3 and 4 provide a historical, political explanation of the fašal "failure"
of development plans.
This histo-political explanation is signalled locally by a network of
semantic relations that cut across the two paragraphs. Thus we have al-
mu/brrixm "historians" and al-mādī "the past," S 17, and tadakkur "remem-
bering, recalling," S 19, al-mustaSmirun "colonists," S20- These constitute
signposts that lead the reader smoothly into the text. The rest of the paragraphs

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 Abdullah Shakir and Hussein Obeidat 7

provide further explanations of the problem. The last

concluding text.
At the micro level, we find that lexical cohesion contr
establishing coherence in the text. Research in En
(Hamdan 1988; Reedetal. 1985; Witte and Faigley 1981)
finding. Hamdan (1988), for instance, observes that the
for cohesion and coherence, and rated high on topic d
rated high on lexical cohesion. Reed et al. (1985) an
(1981) also noted that lexical cohesion contributes to
the texts they rated high as regards coherence. To illustr
from some of the component paragraphs of text 1 . In p
item mašākil "problems" collocates with fasal "failur
xubarãP "experts"; while az-zircftiyyah "agricultural
"farmers." In paragraph 4, the lexical item al-mu/hrr
cates with qabla xamshi sanah "fifty years ago"; an
"another development plan" collocates with frequent oc
xitta "plan" in the previous paragraphs. Also the word
British" collocates with al-musta^mirün "the colonials." The network of

iqtisãdiyyan "economic", xitta, and darãfib "taxes" represent another aspect

of enhancing coherence in the text.
Using appropriate verb tenses in the text is another aspect of coherent
structure. The use of yurakkiz "emphasize," yaqülu "argue," y a îtaqid "believe"
at the beginning of thesis statements is, in our view, a successful method for
managing the discussion; especially as such verbs are immediately followed by
past tense verbs which mark or signal substantiating evidence, mainly evidence
deriving from history, hence the appropriateness of employing past tense verbs.

3.1.2 Factors impairing coherence

The text, however, suffers from a number of weaknesses that impair
coherence - weaknesses that mainly influence the naturalness of expression
and processing. These can be attributed to inadequate awareness on the part
of the writers of some surface instruments L2 (Arabic, in our case) employs
to establish connectivity. In this text, two surface features are either missing
or misused: conjunctives and collocational expressions.

3.1.2.1 Conjunctives
A look at paragraph 1 reveals that the reader needs to infer the relationship
that holds between its content and the content of paragraph 2. For instance, the

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8 Aspects of Cohesion and Coherence in AFL Student-Written Texts

conjunctive fa-min nãfdya "on the one hand" is due at the beginning of S2 in
order to link the argument in the paragraph with S6 which begins with wa-min
nãfnyatin wcra "on the other hand." The conjunctive Pi d or hay tu "as" is also
needed to link the argument in Si and S2; and wa "and" is also due at the
beginning of S5 to establish a natural stylistic connection between S4 and S5.
Paragraph 2 exhibits similar weaknesses, wa needs to be added to tadubu
"demands" in S 10 so it can smoothly connect with tuqaddimu "provides" in
S9. li-dãik or wa-binãPan Palayhi "therefore/consequently" is also needed to
connect Su with Ss 10 and 9 in order to signal the method-purpose
relationship holding between the sentences.
The appropriate rendering of collocations or multi- word units in L2 is an
indicator of communicative proficiency and naturalness of expression (see
Shakir and Farghal (1991), and Farghal and Obeidat (1991) for fuller
elaboration on the role of collocational couplets in L2 learning). To illustrate,
we will investigate the following instances of inappropriately coupled lexical
items. For example, yulqi l-masPüliyya Pala "to place the responsibility
upon," S2, is the right collocation that should have been used instead of
yurakkizu l-masPüliyyata "literally: emphasize/concentrate the responsibil-
ity." Likewise, tanqusuhumu l-xibra , S4, "they lack adequate experience or
understanding" is a natural collocational expression in Arabic to express what
the writer wanted to say by using yaldamüna l-îaqla "literally: they lack the
mind," which is not appropriate in this context. Another odd use of multi-
word units is al-cňhniyya l-rtfiyya "farmers' mentality," S5, not an acceptable
equivalent to al-aqliyya l-rtfiyya. To express the conditional relationship
between S9 and S 10, the writer should have used muqãbila /fan "in return for"
instead of Piwadan Pan , which does not express the same function. In S29, an
instance of Li interference is clear in the inappropriate use of the couplet
suqãtu l -/aman "drop in the price of' as an expression intended to mean
hubüt/Pinxifädu s-siïri.

Text 2

This is an analytical text and the writer reviews some of the problems
related to the educational system in the USA.

3.1.3 Factors enhancing coherence

At the global level, the text begins with a general statement, a thesis that
sets the scene and arouses anticipations as to the way content will be
displayed. The concessional sentence 2 and the explanatory sentence 3

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 Abdullah Shaker and Hussein Obeidat 9

activate stereotypical schematic knowledge of how con

be organized. Anticipation is triggered by two focus cl
katīrun mina l-muwāūnina l-Pamrīkiyyīn "however, n
able to obtain it" and wa-dalika bi-sababi l-mašākili . . . "and that is because

of the problems

the general statement in paragraph 1 , thus fulfilling the read

of a cause-effect schematic content display. Paragraph 2 sets
and specifies its consequences. Paragraph 3 puts forward an
"the high cost of university and college education," while p
with a third problem related to the narrow scope of inform
students receive at school and higher educational institution
achieves unity at the global level as the main topic generate
topics.
At the micro level, lexical cohesion plays an important role in creating
connectivity. The sentence lã yuhassiluhu katīrun mina l-Pamrïkiyymf S2,
"not many Americans can obtain it" interconnects with al-Pummiyya "illit-
eracy" and with lā-yukmilu t-tullābu , S5, "students do not complete their
education." It also interlinks with yatruku baïduhumu 1-taSlma , S6, "some
of them quit school." Similarly, the lexical item mašākil , S2, "problems"
collocates with mina l-saïbi, S9, "it is difficult." Longer expressions also
contribute to interconnecting the various components of the text. For in-
stance, bi-sababi hālati PaPilātihimy S5, "due to their families' status"
collocates with yusäVidüVäftlätihim, S7, "to help their families." Also, //-/-
bahti Pani I- Carnal, S6, "to look for a job" hangs with Panyahsula Palâwadîfa ,
S9, "to obtain a job." It also interconnects with muškilati l-tamani l- badimi,
S 10, "the problem of high cost" with majjānan , S 12, "for free" and al-Paghld ,
S 13, "the most expensive," and so on.

3.1.4 Factors impairing coherence

The text suffers from weaknesses similar to those noted in Text 1, viz.,
either absence or misuse of cohesive connectives. For instance, the wa "and"
used to connect S' and S2 is clearly misused. The relationship that holds
between them is not addition, but concession. Therefore, ghayra Pannahu/
Pillā Pannahu "however, yet" is functionally more appropriate. A specifier fa
"as" is due to mark the relationship between S4 and S5. Sentence 6 comes as
a consequence of the argument maintained in S4 and S5. Hence, the absence
of the connective wa-lihâdã or wa-lidãlika "therefore" tends to blur the

relationship that holds between the two sentences. The same applies to Ss 6

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1 0 Aspects of Cohesion and Coherence in AFL Student- Written Texts

and 7 where an Pidov hay tu is missing. One of these conjunctives is needed

to mark the cause-effect relationship.
Another textual factor that tends to influence the naturalness of exposition
in the text is the inappropriate coupling of lexical items, i.e., collocations. In
S 10, for instance, Pal-tamani l-todīm "the high price/cost" is the right
synonym for the collocational item al-taJclufa l-murtafňa "the high cost."
Similarly, hādā sahīh "it is true" in Su is not the collocation employed to
mark an argumentative statement. The structure that rhetorically fits the
argument is sahīhun Panna "it is true that . . ." to be followed by Pillā Panna
"yet, however" as an opener of the clause that follows. The use of hādā sahīh
tends to change the focus of the sentence from argumentative to informative.
Similarly, Paqyamu katīran , "more valuable," S 14, does not sound an
appropriate collocation in Arabic; Paktaru qîmatan may be the right colloca-
tion as sought by the writer. Nor is ghayri l-musâwah "inequality," S 15, an
acceptable collocation for Sadami l-musãwãh . Another instance of inappro-
priately used collocational items is taPkīdun kāfin Pan "adequate emphasis
on." Using this expression seems to stem from Li interference, as it is acceptable
to say in English "there has been no adequate emphasis on." But the right
collocation in Arabic is lã tarkīza kāfin Polā "no adequate emphasis on."

Text 3

This text differs from the previous ones in its rhetorical orientation. It
narrates the main events and describes the main characters in the film "The
Sound of Music."

3.1.5 Factors enhancing coherence

At the global level, the text coheres by virtue of the schematic organization
of its content. Audience awareness on the part of the writer is manifested in
the introduction which sets the scene and introduces the reader to the main

participants, events, and places: a monastery in Austria, nuns, and Maria

living in the monastery, as she has no family or relatives.
Paragraph 2 explains why Maria decides to leave the monastery and work
as a baby sitter in von Trapp' s house. The paragraph provides the information
the reader needs to know about the von Trapps. The rest of the paragraphs
complete the details of the story.
At the local level, the textual components cohere by means of a number of
factors. The functional use of articles in the text helps to promote content
progression. For example, the use of the definite and zero articles marks new

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 Abdullah Shakir and Hussein Obeddat 1 1

and old information and contributes effectively to orient

the different participants and places in the story. In Si, t
rāhibāt "a monastery for nuns," the word dayr "monaste
zero article to mark the newness of this piece of inform
the word reappears with a definite article fi l-dayr "in the
is the second mention of the word. The same applies to b
bayt "house" in Ss 10 and 11, respectively.
Lexical cohesion is also effectively employed to interco
nents of the text. The relationship among dayr "monaste
Mary a, and rāhibāt "nuns" is not hard to grasp, nor is that
"baby-sitter," Patfāl "children," Pawläd "sons," and num
Verb tenses also serve to enhance the purpose of the writ
the historical present (simple present tense) to depict what
background in which the events take place. The way the
analogous to the way commentators on documentary films
describe scenes and events. The method is consistent thr

3.1.6 Factors impairing coherence

Poor command of conjunctives seems to be the most pe
common to the three texts discussed so far. For instance, a concession
conjunctive is due between S4 and S5. Perhaps Pillā Pannahā fi nafs il-waqt
"however/but at the same time" will do the job. A fa "then" is also due to mark
the cause-effect relationship between S9 and S io» The same applies to the
relationship between Ss 12 and 13, where a waqad "therefore" or "conse-
quently" is also needed to signal the cause-effect relationship that holds
between them, ghayra Pannahu "yet, however" is missing between S 13 and
S 14 to mark the contrary-to-expectations relationship. Other different types
of missing conjunctives can also be identified in the text.

3.2 Group 2: Low-rated texts

The analysis in this section aims to identify textual weaknesses in a sample
of texts rated low by the AFL teachers. The discussion of the weaknesses will
be confined only to those that impair coherence.

Text 4
This text suffers from a number of weaknesses that can be classified into

three main categories; those relating to a lack of audience awareness on the

part of the writer or to undue assumptions of shared knowledge with the

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12 Aspects of Cohesion and Coherence in AFL Student-Written Texts

audience; those attributable to lack or misuse of cohesive connectives; and

those motivated by I4 (English, in this case) interference.

3.2.1 Audience awareness

The writer's attempt to contextualize the topic has been undermined by

undue assumptions about shared knowledge with the intended audience. The
writer assumes that his intended readers know about the personalities, events,
and places of the film. For example, the use of the definite article al in al -
walad "the boy," S2, comes unprepared for, as this is the first mention of al-
walad. Another instance is found in S3 where al-ïîd "the festival" is also
mentioned for the first time. The same weakness reappears in al-rajulu "the
man," S6, al-fummālu "the workers," S9, and the sudden introduction of Tom
Hilly in S20-
Although the above instance, and others like it, seem to belong to micro-
level aspects of the text, i.e., to relate mainly to individual words and structural
items, they in fact reflect weaknesses at the global structural level, i.e.,
hierarchic organization of the content of the text. Had the writer contextualized
the topic and provided an adequate background, such weaknesses would not
have occurred. Introducing participants, places, and events becomes a frame
of reference for the reader as he/she goes deeper into the text.

3.2.2 Misuse/Lack of cohesive connectives and Lj interference

The insertion of al "the" in al- Paf dal "the best," Sļ, is an instance of
misused cohesive connectives in Arabic. Inserting al in this structure seems
to be imposed by the student- writer' s knowledge of how the superlative
degree is formed in English. The structure "among the best films I have ever
seen is ..." is appropriate in English. However, applying this syntactic device
to Arabic renders the sentence ungrammatical. The deletion of the reference
connective aliati "which" in S 1 is another instance of L 1 interference where
the student-writer produces syntactic structures alien to the syntax of the
target language, viz., Arabic. The deletion of the relative pronoun "which" is
acceptable in English in such a structure: "Among the best films 0 1 have ever
seen is...." The insertion of wa kadālik "and also" does not seem to be entailed

by the type of relationship that holds between Ss 8 and 9. It is, perhaps, an

expected outcome of fragmentary exposition of ideas.
Lļ interference tends to be the dominant feature that renders the text alien
to the intended audience: they read a text with a salient "foreign accent" in it.
Observe, for instance, the structure Pidãyurídu "literally: if he wants," S7.

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 Abdullah Shakir and Hussein Obeidat 13

Using the simple present tense to express possible act

sentence is acceptable for English. However, this is not
in a conditional sentence in Arabic. Pidā Parāda "if he
structure; i.e., perfective Parāda "literally: wanted" is u
Confusing the word order of Lļ with L2, a case of dev
ing, also recurs in this and in other texts. In S6 the struct
māl "to search for much money" is a case in point. The
component elements take in adjectival phrases in Ara
not adjective "much" plus noun "money." wãhid yõ
another example of Lļ interference. It is a literal tran
his..." - a structure appropriate to mark a new phase
English. Nevertheless, an equivalent structure in Arabic
fîyawmin mina l-Payyâm "one day, ...."

Text 5

This is also a text rated low by the AFL teacher. The students were asked
to write an essay describing a film shown to them on the video machine. The
film deals with ecological problems resulting from pollution. According to
the rubric of the writing task, the students are required to write a descriptive
essay in which reference is made to places, events, concepts, causes, and
effects related to the content of the film.

The writer digresses from description to prescription and commonplace

wisdom. This is manifested in the prescriptive tone clear in the first sentence li
l-Paflāmi 1-waßPiqiyya dawrun kabīrun fi taglimi l-muwātin... "documentary
films have an essential role in educating citizens...." The reader, after reading this
sentence, activates schemata relevant to the "role of documentary films"; he/she
anticipates elaboration on such a role. The writer leaves his/her first sentence, or
statement, unsubstantiated, and moves on to another general statement in S2. In
S3 the writer sets forth another prescriptive commonplace statement: al-taVīmu
Say Pun darûriyyun lil-taghallubi Paļā l-talawwut "education is necessary for
overcoming pollution." Thus, the text suffers from topic discontinuity.
A salient feature of the text is the absence of cohesive connectives,
especially those related to marking logical relationships. Though readers
usually bridge gaps between sentences, they nevertheless need explicit
cohesive markers to relieve their inferencing strategies. A look at the text
reveals that each of its component sentences can be a core sentence for a
separate paragraph, yet the writer fails to develop them. Thus, they figure as
a list of sentences extracted from a corpus of notes.

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14 Aspects of Cohesion and Coherence in AFL Student-Written Texts

4. Conclusions

The analysis has shown that coherence is an outcome of interaction

between textual and extra-textual factors. Among the textual factors are the
proper use of cohesive connectives, verb tenses, collocations, and the proper
employment of L2 (Arabic, in our case) syntactic structures. Textual factors
include lack or misuse of cohesive connectives, which resulted either in
fragmentary content or in a text whose connectivity is impaired by the
insertion of functionally irrelevant connectives. Unawareness on the part of
the writer of some cooccurrence restrictions, whether of syntactic or lexical
couplets, resulted in unnatural collocational expressions. L' interference, in
many cases, has also marked some of the texts as having a "foreign accent."
Dearth of L2 (Arabic, in this context) lexical repertoire has been shown to be
a factor that negatively influenced content progression in the text, as in text
5, for example. Contextual factors include awareness on the part of the writer
of the target reader's anticipations. Such anticipations include setting the
scene by introducing participants, places, and events that constitute the frame
of reference to the reader while processing the text. It also includes avoiding
setting undue assumptions of shared knowledge with the reader, together with
what that may entail at the linguistic level. The contextual dimension also
includes schematizing the content of the text in question in a way that
complies with the reader's long-established knowledge of how texts of such
types are usually organized.
The recurrence of such weaknesses, especially those related to textual
factors, indicates that AFL teachers need to pay due attention to cohesion and
collocations in Arabic. Perhaps a good way to cater for such textual areas is
to adopt a method based on reading. Analyzing a reading text for cohesion and
collocational expressions, drawing the students' attention to the collocational
expressions in the text, and pointing out the constraints (semantic and
syntactic) that determine the appropriateness of the collocations they come
across in the text can also enhance the students' sensitivity to the choice of
both cohesion connectives and collocational couplets. Writing texts parallel
to those analyzed in the reading lesson may as well be useful for developing
the student-writers' proficiency, especially at beginning and intermediate
stages.

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 Abdullah Shakir and Hussein Obeidat 15

Appendix1

Text 1

Sa/t mu šķila fī tanzãniya

About a problem in Tanzania

(1)min al-mašākil il-lmuhayyira fil-salami 1-tālit

among the-problems the-confusing in the world the third
hiya fašal xitati l-tajwiri l-zirāSiyya.
is failure plans the developing the agricultural.

(2) yurakkizu xubaräPu 1-ta-Jwïr al-masPQliyyah San

focus experts the development the-responsibility about
hāda 1-fašal Pila l-fall&hîn.
this the failure to the farmers.

(3) yaqûlûna Pinna 1-fallāhīn lä- yafhamûna

say-they that the farmers not understand
stixdäma 1-muSiddäti 1-hadïta
using the equipments the modern.

(4) Paw yaSdamu 1-Saqla fi 1-Pumūri 1-Piqtisādiyya.

or lack-they the mind in- theissues the economic.

(5) wa-fî raPyihim al-fašal yaSüdu 1-il-taqãfa

and-in view-their the failure attributed to-the education
wa d-dihniyya 1-rîfiyya.
and-the mentality the country.

(6) wa-min nShiyatin Puxrä yaqOlu baS<Ju

and-from aspect/hand other say some
l-mu?arrixlna Panna 1-fallShīna rijslun Padkiy&P.
the-historians the farmers men intelligent.

(7) jfipa min Pafrlqya matalan hfida dakäP.

came from Africa for example this the-intelligence

1 Since students were not required to provide fully vowelled texts, missing vowels have been
supplied by the authors.

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16 Aspects of Cohesion and Coherence in AFL Student-Written Texts

(8) fašilat kullu xi{a( il-ta(wiri l-zirfi^iyya fì bilSd

failed all plans the-development the-agricultural in country
tanzâniya
Tanzania.

(9) tuqaddimu 1-hukūma 1-il-fallāhīn qurûdan mãliyya

provide the-government to the farmers loans financial
wa-muSadd&t majj&niyyah.
and equipment for free.

(10) tatlubu min-hum Siwa^an San yaskunû jamâSiyyîn ft

demand from them in return for live-they group in
qurS tabnlha 1-hukūma.
villages build them the government.

(11) wiyibun talayhim Pan yabftu muntajãtihim li-1-hukūmah

must upon-them to sell-they products-their to-the government
li 1-bay^i fi-l-sūqi 1-Sālami.
to the selling in the market theworld.

(12) yarfutjü 1-fallShIna dālika kulluh.

refuse the farmers that all of it.

(13) yušahadQna 1-fallāhina wa-hum yazraSüna nabfitātin

seen-they the farmers while-they cultivate plants
gbayra Piqtiçfidiyya
not economical.

(14) wa lā-yuslihū l-mrfaddāti 1-muSattala.

and not repair the tools the out of work

(15) mã maSanä hāda 1-tasarruf?

what meaning this the-behavior?

(16) ya^taqidu mu?arrixQna kaüran Pan yakQna Ii l-fallählna

believe historians many that there for the farmers
hadafun baçl{ huwa tajannubi 1-mašākil.
aim simple which (is) avoiding the problems.

(17) hāPulāPi l-mu?arrixïna qädirüna Salā 1-nadari Pila l-mā^ī.

those the historians able to the looking at the past.

(18) wa-yarawna 1-judūri 1-tãrixiyya 1 latí Pantajat hSdihi

and see the roots the historical the which produced this
1-waďiiyya.
the situation.

(19) bi-r?ayi l-mu?arrixīna Pasāsu 1-rafdi huwa tadakkuri

in-opinion the historians bias the refusal is remembering

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 Abdullah Shakir and Hussein Obeidat 17

xißatu tafwirin Puxrä tumatilu 1-xifta l-h&^ira.

the plan development other similar-to the plan the present

(20) qabla xamsina sana käna l-baritfiniyyûna l-mustaSmirūna

before fifty year(s) were the British the colonials
musaytirîna Sala š-šaSbi fī tanzäniyah.
dominant/in control of the people in Tanzania.

(21) käna htimāmuhum hunāka Piqtisädiyyan.

was interest-their there economic.

(22) wa-häkadä Padxalû l-darā?iba.

and thus introduced the tax.

(23) wa-yu(ālibūna min al-šaSbi Pan yadfaSa 1-^arāPiba

and demand from the people to pay the tax
nuqQdan.
(in) the form of money.

(24) wa-fì nafsi 1-waqt qaddamü xitta mušajjfta

and in same the time provided (they) plan encouraging
Salā intiyi 1-qutni li l-sūqi l-Sālamī
on to producing the cotton to the market the world.

(25) wa-f! dãlika 1-waqti käna tamani 1-qutni Säliyan.

and in that the time was price the cotton high.

(26) wa-lidãlkia naffada 1-šaSbu 1-xitta.

and therefore implemented the people the plan.

(27) wa-xuç§iça li-l-qu{ni katlran mina l-Par^i hattfi lā

and was allocated to the cotton lot of the land so as not

yazraSQ Pillā 1-qufni.

plant-they but the cotton.

(28) wa-stamarrat hādihi 1-hālatu sanawâtin katïra.

and continued this the situation years many.

(29) wa-lākinna taraddī hāda 1-Pizdihāri Paddā Pilā

and-but deterioration this the prosperity lead to
duhuri muškilatayni.
existence problems-two.

(30) Pal-Pūla kānat suqütu tamani 1-qutni fi 1-sûqi 1-Sālami

the first was falling price the cotton in the market the world.

(31) w$jaha katirun mina l-muzārftlna 1-faqra.

faced many of the farmers the poverty.

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18 Aspects of Cohesion and Coherence in AFL Student-Written Texts

(32) wa-1-muškila 1-tãniya hiya kabtu l-musta^mirlna

and the problem the second is repression the colonists
bi-{arlqati l-zirä^iyya 1-mahalliya.
in way the agricultural the local.

(33) kāna 1-mustaSmirūna yatlubûna mina 1-sukkāni Pan

were the colonists demand from the people to
yastaxdimQ l-Par^a bi 1-Puslūbi 1-gharbi
use land in the method the western

(34) wa-yuhāwilūna 1-šaSba Pan yuqãwim hādihi 1-Pibtikārāti

and try the people to resist these the innovations

(35) wa-yaStabirünahä tawsftun li-saytarati l-mustaSmirīna

and consider they expanding of-dominance the colonials

(36) wa min tamma yastantijüna 1-muParrixQna Pal-la yarfidOna

and then infer-they the historians that-not refuse-they
1-fallShūna xiflata tajwîri 1-zirāSl bi-sababi Sadami
the farmers plan developing the agricultural because of lack
wujüdi l-Saqli Paw taqfifatihim bal bi-sababi sūPi
existence the mind or education-their rather because-of poor
dannihim
opinion-their

(37) bi-1-hukūma qâlû Pinna l-fallählna yuridOna 1-taharruba

in the government said-they that the farmers want the evading
min 1-çLarâPibi wa-muSaddfitin hadïta wa qurâ
from taxes and equipments modern and villages
muhaddata wa l-nid&mu kulluh
modernized and the system whole

(38) wa-1-Pãna lam yuflihû Pillā li-1-ghidāPi wa-yabqüna

and the now not succeed except in the eating and remain-they
fi buyûtihimu l-qadīma.
in houses-their the old.

Text 2
maSfikili l-taSlImi l-Pamrlkl
problem the education the American

(1) mina 1-mumkini Pan yahçula 1-nfisu Sali taSlImin

it is possible that have the people (prep.) education
jayyidin fi l-wilāyfiti 1-muttahida.
good in the States the United.

(2) wa-lä yuhassiluhu katīrūna mina l-muwātinīna 1-Pamrîkiyyîn

and-not have-it many of the-citizens the American

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 Abdullah Shakir and Hussein Obeidat 19

(3) wa-dälika bi-sababi l-maš&kili I-täliya f! nidSmi

and-that because-of the problems the following in system
1-taSlimi l-?amrlkl
the education the- American

(4) Pawwalan tuwiyihu ?amrïka 1-Pummiyya xâssatan fī

firstly face America the illiteracy especially in
man&tiqi l-fuqarä?i f! mudunin kabira katlra
areas the poor in cities big many

(5) Pahyãnan lã yukmilu I-tullābu 1-madrasa 1-tànawiyyah

some times not complete the students the schools the secondary
bi-sababi hãlati SāPilātihim.
because-of situation families-their.

(6) yatruku baSduhumu 1-taSlIma li-lbahti Sani 1-Samal

quit some of them the education to search for the job

(7) yajibu Pan yusäSidü SāPil&tihim

must that help-they families-their

(8) lãkin mina 1-mustahīli Pan yajidu l-Samala 1-jayyid

but (it is) the impossible to find-they the work the good
bidoni šah&d&tin mina 1-madrasati 1-tänawiyya
without certificate from the school the secondary

(9) min al-saSbi Pan yahsula Salā wadîfatin Sãliya

(it is) the difficult to find (prep.) job high
bidūni SahSdätin jämftiyya.
without certificate university.

(10) wa-bi-l-?idāfati Pilā muškilati 1-Pummiyya hunāka muškilatu

and in-the-addition to problem the illiteracy there problem
1-tamani 1-Sadīmi li-l-taSlīmi 1-Sālī ñ Pamrīka.

the price (cost) the high of the education the high in America

(11)hfidã çahih Panna 1-taSlimi 1-Pibtidā?! wa l-tänawl

This true that the education the elementary and the secondary
1-Sām majjänl,
the general for free

(12) l&kin laysa 1-taSlImi l-jāmiSI majjänl

but not the education the university free

(13) min natãPiji hada 1-nidāmi Pan yuqaddima l-taSlīmi

of results this the system that provides the education
1-Pahsani miräran fi l-jâmftati 1-Paghlä.
the best frequently in the university the expensive.

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20 Aspects of Cohesion and Coherence in AFL Student-Written Texts

(14) wa lid&lika yastapSu 1-Paghniyá?u 1-huçûlu Salā

and therefore can the rich the obtaining (prep)
šahSdfitin ?aqyam katlran min šahftdftti 1-fuqarftPi
certificates valuable more than certificates the poor

(15) wa hädä yadullu Salä 1-musäwäti fì nidâmi

and this indicate (prep.) the equality in system
1-taSlimi fi Pamrikfi.
the education in America.

(16) wa tatasilu muškilatun Puxrft bi 1-mawdüSäti

and is-related problem another to the subjects
l-lat! tudarrasu fi 1-madãrisi 1-tánawiyya
the that taught in the schools the secondary

(17) lä taPkîda kàfin Salā mawdüSätin muSayyana tašmulu

no emphasis enough on subjects specific include
1-jaghräfiya 1-S-älami wa l-lu^äti 1-Pajnabiyya.
the geography the world and the languages the foreign.

(18) Paminā l-tärlxu fa-tuPakkidu muSdamu 1-madfirísi Salā

but the history emphasize most the schools on
l-tārīxi l-?amrīkiyyi wa l-?õrõbiyyi faqat
the-history the American and the European only

(19) wa 1ft yataSallamu l-|ullfibu San l-S&lami x&rija 1-çarb.

and not learn the students about the world outside the West

(20) wa lahum ParāPun mahdūda hawla l-hayāti fì

and have-they opinions limited about the life in
hadärfttin ghayara maSrūfa lahum.
cultures not known to-them.

Text 3

sawtu l-mūsīqa
Sound of Music

(1) badapa film çawtu 1-mOsIqft ß dayr li-1-rähibät

started film Sound the Music in monastery for the nuns
fi 1-namsa.
in the Austria.

(2) hunäka bint wa-smuhfi mftríyft.

there girl and-name-her Maria

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 Abdullah Shakr and Hussein Obeidat 21

(3) tufakkiru mâriya Pan tuçbih rāhiba liPanna lays

think María to become nun because not has-she
ttPila

family

(4) wa taskunu fi 1-dayri mundu sanawät

and live in the monastery since years.

(5) turidu mâriya hurríyatahã.

wants Maria freedom-her

(6) Pan tasîra fi 1-jibãl wa tuçannî wa tallaba

to walk on the mountains and sing and play
gītāra-hā.
guitar-her.

(7) taqûlu raPïsatu d-dayr li-mãríya Pan mumkin

says head-of the monastery to Maria that possible
sa-yakûnu Pahsan Pidà lam tusbih mâriya rähiba
will be better if not become Maria nun

(8) Sindahä taruddu mâriya: lā

then replies Maria: No.

(9) Purīdu Pan Pusbiha rāhiba.

want-I to become nun

(10) fa-taqülu 1-raPlsa Panna Sindahä tamalun li-märiya

says the head that has-she job for Maria
ka-murabbiya li 1-Patfàl fî bayti 1-SäPila von Trapp.
as baby sitter for children in house the family von Trapp.

(11) wa fî häda 1-bayti yaskunu kubtân von Trapp

and in this the house lives captain von Trapp
wa-sabta Pawläduh.
and seven children-his

(12) mātat zawjatuhu min zamanin.

died wife-his since time long

(13) Pajjara qubtän von Trapp murabbiyatin li-l-Patfal kafirSt.

hired captain von Trapp baby sitters for the children many.

(14) känat mašākilu maSahunna kullahun.

were problems with-them all.

(15) ^indamã taçilu mâriya Pilā bayt von Trapp taSlamu

when arrive Maria to house von Trapp knows
1-sababa li-kulli 1-mašākil fi 1-bayt
the reason for all the problems in the house.

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22 Aspects of Cohesion and Coherence in AFL Student-Written Texts

(16) yuPminu 1-qubtãn fi ?in<ļibāt qawiy miti fi 1-jayš.

believe the captain in discipline strong like in the army.

(17)wa-lä tuhibbu mãriya hādā I-nidāma.

and not likes Maria this the system.

(18) wa-tuqarriru Pan tughayyirahu qarlban.

and decides to change-it soon.

(19) tudarrisu mãriya 1-Patfãla hawla l-mūsīqā wa Pan yuçannû.

teaches Maria the children about the music and to sing-they.

(20) fi 1-bidãya lã yakûnun qubtãn von Trapp saldan mata

in the beginning not be captain von Trapp happy with
häda l-waď&i fî baytih.
this the situation in house-his.

(21) yufakkiru Pan Pidā Patfälu yughannOn wa yaltabOn

thinks that if the children sing and play
kulla 1-waqt Ian yakûn Pindibãt kãfi.
all the time will not be discipline enough.

(22) baSd Riddati Payy&m yusfifiru 1-qubjän Pilfi madlnat

after some days travels the captain to city
Salzburg wa yarjftu mata xaßbatihi 1-jadīda.
Salzburg and returns with fiance-his the new.

(23) yušáhidu 1-qubtãnu mãriya wa 1-Patfãlu yughannüna

sees-he the captain Maria and the children singing
fi l-hadīqa.
in the garden.

(24) wa-fi 1-bidãya kána ghādiban jiddan mata mãriya.

and in the beginning was angry very with Maria.

(25) lākin baSd yawmayn yatahaqqaq Panna-hu waPawlãduh

but after days-two realizes that-he and children-his
saftdan jiddan bi-sabab hudûr mãriya.
happy very because of presence Maria.
(26) wa yatahaqqaq Panna-hu yuhibbu mãriya Paktar min
and realizes that-he loves Maria more than

xatìbatih.
fiance-his.

(27) yûqifu 1-qubtãnu xutbata-hu wa yatazawwaja mãriya.

stops the captain engagement-his and marries Maria.

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 Abdullah Shakir and Hussein Obeidat 23

Text 4
Kabf
Kabeer

(1) min al-Paf^ali Paflām Sähadtu PagnāPa 1-sanatayni l-mä^iyayni

among the best films saw-I during the two-years the past
hiya al-film 'kabeer'.
was the film Kabeer.

(2) hādihi hiya film taçifu hay&ta 1-walad Sindamā Paçbaha

this is film describes life the boy when become
rajulan f! layla wãhida.
man in night one.

(3) kāna Paçlu I-qi$sa rajulun sihriy fi Mïd.

was origin the story man magic in the festival.

(4) fi 1-sabāhi kāna 1-waladu rajulun fi 1-xärij lãkin

in the morning was the boy man in the outside but
kāna ihtafada bi-walad saçïr.
was retained (prep) boy young.

(5) hādihi 1-Pazma hiya 1-fikr l-ra?īsī fi 1-qissa

this the crisis is the-idea the main in the story

(6) wa lfi yusáfiru 1-rajulu Pilā 1-madina li yuSShida rajul

and not travels the man to the city to see man
1-sihr.
the magic.

(7) ?al-rajul 1-sihr yarhalu min madīna Pilā Puxrâ li-l-bahti

the man the magic leaves from city to other for the search
<ian katīri māl.

for much money.

(8) wa-yuhibbu San yajidhâ Pidā yurïdu Pan yusbiha walad

and likes to find whether wants to become boy
mitil min qabl.
as of before.

(9) fi l-bidāya hādā mustahO.

in the beginning this impossible.

(10) wa kagālik yaSmalu 1-Summāl.

and also work the workers.

(11) ya^mal wa Pasbaha muhimman fi šarikātihi.

work and became important in company-his.

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24 Aspects of Cohesion and Coherence in AFL Student-Written Texts

(12) läkin yatadakkara man huwa

but remembers who he (is)

(13) wa yuridu Pan yusbiha walad marra täniya.

and wants to become boy time second.

(14) yuqäbil mara wa hunäka hub baynahum.

meets woman and there is love between-them.

(15) lãkin yatadakkar wa-yatadakkar hayätahu 1- walad.

but remember and remembers life-his the boy

(16) w&hid yõm çadïqahu j&Pa Pilfi maktabihi li-Panna wajada

one day friend-his came to office-his because found
rajul sihriyy fi 1-Sïd
man magic in the Festival

(17) hādā wadih yafîalahu yufakkiru San hayätihi ka-rajul

this clear does-he-it thinks-he about life as a-man
wa ka-wald.

and as-a-boy.

(18) yuqarrir yuridu Pan yusbiha walad.

decides-he wants to become boy.

(19) yadhabu Pila rajul sihriyy wa-yarjftu li-bayti Sā-Pilatih

goes-he to man magic and returns to house family-his.
(20) hfidihi 1-film hiya mumt&za liPann tom hily yuçawwiru
this the film is excellent because Tom Hilly depicts
Sātifa wa našPat wa PuslQbi 1-walad-içça^ïr.
emotions and upbringing and manner the boy the small.

Text 5

talawwufi l-blfah
Contamination of the environment

(1) li-1-Paflâmi l-wat&Piqi dawrun kabirun fì taglimi

to the film the documentary role major in education
1-muwätini 1-Sālami San wadSi 1-bîPah.
the citizen the world about situation the environment.

(2) yawmiyyan nušāhidu hadma 1-JabīSa bi-sababi

daily see-we destruction the nature because-of
1-miyähi 1-Sfidima wa 1-qimfimah wa I-harbi wa
the water thesewage and the garbage and the war and
l-maçâniïi wa l-sayy&rSt.
the factories and the cars.

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 Abdullah Shakir and Hussein Obeidat 25

(3) Pal-taSHmu šayPun (ļarūrl li 1-taghallubi Sala

the education something necessary for the overcoming (on)
t-talawwut
pollution.

(4) yastatfiu 1-filmu l-watā?iqqiyy Pan yufahhima wa

can the film the documentary to explain and
yirtallima 1-muwätini Mãlamiy mašākili 1-talawwut
educate the citizen the world problems the pollution.

(5) yajibu Pan al-Pawlädu yatatallamû li-yahmu 1-tabīSa.

must (to) the boys learn to protect the nature.

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26 Aspects of Cohesion and Coherence in AFL Student-Written Texts

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Abdullah Shakir
Yarmouk Language Center
Yarmouk University
Irbid, Jordan

Hussein Obeidat
Yarmouk Language Center
Yarmouk University
Irbid, Jordan

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