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Tassos Dimitriou

CpE-203
Discrete Structures

Set 5

Prof. Tassos Dimitriou

Computer Engineering Department

Kuwait University

CpE-203: Discrete Structures 1

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Outline
Sequences

Sums

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Definitions
Sequence: an ordered list of elements
A sequence is a function from a subset of Z to a set S. We
use the notation an to denote the image of the integer n.
 We call an a term of the sequence.

Example:

Subset of N: 1 2 3 4 5 …

S: 2 4 6 8 10 …

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Sequences
We use the notation {an} to describe a sequence

It is often convenient to describe a sequence with a formula.

For example, the sequence on the previous slide can be

specified as {an}, where an = 2n.

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The Formula Game

What are the formulas that describe the following
sequences a1, a2, a3, … ?

1, 3, 5, 7, 9, … an = 2n - 1

-1, 1, -1, 1, -1, … an = (-1)n

2, 5, 10, 17, 26, … an = n2 + 1

0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1, 1.25 … an = 0.25n

3, 9, 27, 81, 243, … an = 3n

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More sequence examples

an = 3n
 The terms in the sequence are a1, a2, a3, …
 The sequence {an} is { 3, 6, 9, 12, … }

Arithmetic Progression
 a, a+d, a+2d, …, a+nd, …
 an = a + (n-1)d

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More sequence examples

bn = 2n
 The terms in the sequence are b1, b2, b3, …
 The sequence {bn} is { 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, … }

Geometric Progression
 a, ar, ar2, ar3, …, arn-1, …
 an = arn-1

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Determining the sequence formula

Given values in a sequence, how do you determine the
formula?

Steps to consider:
 Is it an arithmetic progression (each term a constant amount
from the last)?
 Is it a geometric progression (each term a factor of the previous
term)?
 Does the sequence repeat (or cycle)?
 Does the sequence combine previous terms?
 Are there runs of the same value?

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Determining the sequence formula

1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, …
 The sequence alternates 1’s and 0’s, increasing the number of
1’s and 0’s each time
1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 5, 6, 6, 7, 8, 8, …
 This sequence increases by one, but repeats all even numbers
once
1, 0, 2, 0, 4, 0, 8, 0, 16, 0, …
 The non-0 numbers are a geometric sequence (2n) interspersed
with zeros
3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 96, 192, …
 Each term is twice the previous: geometric progression
 an = 3*2n-1

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Determining the sequence formula

15, 8, 1, -6, -13, -20, -27, …
 Each term is 7 less than the previous term
 an = 22 - 7n
3, 5, 8, 12, 17, 23, 30, 38, 47, …
 The difference between successive terms increases by one each time
 a1 = 3, an = an-1 + n
 an = n(n+1)/2 + 2
2, 16, 54, 128, 250, 432, 686, …
 Each term is twice the cube of n
 an = 2*n3
2, 3, 7, 25, 121, 721, 5041, 40321
 Each successive term is about n times the previous one
 an = n! + 1

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Recurrences
A recurrence relation for the sequence {an} is an equation that
expresses an in terms of one or more of the previous terms of
the sequence.
 Example 1: Let {an} be a sequence that satisfies the recurrence
relation an = an-1 + 3 for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . , and suppose that a0 = 2.
What are a1, a2, and a3?
 Example 2: Let {an} be a sequence that satisfies the recurrence
relation an = an−1 − an−2 for n = 2, 3, 4, . . . , and suppose that
a0 = 3 and a1 = 5. What are a2 and a3?

 Initial conditions specify the terms that precede the first term
where the recurrence relation takes effect.

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The Fibonacci numbers

Fibonacci, Leonardo de Pisa (ca. 1170 -

ca. 1240)
 The Fibonacci numbers have an intimate
relationship with the golden ratio the Greeks
so admired, and with Euclid’s GCD algorithm
 Furthermore, nature seems to love Fibonacci
numbers

Fibonacci sequence:
 F0 = 0 and F1 = 1
 Fn = Fn-1 + Fn-2 , if n > 1

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Fibonacci numbers in nature

More about plants, etc. in

http://www.mcs.surrey.ac.uk/Personal/R.Knott/Fibonacci/fibnat.html

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Closed formulas for recurrences

Closed formula: an explicit expression for a recurrence as a
function of n.

 Example: Determine whether the sequence {an}, where an = 3n for

every nonnegative integer n, is a solution of the recurrence relation
an = 2an−1 − an−2 for n = 2, 3, 4, . . . .
Answer the same question where an = 2n and where an = 5.

 Example: Find a closed expression for the sequence that satisfies

the recurrence relation an = an-1 + 3 for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . , with a0 = 2.

Can be solved by iterating (i.e. repeatedly using) the recurrence

relation using either forward substitution or backward substitution.

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Summations
n
What does a
j m
j stand for?

 It represents the sum am + am+1 + am+2 + … + an.

 The variable j is called the index of summation, running from its lower
limit m to its upper limit n.
 We could as well have used any other letter to denote this index.

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Summations
How can we express the sum of the first 1000 terms of the
sequence {an} with an=n2 for n = 1, 2, 3, … ?

We write it as
6

What is the value of  j?

j 1

It is 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 = 21.
100

What is the value of j

j 1
?

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Summations
It is said that Friedrich Gauss came up with the following formula:

When you have such a formula, the result of any summation can be
calculated much more easily, for example:

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Sum of Arithmetic Series

Can you prove the “Gauss formula”?

Hint: Group numbers in pairs…

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Geometric Series

Let’s prove

Observe that:
S = 1 + a + a2 + a3 + … + an
aS = a + a2 + a3 + … + an + a(n+1)

so, (aS - S) = (a - 1)S = a(n+1) - 1

Therefore,

For example: 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 +… + 1024 = 2047.

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Geometric Series (cont.)

What about, when a < 1?
Infinite number of terms!

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Useful series

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Double summations
Like a nested for-loop
4 3

 ij
i 1 j 1
Is equivalent to:
int sum = 0;
for ( int i = 1; i <= 4; i++ )
for ( int j = 1; j <= 3; j++ )
sum += i*j;

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Products
There is also a special notation for products.
The product of am, am+1, . . . , an is represented by

and is read as the product from i = m to i = n of ai .

How would you represent the factorial using this notation?

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