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Communication Hand Note for EEE Job Preparation
COMMUNICATION
HAND NOTE
FOR
EEE JOB
PREPARATION
Helpful for
 BCS and Non Cadre
 Job exam taken by BUET &
DU
 M. Sc. Admission Test
Prepared by Ismail Hossain

Do Not Scan This Document. @Ismail Hossain Page 1
Preface
First of all, I would like to thank to those people who continually inspired me to make this hand
note on communication. For EEE Job Preparation, Communication section is one of the most
important parts among the section sections of Electrical and Electronics Engineering. We all
know, especially who are appeared various Job exam, that we get confused seeing the questions
that are given in the exams. The questions are given from different sources and everyone should
learn them from different sources. It takes a lot of time before exam. Sometimes it happens that
we forget to revise. So, it was necessary to find all the questions in one place so that they can be
revised within a very short time. The „Communication Hand Note for EEE Job Preparation‟ will
make this happen. It comprises most of the questions of previous job examination those are given
again and again. It avoids the unnecessary discussion and it is kept concise. All the questions are
needed either for the exams or to understand the questions that may be given. Some sections of
this note are described in Bangla. Those sections will not be given in exam but are very
necessary to understand the basics.
I tried hard to complete this note. I spent about two months (at least 150 hours) for this. I didn‟t
produce anything. I have not that ability. I just accumulated a bunch of questions, which
eventually very important for the exam, from different sources (references are given at the end of
this note) so that it could be understood very easily and could be revised within a very short time.
Though I prepared this note taking help from different sources, it is not allowed to distribute this
note to anyone without my consent. This is prepared for Engineers and Engineers must have
ethics. Now it is your call to decide yourself as an Engineer or not.
Sincerely
Ismail Hossain
B. Sc. in EEE

INDEX
Analog Communication, 4 M-ary PSK, 130
Amplitude Modulation, 8 QAM, 133
Frequency Modulation, 36 FSK, 135
Pre-emphasis & Demphasis, 38 ASK, 137
FM Generation, 41 Multiplexing,FDM, 139
Generation of NBFM, 42 TDM, 142
Bandwidth of FM, 47 Multiple Accesses
Digital Communication, 63 FDMA, 153
PCM, 69 TDMA, 154
DM, 89 CDMA, 155
ADM, 92 GSM, 158
Information, bit, entropy, 105 Satellite Communicatio, 164
Shannon‟s capacity, 109 2G, 3G, 4G, 168
Line Coding, 115 PLCC, 169
Passband Transmission, 120 Modulation Scheme of different

communication system, 170
PSK, BPSK, 121
Fiber optic communication, 171
DPSK, 125
QPSK, 126

Analog Communication
What are the basic components of any communication system? Draw
1.
and explain the block diagram of the typical communication system.
The elements of communication system are as follows:
i) Information
ii) Transmitter
iii) Communication channel or medium
iv) Noise
v) Receiver
Information: The communication system communicates messages. The messages come from
the information sources. It may contain human voice, picture, code, data, music and their
combination.
Transmitter: The transmitter is a collection of electronic circuits designed to convert the

information into a signal suitable for transmission over a given communication medium or
channel.
Communication channel: The communication channel is the medium by which the electronic
signal is transmitted from one place to another. There are basically two types of communication
media and accordingly there are two types of communications. (a) Wire communication or line
communication, and (b) wireless communication or radio communication. Line communication
is a wireless communication, requiring no physical wires between transmitter and receiver to
carry the signal. Radio communication makes possible communication over very very long
distances, even from Earth to Moon!
Noise: The noise is an unwanted signal, produced by the atmosphere and added to the message
in the communication channel, degraded the transmitted information. Noise is one of the serious
problems of electronic communications. It cannot be completely eliminated. However, there are
many ways to deal with noise, and reduce the possibility of degradation of signal due to noise.

Receiver: A receiver is a collection of electronic circuits designed to convert the signal back to
the original information.
What are the typical channels uses in line communication? What are
2.
the advantages of optical fiber over co-axial cable?
The typical channels used in line communication are given below:
i) Twisted pair cable

ii) Co-axial cable (or copper cable)
iii) Fiber optic cable
The advantages of optical fiber over co-axial cable are as follows:
i) Fiber optics are significantly faster than co-axial cable.

ii) Fiber optics are more eco-friendly than co-axial cable.
iii) Fiber optics are the technology of the future.
iv) Fiber optics offer more secure communication than co-axial cable.
(a) Justify-The baseband signal cannot be transmitted through space 24th

by radio. 31st&
Or, Justify that Modulation is suitable for distance transmission. 34th
(b) If a baseband signal of frequency 15 kHz is to be transmitted BCS
3
through space by radio, determine the size or height of antenna for
this transmission.
(c) If we consider a modulated signal with 1 MHz frequency in the
broadcast band, what would be the size or height of the antenna?
The message signal that is to be transmitted is referred to as „baseband signal‟. In a

communication system, when the original information signals (baseband signals) may be
transmitted over the medium directly, it is referred to as “baseband transmission”. One example
of baseband transmission is telephony, especially for the local calls. In some computer networks,
the digital signals are applied directly to co-axial cables for transmission to another computer.
But there are many instances when the baseband signals are incompatible for direct transmission
over the medium. For example, voice signals cannot travel longer distances in air, the signal gets
attenuated rapidly. Hence for transmission of baseband signals by radio, modulation technique
has to be used.
The height of the antenna required for the transmission and reception of radio waves in radio
transmission is a function of wavelength of the frequency used. The minimum height of the
𝜆 𝑐
antenna is give as 4. The wavelength 𝜆 = 𝑓 ; where c is the velocity of light and 𝑓 is the
frequency.

For the above equation, it can be easily noticed that at low frequencies wavelength is very high
and hence the antenna height is also very high.
For example, consider the baseband signal with f = 1 kHz. Then

𝜆 𝑐 3×10 8
Height of antenna = 4 = 4×𝑓 = 4×15×10 3 = 5000 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
This 5000 meters height of a vertical antenna is unthinkable and unpracticable.
On the other hand, if we consider a modulated signal with 1 MHz frequency in the broadcast
3×10 8
band, the height of antenna = 4×1×10 6 = 75 meters.
This height of antenna is practical and such antenna can be installed.
A radio station transmits signa in 1 MHz frequency band. What is the PGCB
4 required antenna length for efficient radion of electromagnetic 2016
energy.
𝑐 3×10 8
Wavelength, 𝜆 = 𝑓 = 1×10 6 = 300 𝑚
𝜆 300
Length of the transmitting antenna = 4 = = 75 𝑚
4
‡Kv‡bv †Kv‡bv eB‡q ‡`qv Av‡Q

𝜆 300
Length of the transmitting antenna for efficient transmission = 10 = = 30𝑚
10
5 What is the need of modulation?

The advantages of using modulation technique are given below:
i) It reduces the height of antenna.

ii) It avoids mixing of signals.
iii) It increases the range of communication.
iv) It allows multiplexing of signals.
v) It allows adjustments in the bandwidth.
vi) It improves the quality of reception.

6 What are the different types of modulation?
What do you mean by bandwidth and how it is measured? Give the 32nd
bandwidth requirement for any four transmitting signals. Or, What BCS
is the bandwidth requirement of Telegraph signals? Or, what is the
7 bandwidth requirement of voice / speech signal? What is the
bandwidth requirement of music signal? Or what is the bandwidth
requirement of television signal? Or, What is the bandwidth
requirement of digital data transmission?
Answer:
Bandwidth is the portion of frequency range occupied by a signal. More specifically, it is the
difference between the upper limit and lower limit of the signal.
Telegraph signal: The shortest time element or time duration of telegraph signal is 20
1
milliseconds. Therefore the bandwidth required is 𝐵𝑤 = 𝑓𝑕𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 20×10 −3 = 50 𝐻𝑧.
Voice or speech signal: Voice signal ranges from 300 Hz to 3000 Hz. So the bandwidth
required is 𝐵𝑊 = 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 − 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = 3000 − 300 = 2700 𝐻𝑧.
Music signals: For high quality music transmission, the frequency ranges from 30 Hz to 15 kHz.
So, the bandwidth, 𝐵𝑤 = 15000 − 30 = 14970 𝐻𝑧
Television signal: For television signals, bandwidth required is 6 MHz.
Digital data transmission: Since many digital data transmission utilize telephone channels, the
bandwidth of the telephone is an appropriate consideration. The internationally accepted standard
telephone channel occupies the frequency range of 300 to 3400 Hz. So bandwidth is 3100 Hz.

Describe Amplitude Modulation. What is Modulation Index? Draw

[25th
8 the frequency spectrum of the Modulated Signal.
BCS]
Amplitude Modulation (AM) is defined as a process in which the amplitude of the carrier
wave is varied about a mean value, linearly with the baseband or message signal.
Consider a sinusoidal carrier wave c(t) defined by
c(t) = Accos(2πfct)
where Ac is the carrier amplitude and fc is the carrier frequency.
Let, m(t) denote the baseband signal which carries the specification of the message.
An amplitude modulated (AM) wave may thus be described as a function of time in the form:
s(t) = Ac[1+kam(t)]cos(2πfct)
whereka is a constant called the amplitude sensitivity of the modulator.
𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) is also called modulation index.

The modulation index (or modulation depth) of a modulation scheme describes how much the
modulated variable of the carrier signal varies around its un-modulated level. It is defined
differently in each modulation scheme.
The amplitude modulation, AM, modulation index can be defined as the measure of extent of
amplitude variation about an un-modulated carrier. It can be expressed as:
𝐴𝑚
Modulation index, 𝑚 = 𝐴𝑐
Where Am is the amplitude of m(t) and Ac is the amplitude of carrier . Modulation index is also
denoted by μ .
There are two requirements of amplitude modulation. They are:
i) The amplitude of kam(t) is always less than unity, that is,

𝑘𝑎 𝑚 𝑡 < 1, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡
It ensures that the function 1+kam(t) is always positive and so we may express the envelope of
the AM wave s(t) as Ac[1+kam(t)]. When 𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) > 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑡, the carrier wave becomes
over modulated, resulting in carrier phase reversals when the factor 1+kam(t) crosses zero. The
modulated wave then exhibits envelope distortion. The absolute maximum value of kam(t)
multiplied by 100 is referred to as the percentage modulation.
ii) The carrier frequency fc is much greater than the highest frequency component W of
the message signal m(t), that is
𝑓𝑐 ≫ 𝑊
We call W the message bandwidth.
Now, the modulated wave, s(t) = Ac[1+kam(t)]cos(2πfct)
We find that the Fourier transform of the AM wave s(t) is given by
𝐴𝑐 𝑘𝑎 𝐴𝑐
𝑆 𝑓 = [𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 + [𝑀 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑀(𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 )
2 2
Now the frequency spectrum:

Derive the modulated signal for a single tone message signal, draw the
9
frequency spectrum and also derive the power equations.
If the message signal contains single frequency component, then the resulting modulated signal
is known as a single tone AM.
Assume,
𝑚 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚 cos⁡
(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡)
And, 𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos⁡
(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)
We know that,
𝑆𝐴𝑀 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚 𝑡 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)
= 𝐴𝑐 [1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝐴𝑚 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡)] cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)
Where, kaAm = µ modulation index of AM
When, µ<1 : under modulation
When, µ =1: critical Modulation
When, µ>1 : over modulation
Now,
𝑆𝐴𝑀 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos⁡
(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) + 𝑘𝑎 𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚 cos⁡
(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) cos⁡
= 𝐴𝑐 cos⁡
(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) + 𝐴𝑐 𝜇 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡)
𝐴𝑐 𝜇
= 𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) + × 2cos⁡
(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡)
2
𝐴𝑐 𝜇
= 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + [cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 𝑡 + cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 𝑡]
2

𝐴𝑐 𝜇 𝐴𝑐 𝜇
= 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 𝑡 + cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 𝑡]
2 2
⇓ ⇓ ⇓
Carrier Upper Side Band Lower Side Band
Now, the Fourier transform of SAM (t) is
1 1
𝑆𝐴𝑀 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 + 𝜇𝐴𝑐 𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 + 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚
2 4
1
+ 𝜇𝐴 [𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 + 𝛿 𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚
4 𝑐
Thus, the spectrum of an AM wave, for the special case of sinusoidal modulation, consists of
delta function at ±𝑓𝑐 , 𝑓𝑐 ± 𝑓𝑚 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 𝑓𝑐 ± 𝑓𝑚

Power of AM:
Let, Pt=carrier power after modulation
Pc=carrier power before modulation
PUSB =Power of Upper side band
PLSB = Power of Lower side band
Now, Pt = Pc+PUBB+PLSB
𝑉𝑚 2
2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑉𝑚2 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 2
2
AvgivRvwb, Power ,𝑃 = = = = ; 𝑊𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑅 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑅 𝑅 2𝑅 2𝑅
𝐴2
So, 𝑃𝑐 = 2𝑅𝑐 ;
𝐴𝑐 𝜇 2
2 𝐴2𝑐 𝜇 2
𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵 = = ;
2𝑅 8𝑅
𝐴2𝑐 𝜇 2
𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 = 𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵 =
8𝑅
𝐴2𝑐 𝜇 2 𝐴2𝑐 𝜇 2 𝐴2𝑐 𝜇 2
𝑃𝑆𝐵 = 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 + 𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵 = + = ;
8𝑅 8𝑅 4𝑅
𝐴2𝑐 𝜇 2 𝐴2𝑐 𝜇 2 𝜇2
𝐴𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝑃𝑆𝐵 = = × = 𝑃𝑐 × ;
4𝑅 2𝑅 2 2
𝐴2𝑐 𝐴2𝑐 𝜇 2
𝑆𝑜, 𝑃𝑡 = +
2𝑅 4𝑅
𝐴2𝑐 𝜇2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑃𝑡 = (1 + )
2𝑅 2
𝜇2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 (1 + )
2
For, µ = 0 (No modulation), Pt=Pc;
For, µ = 1 (100% modulation), Pt=1.5 Pc;
Hence, µ increases from 0 to 1, total AM power is increased by 50 %.

Modulation Efficiency: It specifies share of sideband power in total power.

𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
So, 𝜂 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑃𝑆𝐵
=
𝑃𝑡
𝑃𝑐 𝜇 2
2
= 𝜇2
𝑃𝑐 1 + 2
𝜇2
𝑆𝑜, 𝜂 = ;
2 + 𝜇2
Now, if µ = 0 i.e. no modulation, then, η = 0, i.e. PSB= 0% of Pt and Pc=100% of Pt..
If, µ = 0.5, then, η = 0.11, i.e. PSB = 11% of Pt and Pc=89% of Pt.
If µ = 1, then η = 0.33, i.e. PSB = 33.33% of Pt and Pc=66.6% of Pt.
Dc‡iiAv‡jvPbv †_‡K GUv ¯úó ‡h, Amplitude Modulation (AM) Gi †ÿ‡Î A‡bK †ekx cvIqvi Carrier Gi
Rb¨ bó n‡q hvq|
Voltage and current of the transmitter of AM:

𝜇2
We know, transmitter power, 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 (1 + )
2
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 𝑉2 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 2

Again, we, power, 𝑃 = = =
𝑅 𝑅 2𝑅
So, putting this value in power equation;
𝑉𝑡2 𝑉𝑐2 𝜇2
= (1 + )
𝑅 𝑅 2
𝜇2
So, 𝑉𝑡 = 𝑉𝑐 1 + 2
Similarly for current putting, 𝑃 = 𝐼 2 𝑅, we get,
𝜇2
𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼𝑐 1 + 2

Draw the block diagram of square law modulator and switching

10
modulator.

Draw the complete envelope detector circuit for detecting message

11
signal.
It is a simple and highly effective system. This method is used in most of the commercial AM
radio receivers.
During Positive half cycles of the input signals, the diode D is forward biased and the capacitor
C charges up rapidly to the peak of the input signal. When the input signal falls below this value,
the diode becomes reverse biased and the capacitor discharges slowly through the load resistor
Rl. The discharging process continues until the next positive half cycle. When the input signal
becomes greater than the voltage across the capacitor, the diode conducts again and the process
repeated.
We assume that the diode is ideal and also assume that the Am wave applied to the envelop
detector is supplied by a voltage source of internal impedance Rs. The charging time constant
1 1
must be short compared with the carrier period 𝑓 , that is, 𝑅𝑠 ≪ 𝑓 ; so that the capacitor charges
𝑐 𝑐
rapidly and thereby follows the applied voltage up to the positive peak when the diode is
conducting.
On the other hand, discharging time constant 𝑅𝑙 𝐶 must be long enough to ensure that the
capacitor discharges slowly through the load resistor 𝑅𝑙 between positive peaks of the carrier
wave, but not so long that the capacitor voltage will not discharge at the maximum rate of change
1
of the modulating wave, that is, 1/𝑓𝑐 ≪ 𝑅𝑙 ≪ 𝑊 , where W is the message bandwidth. The result
is that the capacitor voltage or detector output is very nearly the same as the envelope of the AM
wave.

12 What are the advantages and disadvantages of AM?

Advantages of AM:
 Generation and demodulation of AM wave are easy.

 AM systems are cost effective and easy to build
Disadvantages of AM:
 AM contains unwanted carrier component, hence it requires more transmission power.

 The transmission bandwidth is high. The transmission bandwidth is equal to twice the
message bandwidth.
How can the limitations of AM be overcome? Or, Write short note

13
on: DSBSC, SSB and VSB.
Answer:
As AM is required high power and high bandwidth, to overcome these limitations, the
conventional AM system is modified at the cost of increased system complexity. Therefore, three
types of modified AM systems are discussed.
DSBSC (Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier) Modulation:
In DSBSC modulation, the modulated wave consists of only the upper and lower side bands.
Transmitted power is saved through the suppression of the carrier wave, but the channel
bandwidth requirement is the same as before.
If m(t) is the message signal and Accos(2πfct) is the carrier signal then, DSBSC wave is
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 𝑚(𝑡)
The Fourier transform of above equation is
1
𝑠 𝑓 = 𝐴 [𝑀 𝑓 − 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑀(𝑓 + 𝑓𝑐 )
2 𝑐

SSBSC (Single Side Band Suppressed Carrier) Modulation: The SSBSC modulated wave
consists of only the upper side band or lower side band. SSBSC is suited for transmission of
voice signals. It is an optimum form of modulation in that it requires the minimum transmission
power and minimum channel bandwidth. Its disadvantage is that cost and complexity are
increased.

VSB (Vestigial Side Band) Modulation: In VSB, one side band is completely passed and just a
trace of vestige of other side band is retained. The required channel bandwidth is therefore in
excess of the message bandwidth by an amount equal to the width of the vestigial side band. This
method is suitable for the transmission of wide band signals.

A carrier wave of frequency 10 MHz and peak value 10 V is

amplitude modulated by a 5 kHz sine wave of amplitude 6V.
14
Determine the modulation index, side frequencies and amplitude side
frequencies.
Solution: Modulation index is denoted by m or μ . So, don‟t be confused!!
𝐴𝑚 6
Modulation index, 𝑚 = = 10 = 0.6
𝐴𝑐
Side frequencies are,
Upper side band: 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 = 10𝑀𝐻𝑧 + 5𝑘𝐻𝑧 = 10.005 𝑀𝐻𝑧
Lower side band: 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 = 10𝑀𝐻𝑧 − 5𝑘𝐻𝑧 = 9.995 𝑀𝐻𝑧

𝑚 𝐴𝑐 𝜇 𝐴𝑐 0.6×10
The Amplitude of side frequencies is given by 𝑜𝑟 = = 3 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
2 2 2
The tuned circuit of the oscillator in a simple AM transmitter

employs a 40μ H coil and 12 nanofarad (nF) capacitor. If the
15 oscillator output is modulated by audio frequency of 5 kHz, what are
the lower and upper side band frequencies and the bandwidth
required to transmit this amplitude modulated wave?
Solution: Here the carrier frequency is the frequency of the oscillator.

1
So carrier frequency, 𝑓𝑐 = = 230 𝑘𝐻𝑧.
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶
∴ 𝑓𝑈𝑆𝐵 = 230 + 5 = 235 𝑘𝐻𝑧
And 𝑓𝐿𝑆𝐵 = 230 − 5 = 225 𝑘𝐻𝑧
Bandwidth, 𝑊 = 𝑓𝑈𝑆𝐵 − 𝑓𝐿𝑆𝐵 = 235 − 225 = 10 𝑘𝐻𝑧.
An audio frequency signal 𝟏𝟎𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝝅𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒕 is used to amplitude

modulate a carrier of 𝟓𝟎𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝝅𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝒕. Calculate:
i) Modulation index
ii) Sideband frequencies
16 iii) Amplitude of each sideband frequencies
iv) Bandwidth required
v) Total power delivered to the load of 600 Ω .
vi) Transmission efficiency
Solution:
𝐴𝑚 10
i) Modulation index, 𝜇 = = 50 = 0.2
𝐴𝑐

And percent modulation = 0.2 × 100 = 20%
ii) Sideband frequencies:
Given, 𝜔𝑚 = 2𝜋 × 500; 𝑠𝑜 𝑓𝑚 = 500 𝐻𝑧
And, 𝜔𝑐 = 2𝜋 × 105 ; 𝑠𝑜, 𝑓𝑐 = 100 𝑘𝐻𝑧.
So, 𝑓𝑈𝑆𝐵 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 = 100 𝑘𝐻𝑧 + 500 𝐻𝑧 = 100.5 𝑘𝐻𝑧
And 𝑓𝐿𝑆𝐵 = 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 = 100 𝑘𝐻𝑧 − 500 𝐻𝑧 = 99.5 𝑘𝐻𝑧.
iii) Amplitude of each frequencies:

𝜇 𝐴𝑐 0.2×50
Amplitude of upper or lower side bands = = =5𝑉
2 2
iv) Bandwidth required, 𝐵𝑤 = 𝑓𝑈𝑆𝐵 − 𝑓𝐿𝑆𝐵 = 100.5 − 99.5 = 1 𝑘𝐻𝑧.

v) Total power delivered into a load of 600 Ω :
𝜇2 𝐴2 𝜇2 50 2 0.2 2
We know that, total power, 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 1 + = 2𝑅𝑐 1 + = 2×600 1 + = 2.125 𝑊
2 2 2
𝜇2 0.22
vi) Transmission efficiency, 𝜂 = 2+𝜇 2 × 100% = 2+0.22 × 100 = 1.96%
A broadcast transmitter radiates 20 kW when the modulation

17 percentage is 75. How much of this is carrier power? Also calculate
the power of each sideband.
Solution:
𝜇2
we know that, 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 (1 + )
2
𝑃𝑡 20
So, 𝑃𝑐 = 𝜇2
= 0.75 2
= 15.6 𝑘𝑊
1+ 1+
2 2
The total antenna current of an AM transmitter is 5A. If the

18 modulation index is 0.6, calculate the antenna current when only the
carrier is sent.
Solution:
𝜇2
We know that: 𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼𝑐 1 + 2
𝐼𝑡 5
So, 𝐼𝑐 = = = 4.6 𝐴
𝜇2 0.6 2
1+ 1+
2 2

The rms antenna current of an AM transmitter increases by 15%

19 over its un-modulated value, when sinusoidal modulation by 1 kHz
signal is applied. Determine the Modulation index.
Solution:
15
Given that: 𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼𝑐 + 𝐼𝑐 × 100 = 1.15 𝐼𝑐
𝜇2
Now, we know that: 𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼𝑐 1 + 2
𝐼𝑡2
So, 𝜇 2 = 2 −1 =2× 1.15 2
− 1 = 0.645
𝐼𝑐2
∴ 𝜇 = 0.645 = 0.8
Draw the frequency spectrum of 𝒔 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒎𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒎𝟏 𝒕 +

20
𝑨𝒎𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧⁡
(𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒎𝟐 𝒕). Also determine the total Power.
Total Power in the AM:
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 + 𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵1 + 𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵2 + 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵1 + 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵2

𝜇 1𝐴𝑐 2 𝜇 2𝐴𝑐 2 𝜇 1𝐴𝑐 2 𝜇 2𝐴𝑐 2
𝐴2𝑐 2 2 2 2
= 2𝑅 + + + +
2𝑅 2𝑅 2𝑅 2𝑅
𝐴2 𝜇 12 𝐴2𝑐 𝜇 22 𝐴2𝑐 𝜇 12 𝐴2𝑐 𝜇 22 𝐴2𝑐

= 2𝑅𝑐 + + + +
8𝑅 8𝑅 8𝑅 8𝑅
𝐴2 𝜇 12 𝐴2𝑐 𝜇 22 𝐴2𝑐
= 2𝑅𝑐 + +
4𝑅 4𝑅
𝐴2 𝜇 12 𝜇 22
= 2𝑅𝑐 (1 + + )
2 2

𝜇 12 𝜇 22
= 𝑃𝑐 (1 + + )
2 2
Here, we can see that total modulation index, 𝜇 = 𝜇12 + 𝜇22
Calculate the total modulation index if the carrier wave is amplitude

21 modulated by three modulating signals with modulation indices 0.6,
0.3 and 0.4 respectively.
Solution:
we know, total modulation index, 𝜇𝑡 = 𝜇12 + 𝜇22 + 𝜇32 = 0.781
A certain AM transmitter radiates 10 kW with the carrier un-

modulated, and 11.8 kW when the carrier is sinusoidally modulated.
22 Calculate the modulation index. If another sine wave, corresponding
to 30 percent modulation, is transmitted simultaneously, determine
the radiated power.
𝜇2
We know that, 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 (1 + )
2
𝑃𝑡 11.8
So, 𝜇 2 = 2 −1 =2 − 1 = 0.36
𝑃𝑐 10
∴ 𝜇 = 0.36 = 0.6
With 30% modulation of another modulating signal, we get,
𝜇𝑡 = 𝜇12 + 𝜇22 = 0.62 + 0.32 = 0.67
𝜇 𝑡2 0.67 2
We know that, 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃𝑐 1 + = 10 1 + = 12.24 𝑘𝑊
2 2
A 1000 kHz carrier is simultaneously modulated with 300 Hz, 800 Hz,
23 1 kHz audio sine waves. What will be frequency present in the
output?
Solution:
𝑓𝑈𝑆𝐵1 = 1000 𝑘𝐻𝑧 + 300 𝐻𝑧 = 1000.3 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑓𝐿𝑆𝐵1 = 1000 𝑘𝐻𝑧 − 300 𝐻𝑧 = 999.7 𝑘𝐻𝑧.
𝑓𝑈𝑆𝐵2 = 1000 𝑘𝐻𝑧 + 800 𝐻𝑧 = 1000.8 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑓𝐿𝑆𝐵2 = 1000 𝑘𝐻𝑧 − 800 𝐻𝑧 = 999.2 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑓𝑈𝑆𝐵3 = 1000 𝑘𝐻𝑧 + 1 𝑘𝐻𝑧 = 1001 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑓𝐿𝑆𝐵3 = 1000 𝑘𝐻𝑧 − 1 𝑘𝐻𝑧 = 999 𝑘𝐻𝑧.

A 360 W carrier is simultaneously modulated by two audio waves

24 with modulation percentages of 55 and 65, respectively. What is the
total sideband power radiated?
Solution:
𝜇𝑡 = 𝜇12 + 𝜇22 = 0.552 + 0.652 = 0.85
𝜇 𝑡2 0.85 2
So, 𝑃𝑆𝐵 = 𝑃𝑐 = 300 × = 108.375 𝑊
2 2
When a broadcast AM transmitter is 50 percent modulated, its

25 antenna current is 12A. What will the current be when the
modulation depth is increased to 0.9?
Solution:
First, we need to find the current when only carrier is transmitted.

𝐼𝑡 12
𝐼𝑐 = = = 11.31 𝐴
1+𝜇 2 0.5 2
1+
2
Now, we will calculate antenna current with modulation index 0.9
𝜇2 0.92
𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼𝑐 1 + = 11.31 × 1 + = 13.41 𝐴.
2 2
The output current of 60 percent modulated AM generator is 1.5 A.

To what value will this current rise if the generator is modulated
26 additionally by another audio wave, whose modulation index is 0.7?
What will be the percentage power saving if the carrier and one of the
sidebands are now suppressed?
Solution:
First we will need to calculate the antenna current when only the carrier is transmitted.
𝐼𝑡 1.5
So, 𝐼𝑐 = = = 1.38𝐴
𝜇2 0.6 2
1+ 1+
2 2
Now, total modulation index, 𝜇𝑡 = 𝜇12 + 𝜇22 = 0.62 + 0.72 = 0.922
Now, the transmitter current with modulation index 0.922
𝜇 𝑡2 0.9922
𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼𝑐 1 + = 1.38 × 1 + = 1.647𝐴
2 2
Now, for the second question, we know:

𝜇2 𝜇2
Total power (including all sidebands), 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 + 𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵 + 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵 = 𝑃𝑐 + 𝑃𝑐 + 𝑃𝑐
4 4
𝜇2
And, if carrier and one of the sideband is suppressed, then Power required, 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 ( 4 )
𝜇2 𝜇2 𝜇2 𝜇2
Therefore power saved, 𝑃𝑐 + 𝑃𝑐 + 𝑃𝑐 − 𝑃𝑐 = 𝑃𝑐 + 𝑃𝑐
4 4 4 4
𝜇2 𝜇2 0.922 2
𝑃𝑐 +𝑃𝑐 1+ 1+ 1.213
4 4
So, percentage power saving = 𝜇2 𝜇2
= 𝜇2
= 4
0.922 2
= 1+0.425 = 0.851 = 85.1%
𝑃𝑐 1+ + 1+ 1+
4 4 2 2
The output of a transmitter is given by

𝟕
𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟒𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟔𝟐𝟖𝟎𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟑. 𝟏𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎 𝒕. This voltage is fed to a load
27
of 600 Ω resistance. Determine a) carrier frequency b) Modulation
frequency c)carrier power d)total power output e) Peak power output
Solution:
Given, 𝑠 𝑡 = 400 1 + 0.4𝑠𝑖𝑛6280𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛3.14 × 107 𝑡
Compare this equation with the standard equation of AM modulation for single tone. That is
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝜇 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 cos⁡

(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡).
It can also be expressed as cosine. That would be 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝜇 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 sin⁡

3.14×10 7
a) Carrier frequency, 𝑓𝑐 = = 5 𝑀𝐻𝑧
2𝜋
6280
b) Modulating frequency, 𝑓𝑚 = = 1000 𝐻𝑧
2𝜋
𝐴2𝑐 400 2
c) Carrier power, 𝑃𝑐 = 2𝑅 = = 133.33 𝑊
2×600
𝜇2 0.42
d) Total output power, 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 1 + = 133.33 1 + = 144 𝑊
2 2
e) Peak output voltage, = 𝐴𝑐 + 𝐴𝑚 = 𝐴𝑐 + 𝜇𝐴𝑐 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝜇 = 400 1 + 0.4 = 560
𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 2 560 2
So, peak power output = = 2×600 = 261.33 𝑊
2𝑅
A carrier wave with amplitude 12 V and frequency 10 MHz is

amplitude modulated to 50% level with a modulating frequency 1
28
kHz. Write down equation of the above wave and sketch the
waveform in frequency domain.
Solution:
We know the standard equation of AM, 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝜇cos⁡

(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 ]cos⁡
(2𝜋10 × 106 𝑡)
So, 𝑠𝐴𝑀 𝑡 = 12 1 + 0.5 cos 2𝜋1000𝑡 cos⁡
(2𝜋10 × 106 𝑡)
Or, 𝑠𝐴𝑀 𝑡 = 12 1 + 0.5 sin 2𝜋1000𝑡 sin⁡

𝑓𝑈𝑆𝐵 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 = 10 𝑀𝐻𝑧 + 1 𝑘𝐻𝑧 = 10.001 𝑀𝐻𝑧
𝑓𝐿𝑆𝐵 = 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 = 10 𝑀𝐻𝑧 − 1 𝑘𝐻𝑧 = 9.999 𝑀𝐻𝑧

𝜇 𝐴𝐶 0.5×12
Amplitude of the sidebands = = = 3𝑉
2 2
The positive peaks of an AM voltage wave rise to a maximum value of

15 V and drop to a maximum value of 5V. Determine the modulation
29
index and the un-modulated carrier amplitude, assuming sinusoidal
modulation.
Solution:
Maximum value of AM wave, 𝐴𝑐 + 𝐴𝑚 = 15
And Minimum value of AM wave, 𝐴𝑐 − 𝐴𝑚 = 5
Solving, we get, 𝐴𝑐 = 10 𝑉 and 𝐴𝑚 = 5 𝑉

𝐴𝑚 5
So, modulation index, 𝜇 = = 10 = 0.5
𝐴𝑐
In the trapezoidal pattern displaying modulation, the length of the

30 long vertical side is 5 cm, and of the short vertical side, 2 cm.
Determine the modulation depth.
Solution:
𝐿1 −𝐿2 5−2
For trapezoidal pattern, 𝜇 = = 5+2 = 0.43
𝐿1 +𝐿2
Calculate the percentage power saving when carrier and one of the
31 sidebands are suppressed in an AM wave modulated to a depth of 100
and 50 percent.

For modulation depth 100 percent:
Power required for double sideband with full carrier (DSBFC) for μ =1
𝜇2 1
𝑃𝐷𝑆𝐵𝐹𝐶 = 𝑃𝑐 1 + = 𝑃𝑐 1 + 2 = 1.5 𝑃𝑐
2
Power required for single side band suppressed carrier for μ =1;
𝜇2 1
𝑃𝑆𝑆𝐵 = 𝑃𝑐 = 𝑃𝑐 = 0.24 𝑃𝑐
4 4
Hence, percentage power saving when μ = 1
𝑃𝐷𝑆𝐵𝐹𝐶 − 𝑃𝑆𝑆𝐵
% 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 = × 100%
𝑃𝐷𝑆𝐵𝐹𝐶
1.5𝑃𝑐 −0.25𝑃𝑐
= × 100 = 83.33%
1.5𝑃𝑐
For the modulation depth of μ = 0.5

𝜇2
𝑃𝐷𝑆𝐵𝐹𝐶 = 𝑃𝑐 1 + = 1.125 𝑃𝑐
2
𝜇2
𝑃𝑆𝑆𝐵 = 𝑃𝑐 = 0.0624 𝑃𝑐
4
𝑃𝐷𝑆𝐵𝐹𝐶 −𝑃𝑆𝑆𝐵
% 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 = × 100 = 94.44%
𝑃𝐷𝑆𝐵𝐹𝐶
A carrier wave 𝑽𝒄 = 𝟒 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝝅 × 𝟓𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 × 𝒕 is amplitude

modulated by an audio wave 𝑽𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟑 𝟐𝝅 × 𝟓𝟎𝟎 × 𝒕 +
32 𝟎.𝟏𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟓(𝟐𝝅×𝟓𝟎𝟎×𝒕). Determine the upper and lower sidebands and
sketch the complete spectrum of the modulated wave. Estimate total
power in sidebands.
A carrier wave is given by 𝑉𝑐 = 4 sin 2𝜋 × 500 × 103 × 𝑡 and a modulating audio wave is
given by 𝑉𝑚 = 0.2 sin 3 2𝜋 × 500 × 𝑡 + 0.1 sin 5(2𝜋 × 500 × 𝑡)
So, carrier frequency, 𝑓𝑐 = 500 𝑘𝐻𝑧
There are two modulating frequencies: 𝑓𝑚1 = 1500 𝐻𝑧 and 𝑓𝑚2 = 2500 𝐻𝑧
Upper side band frequency components are: 501.5 kHz and 502.5 kHz
Lower side band frequency components are: 498.5 kHz and 497 kHz
The complete frequency spectrum is given below:

Now, modulation indices for the two modulating signal are:

𝐴𝑚 1 0.2 𝐴𝑚 2 0.1
𝜇1 = = = 0.05 and 𝜇2 = = = 0.025
𝐴𝑐 4 𝐴𝑐 4
Total modulation index, 𝜇𝑡 = 𝜇12 + 𝜇22 = 0.052 + 0.0252 = 0.056
𝜇 𝑡2
So, the total sideband power is given by 𝑃𝑆𝑏 = 𝑃𝑐 = 0.028 𝑃𝑐 ; where 𝑃𝑐 is the carrier power.
2
A complex modulating waveform consisting of a sine wave of

amplitude 3 V and frequency 1000 Hz plus a cosine wave of
amplitude 5V and frequency 3000 Hz amplitude modulates a carrier
33
of 500 kHz with 10 V peak. Plot the spectrum of modulated wave and
determine average power when the modulated wave is fed into a 50 Ω
load.
𝐴𝑚 1 3 𝐴𝑚 2 5
Now, 𝜇1 = = 10 = 0.3 and 𝜇2 = = 10 = 0.5
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑐
𝐴2 10 2
The carrier power, 𝑃𝑐 = 2𝑅𝑐 = 2×50 = 1 𝑊
𝜇 12 𝜇 22 0.32 0.52
So, total power, 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 1 + + =1× 1+ + = 1.17 𝑊
2 2 2 2

A broadcast radio transmitter radiates 10 kW, when the modulation

34
percentage is 60. How much of this is carrier power?
Answer:
𝜇2
we know, total power for AM, 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 (1 + )
2
𝑃𝑡 10
So, 𝑃𝑐 = 𝜇2
= 0.6 2
= 8.47 𝑘𝑊
1+ 1+
2 2
A radio transmitter radiates 10 kW and carrier power is 8.5 kW.

35
Calculate modulation index.
Solution:
𝜇2
We know, total power of AM: 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 (1 + )
2
𝑃𝑡 20
So, 𝜇 2 = 2 −1 =2 − 1 = 0.353
𝑃𝑐 8.5
∴ 𝜇 = 0.353 = 0.59
A 400 W carrier is modulated to a depth of 7.5%. calculate total

36
power in the modulated wave.
Solution:
𝜇2
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 1 + = 401.125 𝑊
2
The antenna current of an AM transmitter is 8 Amps, when only the

currier is sent, but in increases to 8.93A, when the carrier is
37 modulated by a single sine wave. Find percentage modulation.
Determine the antenna current when the percent modulation changes
to 0.8.
𝜇2
We know, 𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼𝑐 1 + 2
𝐼𝑡2 8.932
So, 𝜇 2 = 2 −1 =2 − 1 = 0.492
𝐼𝑐2 82
∴ 𝜇 = 0.70
So, the percent modulation is 70%.
Now, for percent modulation 80% i.e. 0.8
𝜇2 0.82
Antenna current, 𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼𝑐 1 + 2
= 8× 1+ 2
= 9.19 𝐴

Consider the message signal, m(t) = 20 cos (2πt) volts and the
carrier wave, c(t) = 50cos(100πt) Volts. Now,
38 (a) Sketch (to scale) the resulting wave for 75 % modulation.
(b) Find the power developed across a load of 10 ohms due to this
AM wave.
Answer:
(a) An AM wave is defined by 𝑠 𝑡 = 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚 𝑡 𝑐(𝑡)
Now, for a percentage modulation of 75%, the corresponding AM wave is
𝑠 𝑡 = 50 1 + 0.75 cos 2𝜋𝑡 cos⁡

(100𝜋𝑡)
Hence, s(t) has the waveform:
Now the expression of s(t) can be found:
𝑠 𝑡 = 50 1 + 0.75 cos 2𝜋𝑡 cos⁡

(100𝜋𝑡)
𝑜𝑟, 𝑠 𝑡 = 50 cos 100𝜋𝑡 + 0.75 × 50 cos 100𝜋𝑡 cos⁡

(2𝜋𝑡)
𝑜𝑟, 𝑠 𝑡 = 50 cos 100𝜋𝑡 + 37.5 cos 100𝜋𝑡 cos⁡

(2𝜋𝑡)
37.5 1
𝑜𝑟, 𝑠 𝑡 = 50 cos 100𝜋𝑡 + × cos 100𝜋𝑡 cos 2𝜋𝑡
2 2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑠 𝑡 = 5𝑜 cos 100𝜋𝑡 + 18.75 cos 102𝜋𝑡 + 18.75cos⁡
(98𝜋𝑡)
Hence, the average power of s(t) is
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 + 𝑃𝑈𝑆𝐵 + 𝑃𝐿𝑆𝐵

502 18.752 18.752

𝑜𝑟, 𝑃𝑡 = + +
2 × 10 2 × 10 2 × 10
𝑃𝑡 = 125 + 17.57 + 17.57
𝑃𝑡 = 160.16 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
Consider a message signal m(t) with the spectrum shown in figure

below. The message bandwidth W=1kHz. This signal is applied to a
product modulator, together with a carrier wave Accos(2πfct) ,
producing the DSBSC modulated wave s(t). This modulated wave is
next applied to a coherent detector. Assuming perfect synchronism
between the carrier waves in the modulator and detector, determine
the spectrum of the detector output when: (a) the carrier frequency
fc=1.25 kHz and (b) the carrier frequency fc=0.75 kHz. What is the
lowest carrier frequency for which each component of the modulated
wave s(t) is uniquely determined by m(t)?
39
For fc = 1.25 kHz, the spectra of the message signal m(t), the product modulator output s(t), and
the coherent detector output v(t) are as follows, respectively.

(c) For the case when fc=0.75, the respective spectra are as follows:
To avoid side band overlap, the carrier frequency fc must be greater than or equal to 1 kHz. The
lowest carrier frequency is therefore 1 kHz for each side band of the modulated wave s(t) to be
uniquely determined by m(t).
Suppose we have carrier frequency ω = 2π× 105 rad/sec; Find the

frequency component of Amplitude Modulated (AM) signal s(t) of the
message signal given below:
(a) m(t) = A0cos(2π× 103t)
40 (b) m(t) = A0cos(2π× 103t) + A0cos(4π× 103t)
(c) m(t) = A0cos(2π× 103t) sin(4π× 103t)
(d) m(t) = A0cos2(2π× 103t)
(e) m(t) = cos2(2π× 103t) +sin2(4π× 103t)
(f) m(t) = A0cos3(2π× 103t)
The AM signal is defined by ,𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + 𝑘𝑎 𝑚 𝑡 cos⁡ (𝜔𝑐 𝑡)
Where 𝐴𝑐 cos⁡
(𝜔𝑐 𝑡) is the carrier and ka is a constant.
We are given, ωc=2π× 105 rad/sec; so, fc=100 kHz.
(a) m(t)=A0cos(2π× 103t)
so, 𝜔0 = 2𝜋 × 103 𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
∴ 𝑓0 = 1 𝑘𝐻𝑧

The frequency components of s(t) for positive frequencies are:
𝑓𝑐 = 100 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓0 = 100 + 1 = 101 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓0 = 100 − 1 = 99 𝑘𝐻𝑧
(b) m(t) = A0cos (2π× 103t) +A0cos(4π× 103t)
This message signal consists of two sinusoidal components with frequencies f0=1 kHz and f1 = 2
kHz. Hence, the frequency components of s(t) for positive frequencies are:
𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓0 = 100 + 1 = 101 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓0 = 100 − 1 = 99 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓1 = 100 + 2 = 102 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓1 = 100 − 2 = 98 𝑘𝐻𝑧
(c) m(t) = A0cos(2π × 103t) sin(4π × 103t)
First, we note that, 2cosAsinB = sin A + B + sin⁡

(A − B)
1 1
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵 = sin 𝐴 + 𝐵 + sin⁡
(𝐴 − 𝐵)
2 2
Hence, 𝑚 𝑡 = 𝐴0 cos 2𝜋 × 103 𝑡 sin⁡
(4𝜋 × 103 𝑡)
𝐴0 𝐴0
∴𝑚 𝑡 = sin 6𝜋 × 103 𝑡 + sin⁡
(2𝜋 × 103 𝑡)
2 2
Which consists of two sinusoidal components with frequencies 𝑓0 = 3 𝑘𝐻𝑧 and𝑓1 = 1𝑘𝐻𝑧.
The frequency components of s(t) for positive frequencies are:
𝑓𝑐 = 100𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓0 = 100 + 3 = 103 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓0 = 100 − 3 = 97 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓1 = 100 + 1 = 101 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓1 = 100 − 1 = 99 𝑘𝐻𝑧

(d) m(t) = A0cos2(2π × 103t)
we know, 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 = 2cos2 𝜃
1
𝑠𝑜, cos2 𝜃 = (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃)
2
Hence, 𝑚 𝑡 = 𝐴0 cos 2 (2𝜋 × 103 𝑡)
𝐴0
∴𝑚 𝑡 = [1 + cos 4𝜋 × 103 𝑡 ]
2
Which consists of dc components and sinusoidal component of frequency 𝑓0 = 2 𝑘𝐻𝑧.
The frequency components of s(t) for positive frequencies are therefore:
𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓0 = 100 + 2 = 102 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓0 = 100 − 2 = 98 𝑘𝐻𝑧
(e) m(t) = cos2(2π × 103t) +sin2(4π × 103t)

1
we know, 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 = 2 cos2 𝜃; ∴ cos 2 𝜃 = 2 (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃)
1
and, 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 = 2 sin2 𝜃; ∴ sin2 𝜃 = 2 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃)
1 1
Hence, 𝑚 𝑡 = 2 1 + cos 4𝜋 × 103 𝑡 + 2 [1 − cos 8𝜋 × 103 𝑡 ]
1
∴ 𝑚 𝑡 = 1 + cos 4𝜋 × 103 𝑡 − cos⁡
(8𝜋 × 103 𝑡)
2
Which consists of dc component, and two sinusoidal components with 𝑓0 = 2 𝑘𝐻𝑧 and 𝑓1 =
4 𝑘𝐻𝑧. The frequency components of s(t) for positive frequencies are:
𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓0 = 100 + 2 = 102 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓0 = 100 − 2 = 98 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓1 = 100 + 4 = 104 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓1 = 100 − 4 = 96 𝑘𝐻𝑧

(f) m(t) = A0cos3(2π × 103t)

1
we know, cos 3 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. 2 [1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃]
1 1
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃cos⁡
(2𝜃)
2 2
1 1 1 1
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + [ cos 𝜃 + 2𝜃 + cos⁡
(2𝜃 − 𝜃)
2 2 2 2
1 3
= cos 3𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
4 4
Hence, 𝑚 𝑡 = 𝐴0 cos 2 (2𝜋 × 103 𝑡)
𝐴0 3𝐴0
∴𝑚 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋 × 103 𝑡 + (2𝜋 × 103 𝑡)
cos⁡
4 4
Which consists two sinusoidal components with frequencies 𝑓0 = 1𝑘𝐻𝑧and 𝑓1 = 3 𝑘𝐻𝑧. The
frequency components of s(t) are therefore:
𝑓𝑐 = 100𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓0 = 100 + 1 = 101 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓0 = 100 − 1 = 99 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓1 = 100 + 3 = 103 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓1 = 100 − 3 = 97 𝑘𝐻𝑧
Note: For negative frequencies, the frequency components of s(t) are the negative of those for
positive frequencies.
Suppose that on an AM signal, the Vmax(p-p)value read from the

graticule on the oscilloscope screen is 5.9 divisions and Vmin(p-p) is 1.2
41 divisions.
a. What is the modulation index?
b. Calculate Vc, Vm and m if the vertical scale is 2 V per division.
Answer:
𝑉 −𝑉 5.9−1.2
(a) modulation index, 𝑚 = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 +𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 5.9+1.2 = 0.662
𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 +𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 5.9+1.2

(b) 𝑉𝑐 = = = 3.55; but given that 2V per divistion
2 2
So,Vc=3.55× 2=7.1V

𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 5.9 − 1.2

𝑉𝑚 = = = 2.35; 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 2𝑣 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
2 2
So, Vm=2.35× 2=4.7 V
𝑉𝑚 4.7
Now, 𝑚 = = 7.1 = 0.662
𝑉𝑐
A standard AM broadcast station is allowed to transmit modulating

frequencies up to 5 kHz. If the AM station is transmitting on a
42 frequency of 980 kHz, compute the maximum and minimum upper
and lower sidebands and the total bandwidth occupied by the AM
station.
𝑓𝑈𝑆𝐵 = 980 + 5 = 985 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑓𝐿𝑆𝐵 = 980 − 5 = 975 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝐵𝑊 = 𝑓𝑈𝑆𝐵 − 𝑓𝐿𝑆𝐵 = 985 − 975 = 10 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑜𝑟,
𝐵𝑊 = 2 5 𝑘𝐻𝑧 = 10 𝑘𝐻𝑧
Frequency Modulation eb©bv Kiæb| What is modulation index for FM 25th

43
Modulation? BCS
There is another way of modulation of a sinusoidal carrier wave, namely, angle

modulation in which the angle of the carrier wave is varied according to the baseband signal.
That is, Angle modulation is a method of analog modulation in which either the phase or the
frequency of the carrier wave is varied according to the message signal. In this method of
modulation the amplitude of the carrier wave is maintained constant. An important feature of
angle modulation is that it can provide better discrimination against noise and interference than
Amplitude modulation. The improvement in performance is achieved at the expense of increased
transmission bandwidth; that is, angle modulation provides us with a a practical means of
exchanging transmission bandwidth for improved noise performance. Such a tradeoff is not
possible with angle modulation.
In general form, an angle modulation signal can be represented as:
𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos⁡
[𝜃 𝑡 ]

Where Ac is the amplitude of the carrier wave and θ(t) is the angle of the modulated carrier and
also the function of the message signal. The instantaneous frequency of the angle modulated
signal, s(t) is given by:
1 𝑑𝜃 𝑡
𝑓𝑖 𝑡 =
2𝜋 𝑑𝑡
There are two forms of angle modulation. They are: Phase modulation and Frequency
Modulation.
Phase modulation (PM) is that form of angle modulation in which the angle θ i(t) is varied
linearly with the baseband signal m(t), as shown by
𝜃𝑖 𝑡 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑝 𝑚 𝑡
The term 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 represents the angle of the unmodulated carrier, and the constant 𝑘𝑝 represents
the phase sensitivity of the modulator, and 𝑚(𝑡) is a voltage waveform.
Now the phase modulated wave 𝑠 𝑡 is thus described in the time domain by:
[2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑝 𝑚 𝑡 ]
Frequency Modulation (FM) is that form of angle modulation in which the instantaneous
frequency 𝑓𝑖 (𝑡) is varied linearly with the baseband signal 𝑚(𝑡) as shown by:
𝑓𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑘𝑓 𝑚(𝑡)
The term 𝑓𝑐 represents the frequency of the unmodulated carrier, and the constant 𝑘𝑓 represents
the frequency sensitivity of the modulator, and 𝑚(𝑡) is a voltage waveform.
Now the frequency modulated wave is represented by:

𝑡
[2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝜋𝑘𝑓 𝑚 𝑡 𝑑𝑡]
0
Where, the instantaneous frequency of the resulting FM wave equals
𝑓𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑘𝑓 𝑚(𝑡)
And the angle 𝜃𝑖 (𝑡) is represents by

𝑡
𝜃𝑖 𝑡 = 2𝜋 𝑓𝑖 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
𝑡
𝑜𝑟, 𝜃𝑖 𝑡 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝜋𝑘𝑓 𝑚 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
Frequency Deviation: The frequency deviation represents the maximum departure of the
instantaneous frequency of the FM wave from the carrier frequency, 𝑓𝑐 . In other word, frequency
deviation is the multiplication of frequency sensitivity of modulator 𝑘𝑓 and the amplitude of the
message signal, 𝐴𝑚 . Frequency deviation is represented by 𝛥𝑓.
𝑛𝑜𝑤, 𝛥𝑓 = 𝑘𝑓 𝐴𝑚 ; 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑙.
So, it is clear from the above equation that frequency deviation Δ 𝑓 is proportional to the
amplitude of the modulating wave, and is independent of the modulating frequency.
Modulation index of FM: The ratio of the frequency deviation Δ 𝑓 to the modulating frequency
𝑓𝑚 is commonly called the modulation index of the FM wave. We denote it by 𝛽, so that we may
write
∆𝑓
𝛽=
𝑓𝑚
44 What is the function of Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis circuits? BCS
Emphasis: Emphasis is the process of boosting the Amplitude vs Frequency characteristics of a

signal to reduce the effects caused by noise while transmission or reception of message signal
over the channel. The noises that may occur include both single frequency interference and
thermal noise. We know that the signal with higher modulation frequencies have low SNR

(signal to noise ratio). So, Noise is inherently greater in amplitude at higher frequencies. By
emphasis, approximately a 12 dB of improvement in noise can be achieved in FM.
Pre-emphasis: Signals with higher modulation frequencies have lower SNR. In order to
compensate this, the high frequency signals are emphasized or boosted in amplitude at the
transmission section of a communication system prior to the modulation process. That is, the pre-
emphasis network allows the high frequency modulating signal to modulate the carrier at higher
level, this causes more frequency deviation.
The figure shows an active pre-emphasis network, which consisting of a transistor, resistor and
an inductor. It is basically a high pass filter. A pre-emphasis circuit produces a constant increase
in the amplitude of the modulating signal with an increase in frequency. The Break Frequency is
determined by the RC or L/R times constant of the network. Normally, the break frequency
occurs at the frequency where XC or XL equals R.
Note: Break Frequency is the frequency where Pre-emphasis or De-emphasis just begins.
1 1
𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝑜𝑟 𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶 2𝜋
𝐿
𝑅
By the use of an active pre-emphasis network, we can reduce the signal loss and distortion with
the increase of SNR. Also the output amplitude of the network increases with frequencies above
Break Frequency.
De-emphasis: De-emphasis is the inverse process of pre-emphasis, used to attenuate the high
frequency signal is boosted at the transmitter section. The de-emphasis network at the receiver

section restores the original amplitude vs frequency characteristics of the information signal,
after the demodulation process.
The above circuit shows a passive de-emphasis network consisting of a resistor and a capacitor.
It is basically a low pass filter or an integrator.
The pre-emphasis network in front of the FM modulator and a de-emphasis network at the output
of the FM demodulator improves the Signal to Noise Ratio for higher modulating signal
frequencies, thus producing a more uniform SNR at the output of demodulator.

45 How is FM signal generated?

There are two basic methods of generating frequency modulated signals. They are: i) Direct
Method and ii) Indirect Method.
Direct FM:
𝑓𝑖 = 𝑓𝑐 = 𝑘𝑓 𝑚(𝑡)
In a direct FM system the instantaneous frequency is directly varied with the information signal.
That is, the carrier frequency is directly varied by the input signal. In this method, the voltage
controlled oscillator or VCO varies carrier with the baseband amplitude. It can be accomplished
by a Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO), whose out frequency is proportional to the voltage of
the input signal.
There are some problems of direct FM generator. Crystal oscillator cannot be used in direct FM
because its frequency is too stable and is difficult to change. The frequency deviation with direct
FM is only about 5 KHz which is too small for wideband FM. It should be noted that the
maximum frequency deviation in commercial FM radio is 75 kHz.
Indirect Method: Armstrong Modulator:
In indirect method, a NBFM wave is generated first and frequency multiplication is next used to
increase the frequency deviation to the desired level.
In this method, we first obtain Narrow Band Frequency Modulation (NBFM) via a NBFM
circuit with crystal oscillator. Then, apply frequency multiplier to increase both the carrier
frequency and frequency deviation. Indirect FM is preferred when the stability of carrier
frequency is of major concern (e.g. in commercial FM broadcasting). Actually, indirect method
is wide band FM.

46 Describe the generation of NBFM
A narrow band FM is the FM wave with a small bandwidth. The modulation index of narrow
band FM is small as compared to one radian.
A frequency modulated wave is defined as:
[2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜙 𝑡 ]
𝑡
Where 𝜙 𝑡 = 2𝜋𝑘𝑓 0
𝑚 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Now, we know,cos 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵
So, 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 cos 𝜙 𝑡 − 𝐴𝑐 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 sin⁡

[𝜙 𝑡 ]
Assuming 𝜙(𝑡)is small, then using cos 𝜙 𝑡 = 1 and sin 𝜙 𝑡 =𝜙 𝑡 .
So, 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 − 𝐴𝑐 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 [𝜙 𝑡 ]

𝑡
Or, 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 − 2𝜋𝑘𝑓 𝐴𝑐 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 . 0
𝑚 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
The above equation defines a narrow band FM wave. The generation scheme of such a narrow
band FM wave is shown in the figure below.

The narrow band FM wave, thus generated will have some higher order harmonic distortion.
This distortion can be limited to negligible levels by restricting the modulation index to 𝛽 < 0.5
radians.
47 Derive the equation for single tone frequency modulation.
Consider a sinusoidal modulating wave defined by
𝑚 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑚 cos⁡
(2πfm t)
The instantaneous frequency of the resulting FM wave equals
𝑓𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑘𝑓 𝐴𝑚 cos⁡
= 𝑓𝑐 + ∆𝑓𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡)
Where the quantity Δ 𝑓𝑚 = 𝑘𝑓 𝐴𝑚 is called the frequency deviation
1 𝑑𝜃 𝑖 𝑡
Now, we know, the frequency of angle modulated wave is 𝑓𝑖 𝑡 = 2𝜋 𝑑𝑡
𝑡
𝑠𝑜, 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒, 𝜃𝑖 𝑡 = 2𝜋 𝑓𝑖 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
𝑡
= 2𝜋 0 𝑐
[𝑓 + ∆𝑓𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡)]
sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡
= 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 2𝜋 ∆𝑓 2𝜋𝑓𝑚

∆𝑓
= 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + sin⁡
𝑓𝑚
= 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝛽sin⁡
∆𝑓
Where, 𝛽 = 𝑓 ; 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥
𝑚
The resultant FM signal is
[2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 ]
The frequency deviation factor indicates the amount of frequency change in the FM signal from
the carrier frequency 𝑓𝑐 on either side of it. Thus FM signal will have the frequency components
between 𝑓𝑐 − ∆𝑓 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑐 + ∆𝑓 . The modulation index, 𝛽 represents the phase deviation of the
FM signal and is measured in radians. Depending on the value of 𝛽, FM signal can be classified
into two types:
1. Narrow band FM (𝛽 ≪ 1) and

2. Wide band FM (𝛽 ≫ 1)
A sinusoidal wave of amplitude 10 volts and frequency of 10 kHz is

applied to an FM generator that has a frequency sensitivity constant
48
of 40 Hz/volt. Determine the frequency deviation and modulation
index.
Message signal Amplitude, Am=10 volts, Frequency 𝑓𝑚 = 1000 𝐻𝑧 and the frequency
sensitivity, 𝑘𝑓 = 40 𝐻𝑧/𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡
Frequency deviation, ∆𝑓 = 𝑘𝑓 𝐴𝑚 = 40 × 10 = 400 𝐻𝑧

∆𝑓 400
Modulation index, 𝛽 = 𝑓 = 1000 = 0.4, (𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑤 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝑀)
𝑚
Derive the equation of Narrow Band FM. Draw the frequency

49
spectrum of NBFM.
We know the FM signal, 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos⁡

[2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 ]
Now, cos 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵
∴ 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 cos 𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 − 𝐴𝑐 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 sin⁡

[𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 ]
Now, For NBFM, 𝛽 ≪ 1 , 𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒,
cos⁡
[𝛽sin⁡
(2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡) ≈ 1 and sin⁡
[𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑚 𝑡 ] ≈ 𝛽sin⁡

𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒: 𝑖𝑓 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙, 𝑡𝑕𝑎𝑛, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ≈ 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≈ 𝜃
Hence, 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 − 𝐴𝑐 𝛽 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 sin⁡

Now, we know, 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵 = cos 𝐴 − 𝐵 − cos⁡

(𝐴 + 𝐵)
1
𝑠𝑜, 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 − 𝐴𝑐 𝛽 . 2 [cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 𝑡 − cos⁡
{2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 𝑡}]
𝐴𝑐 𝛽 𝐴𝑐 𝛽
𝑜𝑟, 𝑠 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 − cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 𝑡 + cos⁡
{2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 𝑡}
2 2
The above equation represents the NBFM signal. This representation is similar to an AM signal,
except that the lower side band frequency has negative sign. The magnitude spectrum of NBFM
signal is shown below, which is similar to AM signal spectrum. The Bandwidth of NBFM signal
is 2𝑓𝑚 , which is same as AM signal.
Find the instantaneous frequency of the following waveforms:

(a) 𝒔𝟏 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬⁡[𝟏𝟎𝟎𝝅𝒕 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝝅]
50
(b) 𝒔𝟐 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬⁡[𝟏𝟎𝟎𝝅𝒕 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝟎𝝅𝒕 ]
(c) 𝒔𝟑 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬⁡[𝟏𝟎𝟎𝝅𝒕 + 𝝅𝒕𝟐 ]
Answer:
The instantaneous frequency of the angle modulated signal, s(t) is given by:
1 𝑑𝜃 𝑡
𝑓𝑖 𝑡 =
2𝜋 𝑑𝑡
1 𝑑 1
(a) 𝑓1 = 2𝜋 𝑑𝑡 100𝜋𝑡 + 0.25𝜋 = 2𝜋 × 100𝜋 = 50 𝐻𝑧.
So instantaneous frequency in this case is constant.

1 𝑑
(b) 𝑓2 = 2𝜋 𝑑𝑡 [100𝜋𝑡 + sin 20𝜋𝑡 ]

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Thalictrum dioicum, 283
Thalictrum polygamum, 86
Thaspium aureum, 126
Tiarella cordifolia, 36
Tradescantia Virginica, 257
Trichostema dichotomum, 269
Trientalis Americana, 26
Trifolium agrarium, 144
Trillium cernuum, 39
Trillium erectum, 216
Trillium erythrocarpum, 40
Trillium grandiflorum, 39
Trillium sessile, 218
Utricularia cornuta, 128

Utricularia vulgaris, 128
Uvularia perfoliata, 50
Vaccinium corymbosun, 66
Vaccinium macrocarpon, 185
Vaccinium stamineum, 68
Veratrum viride, 38
Verbascum Blattaria, 152
Verbascum Thapsus, 150
Verbena hastata, 252
Verbena urticæfolia, 90
Vernonia Noveboracensis, 269
Veronica Americana, 246
Veronica officinalis, 248
Veronica Virginica, 77
Viburnum acerifolium, 48
Viburnum lantanoides, 48
Vicia Cracca, 264
Vicia sativa, 264
Viola blanda, 42
Viola Canadensis, 42
Viola canina, var. Muhlenbergii, 232
Viola lanceolata, 42
Viola pedata, 230
Viola pedata, var. bicolor, 230
Viola pubescens, 118
Viola rotundifolia, 126
Zizia aurea, 126

INDEX TO ENGLISH NAMES
Adder’s Mouth, 185

Adder’s Tongue, White, 116
Adder’s Tongue, Yellow, 114
Agrimony, 156
Ague-weed, 106
Alder, Black, 52
Alder, White, 104
Alum-root, 281
Anemone, Rue, 26
Anemone, Wood, 24
Arbutus, Trailing, 173
Arethusa, 248
Arrow-head, 98
Arrow-wood, 48
Aster, Blue, 266
Aster, Golden, 160
Aster, Purple, 266
Aster, White, 105
Avens, White, 86
Azalea, Clammy, 58
Azalea, Pink, 182
Balsam-apple, Wild, 105
Baneberry, Red, 52
Baneberry, White, 50
Barberry, 142
Bay, Sweet, 56
Beach Pea, 264
Bean, Wild, 284
Bearberry, 46
Beard-tongue, 254
Bedstraw, 76
Bee Balm, 224
Beechdrops, 283
Beechdrops, False, 283
Beggar-ticks, 166
Bellwort, 50
Benjamin-bush, 114
Bergamot, Wild, 256
Betony, Wood, 218
Bindweed, Hedge, 190
Bird’s Nest, 96
Birthroot, 216
Bishop’s Cap, 38
Bishop-weed, Mock, 97
Bitter-sweet, 77
Black-eyed Susan, 158
Bladder Campion, 84
Bladderwort, 128
Blazing Star, 270
Blood-root, 22
Bluebells, 234
Blueberry, 66
Blue Curls, 269
Blue-eyed Grass, 241
Blue-eyed Mary, 234
Bluets, 232
Blueweed, 258
Boneset, 106
Bouncing Bet, 196
Brooklime, American, 246
Buckwheat, Climbing False, 83
Bugbane, 78
Bugloss, Viper’s, 258
Bunch-berry, 54
Bur Marigold, 166
Bush-honeysuckle, 134
Butter-and-eggs, 146
Butterfly-weed, 222
Button-bush, 82
Calico-bush, 57
Campion, Bladder, 84
Campion, Starry, 84
Cancer-root, 283
Cancer-root, One-flowered, 236
Cardinal-flower, 226
Carrion-flower, 39
Carrot, Wild, 96
Cat-brier, 39
Catchfly, Sleepy, 180
Celandine, 116
Celandine Poppy, 118
Chamomile, 71
Checkerberry, 72
Chickweed, 74
Chicory, 266
Choke-berry, 44
Cicely, Sweet, 97
Cinquefoil, Common, 120
Cinquefoil, Shrubby, 120
Cinquefoil, Silvery, 122
Cleavers, 76
Clover, Bush, 194
Clover, Hop, 144
Clover, White Sweet, 72
Clover, Yellow, 144
Clover, Yellow Sweet, 145
Cohosh, Black, 78
Cohosh, Blue, 282
Colic-root, 86
Columbine, Wild, 214
Cone-flower, 158
Coral-root, 284
Corn Cockle, 252
Cornel, Dwarf, 54
Corpse-plant, 74
Corydalis, Golden, 192
Corydalis, Pale, 192
Cowbane, Spotted, 97
Cowslip, 114
Cowslip, Virginian, 234
Cow Wheat, 136
Cranberry, 185
Cranesbill, Wild, 238
Cress, Spring, 29
Cress, Winter, 130
Crinkle-root, 29
Culver’s Root, 77
Cuphea, Clammy, 202
Cynthia, 132
Daisy, Blue Spring, 235

Daisy, Ox-eyed, 68
Daisy, White, 68
Daisy Fleabane, 70
Dandelion, 132
Dandelion, Dwarf, 132
Dandelion, Fall, 164
Day-flower, 256
Deer-grass, 200
Devil’s Paintbrush, 224
Dittany, 270
Dockmackie, 48
Dodder, 102
Dogbane, Spreading, 188
Dogwood, Panicled, 49
Dogwood, Red-osier, 49
Dogwood, Round-leaved, 49
Dutchman’s Breeches, 34
Dyer’s Green-weed, 145
Elder, Common, 78
Elder, Red-berried, 54
Elecampane, 162
Enchanter’s Nightshade, 76
Evening Primrose, 157
Everlasting, Early, 32
Everlasting, Fragrant Life, 112
Everlasting, Pearly, 112
Everlasting, Plantain-leaved, 32
Fever-bush, 114
Fireweed, 208
Five Finger, 120
Flag, Larger Blue, 244
Fleabane, Daisy, 70
Fleabane, Salt Marsh, 200
Fleur-de-lis, 244
Flowering-moss, 28
Foam-flower, 36
Forget-me-not, 235
Foxglove, Downy, 168
Foxglove, Smooth False, 168
Frost-weed, 140
Gall-of-the-earth, 284
Garget, 92
Gentian, Closed, 272
Gentian, Five-flowered, 272
Gentian, Fringed, 274
Geranium, Wild, 238
Gerardia, Purple, 210
Gerardia, Seaside, 210
Gerardia, Slender, 210
Gill-over-the ground, 238
Ginger, Wild, 278
Ginseng, 40
Ginseng, Dwarf, 40
Golden Club, 126
Golden-rod, 160
Gold Thread, 28
Goose-grass, 76
Grass of Parnassus, 110
Green-brier, 39
Ground Cherry, 100
Ground Ivy, 238
Ground Laurel, 173
Ground-Nut, 40
Ground-Nut, 284
Groundsel, Common, 122
Groundsel Tree, 110
Harbinger-of-Spring, 30
Hardhack, 198
Harebell, 241
Hawkweed, European, 224
Hawthorn, 50
Heal-all, 254
Hedge Bindweed, 190
Hellebore, False, 38
Hemlock, Water, 97
Hemp-weed, Climbing, 108
Herb of St Barbara, 130
Herb Robert, 193
Hobble-bush, 48
Hog Pea-nut, 262
Holly, Mountain, 52
Honeysuckle, Bush, 133
Honeysuckle, Fly, 28
Honeysuckle, Trumpet, 228
Honeysuckle, White Swamp, 58
Honeysuckle, Wild, 182
Hop Clover, 144
Horse Balm, 158
Hound’s Tongue, 222
Huckleberry, Common Black, 66
Huckleberry, Squaw, 68
Huntsman’s Cup, 236
Hyacinth, Wild, 108
Indian Cucumber-root, 127

Indian Fig, 138
Indian Hemp, 188
Indian Pipe, 21
Indian Poke, 38
Indian Tobacco, 262
Indian Turnip, 280
Indigo, Wild, 144
Innocence, 234
Iron-weed, 269
Ivy, American, 65
Ivy, Ground, 238
Ivy, Poison, 65
Jack-in-the-pulpit, 280
Jamestown Weed, 104
Jewel-weed, 154
Joe-pye-weed, 210
June-berry, 22
Knotweed, Common, 83
Knotweed, Pink, 212
Knotweed, Sand, 212
Ladies’ Tresses, 108

Lady’s Slipper, Pink, 180
Lady’s Slipper, Yellow, 124
Lambkill, 185
Larkspur, 240
Laurel, Great, 60
Laurel, Ground, 173
Laurel, Mountain, 57
Laurel, Sheep, 185
Laurel Magnolia, 56
Lily, Meadow, 136
Lily, Turk’s Cap, 220
Lily, White Water, 88
Lily, Wild Red, 219
Lily, Wild Yellow, 136
Lily, Wood, 219
Lily, Yellow Pond, 128
Linaria, Blue, 257
Lion’s Foot, 284
Liparis, Lily-leaved, 283
Liver-leaf, 229
Liverwort, 229
Lizard’s Tail, 56
Lobelia, Great, 260
Loosestrife, Four-leaved, 138
Loosestrife, Purple, 198
Loosestrife, Yellow, 140
Lousewort, 218
Love Vine, 102
Lungwort, 234
Lupine, Wild, 240
Mallow, Common, 206

Mallow, Marsh, 206
Mallow, Rose, 206
Mallow, Swamp, 206
Mandrake, 30
Marsh Marigold, 113
May-apple, 30
Mayflower, 173
Mayweed, 71
Meadow-beauty, 200
Meadow Lily, 136
Meadow Rue, Early, 283
Meadow Rue, Tall, 86
Meadow-sweet, 88
Melilot, White, 72
Melilot, Yellow, 145
Milfoil, 94
Milkweed, Common, 192
Milkweed, Four-leaved, 193
Milkweed, Green-flowered, 110
Milkweed, Orange-red, 222
Milkweed, Purple, 193
Milkweed, Swamp, 193
Milkwort, 186
Mitre-wort, 38
Mitre-wort, False, 136
Moccason-flower, 180
Monkey-flower, 250
Moonseed, 56
Motherwort, 250
Mountain Holly, 52
Mountain Laurel, 57
Mountain Tea, 72
Mullein, Common, 150
Mullein, Moth, 152
Mustard, Black, 130
New Jersey Tea, 71

Nightshade, 258
Nonesuch, 144
Orchis, Green, 82
Orchis, Orange, 152
Orchis, Purple Fringed, 249
Orchis, Ragged Fringed, 82
Orchis, Showy, 176
Orchis, White Fringed, 92
Orchis, Yellow Fringed, 152
Oswego Tea, 224
Painted Cup, 219

Parsnip, Common Wild, 126
Parsnip, Early Meadow, 126
Parsnip, Meadow, 126
Parsnip, Water, 98
Partridge-pea, 148
Partridge Vine, 80
Pennyroyal, American, 249
Pennyroyal, Bastard, 269
Pepperbush, Sweet, 104
Pepper-root, 29
Phlox, Wild, 235
Pickerel-weed, 257
Pigeon-berry, 92
Pimpernel, 226
Pine Sap, 283
Pink, Deptford, 198
Pink, Moss, 235
Pink, Sea, 202
Pink, Swamp, 182
Pink, Wild, 178
Pinxter flower, 182
Pipsissewa, 68
Pipsissewa, Spotted, 68
Pitcher-Plant, 236
Plantain, Rattlesnake, 94
Plantain, Robin’s, 235
Plantain, Water, 98
Pleurisy-root, 222
Poison Ivy, 65
Poison Sumach, 64
Pokeweed, 92
Polygala, Fringed, 186
Polygala, Moss, 188
Pond-lily, Yellow, 126
Poor-man’s-weather-glass, 226
Poverty-grass, 134
Prickly Pear, 138
Prince’s Pine, 68
Pyxie, 28
Quaker Ladies, 232

Queen Anne’s Lace, 96
Radish, Wild, 130

Ragwort, Golden, 122
Raspberry, Purple-flowering, 190
Rattlebox, 145
Rattlesnake-plantain, 94
Rattlesnake-root, 284
Rattlesnake-weed, 132
Red-root, 71
Rheumatism-root, 30
Rhododendron, American, 60
Rhodora, 184
Rich-weed, 158
Robin’s Plantain, 235
Rocket, Yellow, 130
Rock-rose, 140
Rosemary, Marsh, 269
Rue Anemone, 26
Rue, Early Meadow, 283
Rue, Tall Meadow, 86
St. Andrew’s Cross, 150

St. John’s-wort, Common, 148
St. John’s-wort, Marsh, 204
Sarsaparilla, Wild, 42
Saxifrage, Early, 36
Scabious, Sweet, 70
Sea Lavender, 269
Self-heal, 254
Senna, Wild, 146
Service-berry, 22
Shad-bush, 22
Sheep Laurel, 185
Shepherd’s Purse, 29
Shin-leaf, 66
Side-saddle Flower, 236
Silver rod, 162
Simpler’s Joy, 252
Skull-cap, Larger, 242
Skull-cap, Mad-dog, 244
Skunk Cabbage, 276
Snakeroot, Black, 78
Snakeroot, White, 106
Sneezeweed, 166
Snowberry, Creeping, 46
Soapwort, 196
Solomon’s Seal, 44
Solomon’s Seal, False, 46
Sorrel, Violet Wood, 236
Sorrel, Wood, 62
Sorrel, Yellow Wood, 156
Spatter Dock, 128
Spearwort, 127
Speedwell, 248
Spice-bush, 114
Spiderwort, 257
Spikenard, 42
Spoonwood, 57
Spring Beauty, 32
Spurge, 80
Squaw-weed, 122
Squirrel Corn, 36
Staghorn Sumach, 64
Star-flower, 26
Star-grass, 86
Star-grass, Yellow, 142
Steeple-bush, 198
Stick-tight, 166
Stitchwort, 74
Stone-root, 158
Succory, 266
Sumach, Poison, 64
Sumach, Staghorn, 64
Sundew, 96
Sundrops, 157
Sunflower, Swamp, 166
Sunflower, Wild, 166
Swamp Cabbage, 276
Sweet Cicely, 97
Sweet William, Wild, 235
Tansy, 170
Thimble-weed, 76
Thorn-apple, 104
Thoroughwort, 106
Tick-trefoil, 194
Toadflax, Bastard, 71
Toadflax, Blue, 257
Toadflax, Yellow, 146
Toothwort, 29
Touch-me-not, 154
Trailing Arbutus, 173
Traveller’s Joy, 102
Trillium, Painted, 46
Trillium, White, 39
Trumpet-weed, 216
Turtle-head, 100
Twin-flower, 176
Twin-leaf, 30
Twisted Stalk, 178
Venus’s Looking-glass, 242

Vervain, Blue, 252
Vervain, White, 90
Vetch, Blue, 264
Vetch, Common, 264
Viburnum, Maple-leaved, 48
Violet, Bird-foot, 230
Violet, Canada, 42
Violet, Common Blue, 230
Violet, Dog, 232

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Communication Hand Note for EEE Job

Preparation 1st Edition Ismail Hossain

Thevenin EEE Job Guideline For Assistant Engineer &

English for Business Communication ■■■■■■■■■■ ■■■■ ■■■

Não vai dar 1st Edition Cynthia Hand

Note sul cinematografo 3rd Edition Robert Bresson

MP3-Bangladesh Affairs Dr Md Shahadat Hossain

Communication et publicité Claude Chevalier

Bitte nehmen Sie meine Hand da weg 2nd Edition Bokowski

A experiência do cinema Ismail Xavier

Prepared by Ismail Hossain

Do Not Scan This Document. @Ismail Hossain Page 2

Amplitude Modulation, 8 QAM, 133

Frequency Modulation, 36 FSK, 135

Pre-emphasis & Demphasis, 38 ASK, 137

FM Generation, 41 Multiplexing,FDM, 139

Generation of NBFM, 42 TDM, 142

Bandwidth of FM, 47 Multiple Accesses

Digital Communication, 63 FDMA, 153

PCM, 69 TDMA, 154

DM, 89 CDMA, 155

ADM, 92 GSM, 158

Information, bit, entropy, 105 Satellite Communicatio, 164

Shannon‟s capacity, 109 2G, 3G, 4G, 168

Line Coding, 115 PLCC, 169

Passband Transmission, 120 Modulation Scheme of different

Do Not Scan This Document. @Ismail Hossain Page 3

Transmitter: The transmitter is a collection of electronic circuits designed to convert the

Do Not Scan This Document. @Ismail Hossain Page 4

i) Twisted pair cable

The advantages of optical fiber over co-axial cable are as follows:

i) Fiber optics are significantly faster than co-axial cable.

(a) Justify-The baseband signal cannot be transmitted through space 24th

The message signal that is to be transmitted is referred to as „baseband signal‟. In a

Do Not Scan This Document. @Ismail Hossain Page 5

For example, consider the baseband signal with f = 1 kHz. Then

This 5000 meters height of a vertical antenna is unthinkable and unpracticable.

This height of antenna is practical and such antenna can be installed.

‡Kv‡bv †Kv‡bv eB‡q ‡`qv Av‡Q

5 What is the need of modulation?

i) It reduces the height of antenna.

Do Not Scan This Document. @Ismail Hossain Page 6

6 What are the different types of modulation?

Television signal: For television signals, bandwidth required is 6 MHz.

Do Not Scan This Document. @Ismail Hossain Page 7

Describe Amplitude Modulation. What is Modulation Index? Draw

Consider a sinusoidal carrier wave c(t) defined by

where Ac is the carrier amplitude and fc is the carrier frequency.

whereka is a constant called the amplitude sensitivity of the modulator.

𝑘𝑎 𝑚(𝑡) is also called modulation index.

Do Not Scan This Document. @Ismail Hossain Page 8

There are two requirements of amplitude modulation. They are:

i) The amplitude of kam(t) is always less than unity, that is,

Do Not Scan This Document. @Ismail Hossain Page 9

𝑘𝑎 𝑚 𝑡 < 1, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡

We call W the message bandwidth.

Now, the modulated wave, s(t) = Ac[1+kam(t)]cos(2πfct)

We find that the Fourier transform of the AM wave s(t) is given by