A TECHNICAL REPORT

ON

STUDENTS INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE SCHEME (SIWES)

HELD AT

ZAMFARA STATE WATER BOARD

BY

SHEHU MUHAMMED
ADM NO: 1510304155

SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF BIOCHEMISTRY, FACULTY OF

SCIENCE, USMANU DANFODIYO UNIVERSITY, SOKOTO.

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF

B.SC (HONS) IN BIOCHEMISTRY

SUPERVISED

BY

PROF MG ABUBAKAR

MARCH, 2019

DEDICATION

i
 I dedicated this report to ALLAH (SWT). Who have been always with me throughout my

educational career.

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

All praises is indeed to the Almighty Allah (SWT) the most gracious the most merciful,

who has given me the opportunity to see this moment of completing my training program.

My sincere thanks goes to my parents, siblings and friends for the patience with which

they went through the work and pointed some inevitable mistakes. A no less profound gratitude

should also be expressed to ALHAJI SHEHU AYINDE,ALHAJA BILIKISU SHEH for their

commendable help and encouragement. And to all my colleagues in biochemistry department

whose quest for knowledge motivated me immensely.

Furthermore, my gratitude goes to my colleagues, and the staffs of water board for

showing their efforts toward ensuring the acquired basic knowledge and skills during this

training program.

Finally, my appreciation goes notably to my team and amiable fellow IT students, indeed I owed
a lot but all I can say is God bless you all.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE - - - - - - - - - I

DEDICATION - - - - - - - - II

ACKNOWLEDGMENT - - - - - - - III

TABLE OF CONTENTS - - - - - - - IV

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction - - - - - - - - 1

1.1 Historical background of SIWES - - - - - - - - 1

1.2 Aims and objectives of SIWES - - - - - - - - - - 2

1.3 Historical Development of ZAMFARA Water board - - - - - 2

1.4 Major Shareholders - - - - - - - 3

1.5 Procurement of Raw Materials - - - - - 3

1.6 Equipment used in the laboratory - - - - - - 4

1.7 General laboratory precautions and safety measures - - - - 7

1.8 Accidental prevention during water control - - - - - - - 8

1.9 Method of sample collection - - - - - - - 9

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Introduction - - - - - - - - - - 10

2.1 Concept of water - - - - - - - - 10

2.2 Forms of water - - - - - - - - 10

2.3 Chemical and physical properties of water- - - - - - - 10

CHAPTER THREE

3.1 Water Treatment and Purification - - - - - - 12

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3.2 Flow Chart of the Water Treatment Plant - - - - 12

3.3 Screening - - - - - - - - 13

3.4 Grit removal Unit - - - - - - - 13

3.5 Aeration Unit - - - - - - - - 13

3.6 Chemical chamber Unit - - - - - - 13

3.7 Clarification/Sedimentation Unit - - - - - 14

3.8 Filtration Unit - - - - - - - - 14

3.9 Reservation and Distribution Unit - - - - - 14

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 EXPERIMENT 1: Water Analysis and Quality Control - - 16

4.1 EXPERIMENT 2: Quality control parameters - - - 16

4.2 EXPERIMENT 3: Physicochemical Analysis - - - 16

4.3 EXPERIMENT 4: Physicochemical Analysis test parameters - 19

4.4 EXPERIMENT 5: Organic matter test - - - - 26

4.5 EXPERIMENT 6: Bacteriological analysis - - - 28

4.6 EXPERIMENT 7: Flocculation or Jar test - - - 31

4.6 EXPERIMENT 8: Alum test - - - - 33

4.7 EXPERIMENT 9: Quantitative Analysis of Water - - -

4.8 EXPERIMENT 10: Water Sampling Analysis - - - -

4.9 EXPERIMENT 11: Water Quality Analysis - - - -

4.10 EXPERIMENT 12: Hardness Water Testing - - - -

CHAPTER FIVE

5.1 Marketing - - - - - - - - 36

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5.2 Costing - - - - - - - - 36

5.3 Sales and Promotion of the Company- - - - - 36

5.4 Organizational Structure of the Firm - - - - - 37

5.5 Conclusion - - - - - - - - 37

5.6 Recommendation - - - - - - - 38

References - - - - - - - - 39

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vii
 CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION TO SIWES
The Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) was created to give students of
tertiary institutions in Nigeria. This enable students to acquire skills and experience in various
fields of study.
The scheme is meant for students in universities, polytechnics, and technical colleges for student
of various institutions in Nigeria. It is jointly by the Industrial Training Fund (ITF). Also the
scheme covers a period of four, six to twelve months of practical training depending on the
course of study. During this period students are supervised by IT supervisors and they are given
log books which is usually filled up by the students concerned based on the nature of the work
carried out on daily basis and it is usually endorsed by the industrial based supervisor.

1.1 BRIEF HISTORICAL BACK GROUND OF SIWES

The SIWES was established as a result of realization by the federal government in 1971,
of the need to introduce a new dimension to the quality and standard of education
obtained in the country in order to achieve the much needed technology advancement.
Because it has been shown that a correlation exist a country level of economic,
technological development and its level of investment in manpower (oniyide; 2000).
The operators are the ITF, the coordinating agency (NUC, NCCE, and NBTE) and it is
funded by the federal government of Nigeria. And we students are the beneficiaries.

1.1.0 THE ROLE OF INDUSTRIAL TRAINING FUND

The industrial training fund performs the following roles;
a. The play a role in collecting list of eligible students for payment of allowances
through their employers and institutions.
b. The help in identifying and preparing suitable industries for placements of
students.
c. Examination of student practical assignment and signing of their logbooks
periodically.
d. Enhances academic excellence with creative education.

1
1.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF SIWES
The main objectives of the student industrial work experience scheme is as follows;

i. To provide an avenue for students in the university to acquire industrial skill and
experience in their course of study.
ii. To prepare students for the work situation they are likely to meet after graduation.
iii. To expose students to work methods and techniques in handling equipment and
machinery that may not be available in the university / Institute.
iv. Provide student an opportunity to apply their bridging the gap between Higher
Education and actual practice.
v. Make transition from the university to the world of work easier and thus enhance
students contact for later job placement after graduation.
vi. Enlist and strengthen employer’s involvement in the entire educational process of
preparing university graduates for employment in industry.

1.3 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE ORGANIZATION GUSAU DAM)

The Gusau Dam hold a reservoir on the Sokoto River just upstream from Gusau,capital
of Zamfara state in Nigeria.it supplies water to the city and neighboring communities.in
2006,the Dam collapsed, killing 40 people and destroying 500 homes. The disaster
occurred on Saturday, September 30,2006 when the dam collapsed after heavy
flooding.40 people were killed and approximately 500 homes were destroyed, displacing
1,000 people.it occurred after the heaviest downpour ever recorded in the area, which had
fallen for the previous two days.in addition to the lost and damaged houses, large amounts
of farmland that was almost due to to be harvested was harvested wasted and hundreds of
livestock were killed.as well as the dam, a bridge linking the city to the northern part of
Zamfara state was destroyed. Around 700 people were temporarily sheltered in a nearby
secondary school in the village of birnin Ruwa,where assistance was provided by the red
cross.Drinkig water wells were polluted by the floodwater. The accident occurred after
sluice gates failed to function, causing the water to overwhelm the dam, says the operator,
the Zamfara Water Board. After the dam collapse, many residents had to resort to stream

2
 water. Water vendors more than doubled their price, selling a 25 liter jerry can fo#50
compared to #20 before.
Later development in March 2007, the federal government released n2.4 billion for the
rehabilitation of the Gusau dam. In May 2007 the zamfara state government said they ere
giving top priority to ensure ring that water was retained in the dam, rehabilitating the
water treatment plant, introducing modern equipment at the pumping stations, and
developing the disrobe union network.
In January 2010, a Zamfara based group called concerned citizens petitioned the EFCC to
investigate the former governor of zamfara state, Ahmad Sani Yarima,for mismanagement
of the funds, including an #1 billion loan for Gusau dam repairs

1.5 PROCUREMENT OF RAW MATERIALS

There are four (4) main materials involved in water treatment in the FCT water board; the raw
water is being sourced from the lower G dam (LUD) reservoir which supplies water to the phase
one, two, and three and phase four of the plant.
Aluminum Sulphate is sourced locally from an indigenous phosphate fertilizer company in Ogun
State, it is sometimes imported from Romana and India. Depending on the sources, it cost
nothing less than N50, 000 /tones.
Calcium hydroxide (Lime) is also produced locally in Nigeria. Nigeria has better line than many
countries. It is obtained through local contractors at the rate of N38, 000 a ton depending on its
quality. It is also sometimes imported from United Kingdom (UK).
Another important raw material in water treatment is chlorine used, the powder form of
chlorine is largely imported from the United State and China. It cost ₦440,000 a ton.

1.6 EQUIPMENTS USED IN THE LABORATORY

a) FLOCCULATOR MACHINE: This machine is used in the lab to determine the
amount of coagulant (alum) to be used in treating water in the lab.

3
 A Flocculating Machine

b) SPECTROPHOTOMETER: This machine is used in detecting the amount of light

absorbed which passes through a medium.

A Spectrophotometer

c) pH METER: This is used to check the alkalinity and acidity of a water sample.

4
 A pH meter

d) TURBIDIMETER: This machine is used to detect or measure the amount of material

or dirt content contained in a sample or the clarity of water samples
.

A Turbidimeter

e) INCUBATOR: This machine is used to detect the growth of microorganisms or used

to store sample to enhance the growth of microorganism

An Incubator

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f) WATER DISTILLER: This machine is used to make distilled water.

Water Distiller

g) THERMOMETER: This machine is used to detect the degree of hotness or coldness

of our water samples in the laboratory

h) AUTOCLAVE: This is used in sterilizing samples or preparing of well sterilized

broths (lactose broth)

Autoclave

i) STERILIZATION MACHINE: This machine is use in sterilizing laboratory

apparatus such as pipettes etc.

6
 A sterilizing machine
j) WEIGHING MACHINE: This machine is used in determining the quantity of
particular samples or to determine the amount of specific quantity of sample needed.

A weighing machine

k) HOT PLATE: This instrument is used for boiling or heating samples

l) MAGNETIC STIRRER: This machine is used for stirring samples or mixing

samples properly.

7
1.7 GENERAL LABORATORY PREPARATION AND SAFETY MEASURES

1.7.1 LABORATORY SAFETY RULE AND REGULATION

A laboratory is a place or a building where analyst carry out chemical or physical analysis and
test. However, a water laboratory is similar to a medical laboratory, tests are done in respect to
that of water only. These tests are carried out to show and solve problems associated with water
such as dirt removal (turbidity), pH balance and disinfection of water. Others include total
hardness, chloride ion test, total alkalinity etc.
Laboratory works involves the risk of potential hazards for both human and properties, but the
hazards can be avoided by carrying out work properly following the rules and regulations of the
laboratory.
The elementary solution to these hazards in the medical laboratory is for any one worthy of
working in the laboratory to be able to know the procedures of the work he or she is carrying out.
To minimize other risks in the laboratory, certain safety rules must be obeyed:
a) Protective wears such as laboratory coats, hand gloves, protective glasses and nose
masks must be worn during analysis.
b) Eating and drinking in the laboratory must be avoided.
c) Hands should be washed before and after analysis so as to avoid cross contamination
d) Cleanliness must be ensured at all times.
e) Containers carrying toxic samples must be disposed properly and immediately after use
or should be properly labeled and stored if analysis have not yet been conducted.
f) All apparatus should be washed before and after use.
g) Electronic devices such as television set, radio are strictly prohibited in the laboratory.
h) All used up/ finished reagents must be placed in the laboratory area for replacement.
i) All reagents, indicators and apparatus must be kept in their respective place after use.

1.7.2 SAFETY MEASURES IN WATER QUALITY CONTROL

Safety measures are essential to protect the operator and staffs present in water quality control.
In order to ensure this, the following attitude and behavior are mandatory;
a) The laboratory should be well ventilated.
b) Chemical storage and facilities should be properly maintained.

8
 c) Laboratory chemical hygiene plan.
d) Hand gloves, nose masks, hand towels, and tissue papers should be made available.
e) Emergency phone should be available.
f) Fire safety and extinguishers should be provided.
g) Appropriate clothing wears for laboratory (such as laboratory coats, shoes to be worn for
plant monitoring).
h) No eating and drinking during analysis.

1.8 ACCIDENT PREVENTION DURING WATER CONTROL

Compliance with drinking water quality regulations ensure that the consumers receive high
quality drinking water and to reduce the risk of water borne diseases.
These regulations establish criteria for;
a) Water quality standard.
b) Protection and distribution system.
c) Monitoring and treatment requirements.
d) Consumer’s report.
e) Locating and developing a source of drinking water.

1.9 METHOD OF SAMPLE COLLECTION

Water samples are being collected from the plant taps, using a liter container (bottle), and
chemical samples are collected using sample container. The capacity may vary in size
depending on the amount of sample needed for analysis i.e 10ml/20ml/30ml to 1000ml.

9
 CHAPTER TWO
2.0 INTRODUCTION

2.1 CONCEPT OF WATER

Water is a chemical substance with the chemical formula H 2O and molecular weight of
18.00g. A water molecule contains 1 Oxygen atom and 2 Hydrogen Atoms connected by
covalent bond. The ratio of the volume of Hydrogen to Oxygen is 2:1. Water is described as a
universal solvent, meaning that it dissolves more substance than any other solvent. It is also the
most abundant chemical substance in the earth, about 70.9% of the earth crust contains water. It
is a liquid at ambient condition, but it often co-exists on earth its solid state ice and gaseous state
(water vapor or steam). Water is essential for the continuance of life due to the fact that the
reaction that goes on the body to maintain life throughout the plant and animal require the
present of water and therefore no organism can survive without a supply of water.
Water occur naturally as rain, in wells, in springs, seas, lakes, in rivers and in oceans and
it all called natural water, so water from natural sources are rarely pure. However, all pure water
most have the property of being colorless, odorless and tasteless. It freezes at 0 0C and boils at
1000C and also it is neutral to litmus paper, but however turns cobalt chlorides paper from white
to blue (Pollack Gerald, 2011).

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2.2 FORMS OF WATER
Water like many other substance can take numerous forms that are broadly categorized by phase
of matter. The liquid phase is the most common (within the atmosphere and earth surface), which
is generally known as ‘water’. The solid phase is known as ice which is cool. The gaseous phase
of water is known as water vapor (steam) and it is characterized by water assuming the
configuration of transport cloud. The figure below shows the forms of water.

2.3 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER

2.3.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER

Water as a universal solvent, is dissolved in many inorganic substances to form solutions.
Some of the physical properties of water includes:
a) It is neutral to litmus
b) It is colorless, odorless and tasteless
c) It has density of 1g/cm3 at 4oC
d) It freezes at 0oC and boils at 100oC

2.3.2 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER

Chemically, water is a compound composed of hydrogen and oxygen as H 2O. It is chemically
active when reacting with certain metals and metal oxide to form bases and with certain oxides
of non-metals to form acids. It also reacts with inorganic compounds to form a variety of
products e.g. alcohols from alkenes. Some of the chemical properties can be illustrated below
with reactions:
 Reaction with metals to form alkali e.g.
2Na(s) + 2H2O(i) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
 Action of water on metallic carbides e.g.
Al4C3(s) + 12H2O(I) 4Al(OH)3(g) + 3CH4(g)
 Reaction with metallic halide e.g.
CaH(s) + H2O(I) Ca(OH)2(aq)

11
  Reaction with metal oxides to form base e.g.
K2O(s) + 2H2O(I) 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)
 Reaction with non-metal oxides to produce acid e.g.
CO2(g) + H2O(I) H2CO3(aq)

CHAPTER THREE
3.1 WATER TREATMENT AND PURIFICATION
This refers to series of processes of removing undesirable chemicals and biological
containments from raw water. The goes is to produce water fit for a specific purposes. Most
water is purified for human consumption (Drinking Water) but water purification may also be
designed for a variety of other purposes, including industrial application.
In general, the methods used include physical, biological and chemical process. The
purification process of water may reduce the concentration of particulate matter including
suspended particles, parasite, bacteria, algae, viruses, fungi and range of different particulate
materials (Nikolag Gartsen, 2009).

3.2 FLOW CHART OF THE WATER TREATMENT PLANT

Raw Water from dam

Screening from the source

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 Grit removal chamber

Raw Water

Oxidation of metals Aeration chamber Compressed air

Mixing or dosing chamber Al2(SO4)3,Ca(OH)2 (Ca(OCl)2)

Sedimentation or Clarification unit

Filtration unit

Contact tank Reservation unit Post-chlorination

Distribution

3.3 SCREENING FROM THE SOURCE

This is the stage where large floating objects such as woods, dead animals, leaves and
other materials present there are screened out by the use of net.

3.4 GRIT REMOVAL UNIT

This is the second stage of water treatment whereby very small pieces of floating
particles are carried by water in the cause of its transportation from the river to the intake section.
The present of grit is responsible for the brownish coloration of raw water. The grit removal
chamber consists of circular container with a mechanically operated stirrer which strives the
incoming raw water in a circular path causing centrifugation. The process directs the grit towards
the center of gravity then the water is passed to the next stage. The removal of grit reduces to a
greater extent the degree of turbidity in the raw water.

3.5 AERATION UNIT

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 This is a stage whereby air is introduced into the raw water under high pressure. The
application air into the system oxidizes many soluble metal ions into insoluble precipitants that
can easily be removed.
The process also reduces or not rightly eliminates odors by decomposition of organic
matter present in water.
E.g. Fe2+ + [0] ====> Fe 3+
Mn2+ + [0] ====> Mn 3+

3.6 MIXING OR DOSING CHAMBERS (CHEMICAL CHAMBERS)

This is the stage where the dosing of chemicals take place. These chemicals include alum,
time and chlorine.
(a) Aluminum Sulphate [AL2 (S04)]: Otherwise known as alum is dosed into the water as
coagulants to cause coagulation. Coagulation is the agglomeration of flocks into larger
flocks which could easily be settle by the force of gravity. Aluminum sulphate which is a
metallic salt dissociates when added in water and hydrolyze forming insoluble hydroxide
and complexes that helps in flock formation.
AL2 (SO)3 + 6H20 ===> 2 AL (OH)3 + 3H2SO4
The Al (OH)3 is a stable and complex precipitate that plays a vital role in flocculation process.
(b) Lime [Ca(OH)2]: The dozing of lime helps to adjust the PH level to the W.H.O.
acceptable standard at the end of the treatment process. It also raises the PH value to the
optimum level of 6:8 – 7.2 required for effective coagulation.
Ca (OH)2 + H2SO4 ====> CaSO4 + 2H2O
3Ca (OH)2 + Al2(SO4)3 ====> 3CaSO4 + 2AL(OH)2
Lime is of great importance because it also plays a vital role in the suffering of hard work
containing MgSO4 and CaSO4.
(c) Chlorine (pre-chlorination): chlorine is added as a disinfectant. It has the ability of killing
harmful bacteria and microscopic organization and stops the growing of bacteria along
the edge corner of the path channel. Flash mixing is accompanied by rapid
mixing/stirring to obtain a homogenous mixture and required concentration per unit
volume of the stock solution.
Cl2(s) + H2O(i) ===> HCl(aq) + HOCl(aq)

14
After the dozing of the chemicals above, the water is then passed to the next stage.

3.7 CLARIFICATION/SEDIMENTATION UNIT

The dosed water is passed to the sedimentation unit which is made up of large clarifier
beds. The aluminated water is allowed to settle at this stage or clarified, the sludge settles at the
bottom and the clear water remains at the top and passed to the filtration unit via channel for
onward treatment.

3.8 FILTRATION UNIT

Filtration is a process in which residual suspended particles that are unable to sediment
during coagulation are trapped on the surface of the sand filter beds. The filter bed consists of
nozzles and uniform size crystalline and media particles that disallow the passage of suspended
particles. Due to the gradual entrapment of particles, with times the nozzles (filters) becomes
dirty thereby decreasing the rate of filtration at this point, a back wash is carried out.

3.9 RESERVATION AND DISTRIBUTION UNIT

After the filtration, the water is channeled onward to the contact tank for a period of at
least 30mins before moving to the reservoir where also post chlorination is carried out.
As the name implies, post chlorination is a disinfection process carried out after the water
has been treated. This is done to attack the possible microorganisms present in the storage tanks
down to the distribution network.
Distribution is the final stage where water is pumped to the public through a networks of
pipes under high distribution station.

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 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 WATER ANALYSIS AND QUALITY CONTROL

At Lower Gusau Dam, FCT water board. The department of quality control are in charge of
water analysis which their main aim is to produce portable water for community use, Also they
are in charge of the water treatment processes.
In water treatment process, it is very important to notice the daily temperature, PH and turbidity.
This allows proper evaluation of water purification process.
Laboratory analysis of raw water treatment is aimed at testing the physicochemical,
Bacteriological and organic matter content of the water.
Below is an example of water treatment plant in FCT.
TIME PH VALUE
Raw Water - 8:80
Clarifier A - 7.10
Clarifier B - 7.10
Treated Water - 6.90
Temperature and PH has a great influence in coagulation process as such they are to be
considered during water treatment process so as to produce clean, healthy and portable water to
the entire public environment.

4.1 QUALITY CONTROL PARAMETERS

The quality control parameters that are used at Gusau dam are of three main types namely:
physicochemical analysis, Bacteriological analysis and Organic matter test.
But they also carry out Jar test, Alum test and Marble test.

4.2 PHYSICOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS

Water quality depends on the physical and chemical characteristics, whereas pure distilled
water has the principal compositions of only hydrogen and oxygen. The quality desired for
drinking usually needs treatment to bring to it up to the desired state. The impurities found in
natural water for domestic uses including drinking must not contain disease causing organisms.

16
The impurities in water are usually due to impurities which are found in air, soil, waste-water,
from communities and industry. Certain processes purifies it to make it suitable for consumption.

4.2.0 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER

COLOUR: Water should be colorless and the presence of color indicates that it contains
dissolved colloidal materials this is usually objectionable. Pure water has a pale blue green tint in
large volumes. Most consumers object to taste and color in water.

TASTE & ODOUR: Dissolved impurities which are organic in nature causes taste and odor
which are objectionable in water. These parameters are difficult to measure and differ according
to individual feeling. Ideally water should not have bad taste; the presence of a small amount of
salt may spoil the taste. Certain organic and inorganic impurity when present in a slight amount
makes the water unpalatable e.g. phenol. Other parameters that impact tats in water include
Algae, Iron, and Magnesium salts. Odor is also objectionable in water.

TURBIDITY: Water becomes turbid when substances like salt clay & finely divide organic
material are present. The present of these colloidal materials gives the water a cloudy appearance
which is unattractive and may be harmful. This is common with surface [river] water during the
rainy season. It can be measured using a turbidimeter in NTU (Neuphlometric Turbidity Unit). It
determines the level of turbidity in a water sample.

CONDUCTIVITY: This is used to estimate the total amount of dissolved salts or solids in water
measured in µs/cm-1 at 250C. (Micros men/cm-1)

TEMPERATURE: Temperature affects the properties of water such as viscosity, density, and
surface tension. The solubility of chemicals and bacteriological activity is influenced by
temperature. They also increase the taste and odor, decreased the solubility of gases, (i.e. oxygen
is important in the taste of water, water without oxygen is flat in taste), the common problem
with ground water. Hence very hot or cool water is not desirable.
DISSOLVED SOLIDS: In its passage through the soil, ground water picks up some soluble
substance like Ca, Na, Mg, Mn, they occur in combine form of by carbonate, sulphate and

17
chlorides. Dissolved solid in particularly are objectionable in high concentration. They are
present not only in inorganic form but also in organic forms.

4.2.1 CHEMICAL CHARACTRICTIES OF WATER

The chemical composition of water depends upon the characteristic of catchment area. Ground
water acquires the characteristic of soil through which it follows.

pH VALUE: The degree of acidity or alkalinity is measure by the pH. Actually it is the active
(H+) ion or hydrogen concentration measured in solution.

If the pH is less than 7, it is acidic.

If it is at 7, it is graded as neutral.
But if the pH is grater then 7, it is alkaline.
The pH value of water is of great important in the control of coagulation process; removal of
iron (Fe), and manganese (Mn) and corrosion are all directly related to pH .
Most bacteriological activities occur within PH rang of 6-8.

ALKALINITY: Due to the passage of water through area having limestone, bicarbonates split
up leading water alkalinity.

(a) HC3-Bicarbonate
(b) CO2- - carbonate
(c) OH- hydroxide.

The alkalinity of water helps as a buffer (to maintain constant pH). A buffer solution is a solution
which acts by controlling acidity and alkalinity in a solution. (e. g. carbon(iv)oxide –CO 2 and
bicarbonate ions HCO3-). The amount of alkalinity is expressed in terms of calcium carbonate
(CaCO3).

ACIDITY: This is depicted by the carbonate acid content. Carbonate acid activities is in the
range of 4.5 to 8.2. Acidity is expressed in term of CaCO3-

18
HARDNESS: This is said to occur in water due to the occurrence of calcium and magnesium
ions (Ca2+ and Mg2+). Occasionally Iron is also involved, the anions associated are mainly
sulphate (SO42-) Nitrate (NO3-), and chloride (Cl-). Hardness causes water not to foam with soap.
CHLORIDE: Excess chloride in water impacts bad tastes. The chloride concentration should
not exceed 250mg/liter. In some cases it exceeds the limit, though it is not harmful to human
health but the water may be unpalatable to the drinkers. Threshold level is up to 250-500mg/L,
600mg/L give salty taste. It may also indicate contamination from urine /sewage.

IRON (Fe): It gives a bitter taste in water and occurs in forms of bicarbonate or sulphate.
Whenever Iron comes in contact with Oxygen, dissolved iron may precipitates as floccs of ferric
oxide. Iron causes taste and color problem in water and may result in red water.

MANGANESSE (Mn): It is gradually found in water along with iron. It also causes taste
problems when the concentration exceeds 0.5mg/L
Stored water frequently contains manganese but it is usually mixed with the sludge at bottom.
White clothes turn yellowish when washed in water containing manganese. Its present in water
affects the color.

DISSOIVED OXYGEN: Oxygen is very important in water quality control. Oxygen is slightly
soluble in water. Without dissolved oxygen, water has a flat taste. Drinking water is usually
aerated in order to have the maximum dissolved oxygen. There should be a sufficient quality of
dissolved oxygen in water flowing through pipelines otherwise iron may dissolve in water
causing corrosion of pipes.

AMMONIA: The presence of Ammonia (NH3) indicates concentration from sewage. It takes up
a lot of oxygen from water for its oxidation. One molecule of ammonia requires about four
molecules of oxygen. It causes toxicity to animals in water.

4.3 PHYSICOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS TEST PARAMETERS

19
TEST FOR TOTAL HARDNESS OF WATER

INTRODUCTION: Test for total hardness of water is a test done to determine the quantity of
Calcium and Magnesium in water after treatment. Calcium and Magnesium in water form chelae
complexes with EDTA. In the presence of Ferrochrome Black –T,

AIM: To determine the concentration of Mg and Ca in water.

MATERIALS/REAGENTS: Water samples, measuring cylinder, burette, conical flask,
beaker, retort stand, white tile, K-10 buffer solution, EDTA solution, Net indicator (Erochrome
Black-T).

PRINCIPLE: The total hardness of water is the amount of tetraoxosulphate (VI), Magnesium
tetraoxosulphate (VI), Calcium hydrogen trioxocarbonate (VI) in water, Calcium and magnesium
in water from chelate complex by EDTA. In the presence of Erichrome black there is a color
change from wine red to bluish-green.

Ca2+ + EDTA CaEDTA2+ complex (chelate)

Mg2+ + EDTA MgEDTA2+ complex (chelate)

PROCEDURE
 100mL of various water samples is measured into a clean 250mL conical flask using a
measuring cylinder.
 20 drops of k-10 buffer solution (to stabilize the pH of the water samples), and 5 drops of
NET indicator was added.
 EDTA solution was poured into the burette by the use of a funnel, the tape was adjusted
in order to expel air bubbles, and the initial burette reading was taken.
 The conical flask, containing the water sample was place on a white tile under the
burette. The solution from the burette was run gradually into the conical flask.
Continuous addition with shaking was done until and end point was achieved (wine red to
bluish green). The final burette reading is taken. The difference between the two values is
thereafter multiplied by 20 (a conversion factor from mL to mg/L or ppm). The value is
recorded.

20
 RESULT:
SAMPLE TEST OBSERVATION INFERENCE
RAW WATER 100ml of sample + 20 Color changes hard
drops of k-10 Buffer from red wine
solution + Eriochrome bluish green
black as indicator and
titrate against 0.01M
EDTA
TREATED 100ml of sample + 20 Color changes from Not hard
WATER drops of k-10 buffer red wine to light
solution + Erichrome bluish green
black as indicator and
titrate against 0.01M
EDTA

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: After titration we observed raw water to change from red
wine to bluish green so the water is said to be hard and treated water changed from red wine to
be light bluish green so the water is said to be light hard.

CHLORIDE ION TEST

INRODUCTION: Chlorine is widely used for the disinfection of water for the control of
pathogens and microbial growth in cooling water and other water treatment system.
AIM: To determine the amount /quantity of chloride ion in water after treatment.

MATERIALS/REAGENTS: Water samples, measuring cylinder, burette, 250mL conical

flasks, beaker, retort stand, white tile, Silver Nitrate solution (AgNO 3), and Potassium
dichromate indicator.

21
PRINCIPLE: In a neutral or slightly alkaline solution, potassium chromate can indicate the end-
point of silver Nitrate titration of chloride. Silver Chloride is precipitated quantitatively before
red Silver chromate is formed.

PROCEDURE
 100mL of various water samples is measured into a clean conical flask using a measuring
cylinder.
 5 drop of Potassium dichromate indicator was added.
 Silver Nitrate solution was poured into the burette by the use of a funnel, the tape was
adjusted in order to expel air bubbles, and the initial burette reading was recorded.
 The conical flask, containing the water sample was place on a white tile under the
burette. The solution from the burette was run gradually into the conical flask.
Continuous addition with shaking was done until and end point was achieved (from
yellow to brick red).
 The final burette reading is taken and the difference is multiplied by 14.20 to convert the
unit to mg/L or ppm

RESULT:

SAMPLES TEST OBSERVATION INFERENCE

RAW WATER 100ml of water sample Changes from Cl- present

+ 5 drops of potassium yellow to brick
dichromate as red
indicator and titrate
against standard silver
nitrate

TREATED 100ml of water sample No color change No color change

WATER + 5 drops of potassium
dichromate as
indicator and titrate

22
 against standard silver
nitrate

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: after titration, it was observed that the raw water
changed from yellow to brick red indicating the presence of chloride ion and the treated
water showed no change in color.

TEST FOR TOTAL ALKALINITY

INTRODUCTION: Alkalinity is the ability of a liquid or substance to resist a change in Ph or

the capacity of water to buffer against an acid. Alkalinity is present in liquid as dissolved
minerals like calcium and magnesium. These alkali metals are found everywhere in nature,
especially in the earth’s crust.

AIMS: To determine the level of the water alkalinity.

MATERIALS/REAGENTS: Water samples, measuring cylinder, burette, 250mL conical flask,

beaker, retort stand, white tile, alkalimetry reagent, and methyl orange indicator.

PRINCIPLE: The alkalinity of water is its quantitative capacity to neutralize a strong acid to a
designation pH. Therefore, just like the acidity value, water alkalinity varies with the end-point
pH used. The alkalinity of many water surfaces is basically a function of carbonate, bicarbonates,
and hydroxide contents and it is an indication of the concentration of these constituents.
PROCEDURE
 100mL of various water samples is measured into a clean conical flask using a measuring
cylinder.
 2-3 drops of methyl orange indicator is added.
 Alkalimetry reagent solution was poured into the burette by the use of a funnel, the tap
was adjusted in order to expel air bubbles, and the initial burette reading was taken.
 The conical flask containing the water sample was place on a white tile under the burette.
The solution from the burette was run gradually into the conical flask. Continuous
addition with shaking was done until and end point was achieved (from orange to pink).

23
  The final burette reading was taken and the difference is multiplied by 20 to convert the
value to the acceptable unit in mg/L or ppm

RESULT:

SAMPLES TESTS OBSERVATION INFERENCE

RAW WATER 100ml of water from orange to The water is said

sample + 2-3 drops pink(37mg/L) to be alkaline in
of methyl orange nature
and titrate against
alkalimetry reagent
solution

TREATED 100ml of water No color change The water is said

WATER sample + 2-3 drops (28mg/L) to be alkaline free
of methyl orange
and titrate against
alkalimetry reagent
solution

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: From the result above the raw water is said to be alkaline
in nature and the treated water is said to be alkaline free.

TEST FOR pH

24
INTRODUCTION: pH is the negative logarithm of H+ ion concentration which measures the
acidic or basic nature of a solution.

AIM: To determine the acidity or alkalinity of water.

MATERIALS/EQUIPMENTS: Beaker, water sample, pH meter, k-10 buffer solution.

PRINCIPLE: Is based on the acidity or alkalinity of a liquid and the concentration of hydrogen
ions.

PROCEDURES: The pH meter is calibrated first with a buffer solution then 50ml of the sample
was poured into a beaker, the pH meter was dipped into it and the reading is then taken.

RESULT:

SAMPLE pH
1 6.9
2 6.9
3 7.0
4 6.8

REFERENCE RANGE=BETWEEN 6.5-8.5

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: From the result obtained, it is observed that sample
above are all within the WHO standard (between 6.5-8.5). Therefore, in conclusion all the
samples are good for portable drinking water.

TEST FOR TURBIDITY

INTRODUCTION: Turbidity is a measure of how much material is suspended in a body of

water. It gives an indication of the concentration of colloidal particles in the water, expressed in
Nephelometric turbidity units (NTU).Clear water means low turbidity and cloudy water means
high turbidity which is caused by suspension been produced when solid is dispensed in water.

AIM: To determine the clarity of the water samples

25
MATERIALS/REAGENTS: Water samples, beaker, conical flask, tissue paper, turbidimeter,
book and pen, cuvette bottle. No reagent use.

PRINCIPLE: It is determined in a Nephelometer by comparing the intensity of light scattered

by the water sample to the intensity of light scattered by a standard reference in the turbidity
meter.

PROCEDURE
 measure water samples into conical flask of various water samples
 Put on the turbidimeter then measure the water sample into the cuvette bottle of various
water samples each.
 Then clean the body of the cuvette bottle with the tissue paper thoroughly to avoid
pathogens.
 Place the cuvette bottle into the machine then run the test and then record the result using
your paper and pen.
 Ensure to rinse the cuvette bottle before putting in the next water sample in the cuvette
bottle.
 Repeat the same process for the various water samples.

RESULT:
REFERENCE RANGE=<0.5.0 NTU
SAMPLES TURBIDITY(NTU)
1 0.2
2 0.3
3 11.8

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: From the result above, it is observed that sample 1 and 2
between the normal range of WHO standard (<o-5.0NTU), while sample 3 is above normal
range. Therefore, in conclusion the turbidity of raw water can be as low as 1 or 2 NTU for
ground water and up to several hundred in turbid surface water e.g. after rainfall. According to
WHO standard, drinking water should be <0-5 NTU.

26
MARBLE TEST

INTRODUCTION: This is a test done to determine the aggressively or corrosiveness of water

samples.

AIM: To determine the corrosive nature of water

MATERIALS/REAGENTS: marble chip, water samples, foil paper, cupboard, weighing

machine, measuring cylinder.

PROCEDURE:

 Measure 2.5g of marble chip and measure 250ml of water samples of various water in
a conical flask using a measuring cylinder
 Add 2.5g of marble chip in various water samples in each conical flask.
 Cover each conical flask with foil paper and keep in the cupboard or dark Conner
 Allow for 24hrs then remove the fowl paper, then check the total alkalinity,
temperature, PH and total hardness.

RESULT:

SAMPLES TEMPERATURE pH ALKALINITY TOTAL HARDNESS

Initial Final InitialFinal Initial Final Initial Final

RAW 25 27 7.0 7.2 48 62 28 32

WATER

TREATED 25 26 6.6 7.0 36 44 20 28

WATER

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: From the observation above the water sample
shows some sign of aggressiveness after 24hrs contact time with marble chips.

4.4 ORGANIC MATTER ANALYSIS

27
Organic matter can be referred to as death and decay of animals and vegetation’s, herbicides,
pesticides, industrial waste even some compounds (elements) e.g. nitrate, Sulphur are also
organic matters found in the water. We have three methods in organic matter taste namely
acidification method, oxidation method and quantification and detection method.
 Acidification method is the breakdown of the weak bond of organic matter.
 Oxidation method is to sprang our water to help get rid of the odors and the volatile
organic matters in the water.
 Quantification is to know the amount of organic matter left during the analysis while
detection is to know or identify a particular thing or problem or even a causative agent.

4.4.0 ORGANIC MATTER TEST

INTRODUCTION: This is the determination of the concentration of carbon based (i.e organic)
in generating, monitoring, treating or discharging processed waste water. Natural organic matter
in water is from plant and animal, Organic matter in drinking water is determined by applying
indirect determination methods used for quantitative measurements such as total organic carbon
(TOC), chemical oxygen demand (COD), and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD).

AIM: To determine the organic matter content in water after treatment.

MATERIALS/REAGENTS: Water samples, measuring cylinder, conical flask, hot plate,

beaker, retort stand, white tile, 0.0125M KMnO4, 50% Conc. H2SO4(aq), Mohr’s salt solution,
stop-watch.

PRINCIPLE: Organic matter in water reduces the oxygen level of water as it favors the growth
of microbes which utilizes the oxygen.
PROCEDURES:
100mL of various water samples is measured into a clean conical flask using a measuring
cylinder.

28
2.5ml 50%Conc.H2SO4 (to acidify the water) was added, and heated using the hot plate
connected to an electric source until the water starts to boil.
10ml of the KMnO4 is then added to the boiling water (the KMnO 4 on heating decomposes to
produce oxygen which is used to oxidize the organic matter present in the water), and is further
boil for 10 minutes, using the stop-watch as the timer. It is then cool to a temperature of about
40C.
8-10 ml of Mohr’s salt is added in order to decolorize the solution.
KMnO4 solution was poured into the burette by the use of a funnel, the tape was adjusted in
order to expel air bubbles, and the initial burette reading was taken.
The conical flask, (the colorless sample) was place on a white tile under the burette. The solution
(KMnO4) from the burette was run gradually into the conical flask. Continuous addition with
shaking was done until there was appearance of light pink coloration. The reading was recorded.
A blank titration was performed by measuring 2.5ml of 50% Conc. H 2SO4, 10ml of KMnO4 into
a conical flask without boiling and decolorizing it with 8-10ml of Mohr’s salt, and then was
titrated with KMnO4 until a light coloration appear. The burette reading is taken down also.
The Organic matter content is deduced from the difference between the sample titre value and
the blank titer value.

RESULT:

SAMPLES VOL OF POTASSIUM PER BLANK ORGANIC

MANGANESE(KMnO4) TITRE MATTER
USED (A)ml VALUE CONTENT
(A.B)ml
RAW WATER 1.2 0.2 1.0
TREATED 0.3 0.2 0.1
WATER

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: From the result above there is present of organic matter
in raw water, so raw water is said to be hazardous while treated water is organic matter free and
safe for drinking.

29
4.5 BACTERIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS
Bacteriological analysis in water is a method of analyzing water to estimate the number of
bacteria present and, if needed, to find out what sort of bacteria they are. It represents one aspect
of water quality. It is a microbiological analytical procedure which uses samples of water and
from these samples to determine the concentration of bacteria. It is then possible to draw
inferences about the suitability of the water for use from these concentrations. This process is
used, for example, to routinely confirm that water is safe for human consumption or that bathing
and recreational waters are safe to use.

4.5.0 BACTERIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS TEST PARAMETERS

At lower usuma dam under Abuja water board, quality control department practice only two
stages of bacteriological analysis namely presumptive and confirmatory. The presumptive test is
first done and if the test is shows negative, no further test is needed but if it shows positive (acid
and gas) then a confirmatory test is carried out.
PRESUMPTIVE TEST (MULTIPLE TUBE FERMANTATIION TECHNIQUE)
INTRODUCTION: The presumptive test is a screening test to sample water for the presence of
coliform organisms.
AIM: To test for microorganism in water sample
MATERIALS/APPARATUS: medium (lactose broth), mac catney bottle, durham tube, sterile
pipettes, flame, raw water and treated water samples
PRINCIPLE: Water to be tested is diluted serially and inoculated in lactose broth, coliforms if
present in the water utilize the lactose present in the medium to produce acid and gas. The
presence of gas is detected as gas bubbles collected in the inverted durham tube present in the
medium. The number of total coliforms is determined by counting the number of tubes giving
positive reaction and comparing the pattern of positive results with standard statistical tables.
PREPARATION OF THE MEDIUM (LACTOSE BROTH)
26 gram of lactose broth is weighed and poured in 1000ml of distilled water, then it was stirred
properly in a magnetic stirrer. The solution is then dispensed into 100 mac cateny bottles of 10ml
each, then it sterilized in an autoclave.
PROCEDURE
 The medium is first prepared and then allowed to cool for 24 hrs. before use

30
  Take 10 bottles of mac catney bottles containing the medium
 Using a sterilized pipette add 10ml of the water samples into the bottles and flame the
bottle mouth and lid before closing the bottle to avoid other micro organisms
 Then the solution is then incubated in an incubator for 24 hrs. at 35 oC-37oC, if no tubes
appear positive, re-incubate up to 48 hrs.

RESULTS:
TIME SAMPLING 10ml 1.0ml 0.1ml
POINT
Morning Rw-uww 5 - -
Tw-uww 2 - -
Afternoon Tw-uww 0 - -

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: From the result above the morning analysis shows that 5
bottles of the raw water is contaminated and the 2 bottles of the treated water is contaminated
while the afternoon analysis is done on treated water only showing that none of the bottle is
contaminated i.e. the water is safe for drinking.

CONFIRMATORY TEST
INTRODUCTION: Some microorganisms other than coliforms also produce acid and gas from
lactose fermentation. In other to confirm the presence of coliform, confirmatory test is done.
AIM: To confirm the presence of microorganism in a fermented bottle of lactose broth
MATERIALS/APPARATUS: Medium (Eosine Methylene Blue agar), petri dish, wire loop,
flame, incubator, fermentation bottles.
PREPARATION OF THE MEDIUM
37.5g of EMB agar powder is suspended in 1000ml of distilled water, then the solution is stirred
and boiled, then it is autoclaved at 121oC for 15min, allow to cool to 60oc and pour the
precipitate in a sterilized petri dish and allow to solidify and preserve in a refrigerator for daily
use.
PROCEDURE:
 Sterilize the place of the test before starting the test using spirit

31
  Flame the wire loop first to avoid other microorganisms
 From each of the fermented bottle of lactose broth with positive results transfer one
loopful of medium on to the petri dish
 Then incubate the petri dish at 35oC-37oC for 24hrs.

RESULT:
TIME SAMPLING POINT E.COLI OTHERS
MORNING Rw-uww -ve +ve
Tw-uww - -
AFTERNOON Tw-uww - -

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: From the above result the morning analysis shows that
E.coli is absent but there are other unidentified microorganisms for raw water but treated water
shows absent of all, while afternoon is done for only treated water and it shows absents of all i.e.
treated water is safe for drinking

4.6 FLOCCULATION OR JAR TEST

JAR TEST

INTRODUCTION: Jar test is done to show the effectiveness of chemical treatment in the water
plant or at the laboratory.

AIM: To determine the quantity of alum that would be required for water treatment.

PRINCIPLE: Jar test are tests designed to show the effectiveness of chemical treatment in a
water treatment facility. Many of the chemicals we add to water can be evaluated on a small
laboratory scale. Alum is used to achieve the coagulation of particles that affect the water
turbidity. Lime requirement is also estimated when the need arises. Using jar test, the operator
can approximate the correct coagulant dosage for plant use when varying the level of turbidity,
color, pH and other parameters required ascertaining water quality.

32
MATERIALS: Water sample (aerated water), flocculator, 1000ml beaker (6), pipette, conical
flasks, measuring cylinder, retort stand, 100g/L alum solution.

PROCEURES:
 1000ml of the aerated water collected from the water treatment plant is measured into the
six beakers which is labeled 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 respectively
 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, and 3.0ml of the alum solution is added to the six beakers
respectively
 The beaker are placed under the flocculator, the stirring rod is lowered into each of the
beaker respectively and the machine is plugged to an electric source and switched on.
 The flocculator is then set to stir for a speed of 250 revolutions per minute (rpm) for 3
minutes (i.e. fast mixing) to achieve coagulation. Then the speed is reduced to 25rpm for
17 minutes (i.e. for slow mixing to enable floccs formation), each beaker is observed and
graded according to size of floccs formed, and is later left for 30 minutes for floccs
formed to settle at bottom of the beaker. Each beaker is monitored for floccs formation
time and settling time in minutes. The values obtained are recorded
 The pH, color, turbidity and total alkalinity of each sample in the beaker is tested and
recorded respectively.
 The flask with best values for the tested parameters is selected and thereafter used to
estimate the quantity of alum need to treat water of a given quantity in the plant as
presented in the sample below.

RESULT:

S/N Volume Vol. of soln. Conc. Of pH value Turbidity Flocs setting

of water added in ml alum in (NTU) characters
mg/L

1 1000ml 0.5 5 6.9 4.65 Good

2 1000ml 1.0 10 6.9 5.31 Poor
3 1000ml 1.5 15 6.8 2.93 Very good
4 1000ml 2.0 20 6.7 2.81 Very good

33
 5 1000ml 2.5 25 6.6 3.18 Good
6 1000ml 3.0 30 6.5 2.83 Very good

DISCUSSSION AND CONCLUSION: Jar test is designed to show the effectiveness of

coagulant (Alum) used in water treatment. Treated water according to WHO should be
colorless, tasteless and odorless. It should be between the pH rage of 6.8-7.2 and the turbidity
of 5 NTU (nephelometric turbidity unit). Water treatment is considered ineffective if it goes
contrary to the WHO safety standards. From observation from the result above, the best
beaker is 6, because it has the least turbidity value of 2.83 and it is clear than the other
beakers. Therefore, in conclusion the optimum dosage of Alum is 35.32 mg/L with a pH
value of 6.5.

4.7 ALUM TEST

INTRODUCTION: Alum Test Solution is an experimental technique conducted to determine

the quality of Alum to be used for the coagulation process to take place.

AIM: To determine the coagulant demand for optimum dosage of alum.

MATERIALS/REAGENTS: 1000ml beaker, flocculator machine, pipette, conical flasks,
turbidi meter, PH meter.
PROCEDURE: First to prepare 10 g/L of alum solution, 10g of alum is diluted into 1000cm3
distilled water, each 1 cm3 of this stock solution will be equal to 10mg/L when added to 1000ml
of raw water to be to be tested.
(1) Using 1000cm3 graduated beakers (6), 1000cm3 of the raw water to be coagulated is
transferred into each of the beakers
(2) The prepared alum stock solution is dosed in each of this beakers with increasing amount
of concentration.
(3) After dosing each beaker, it is stirred on the flocculator machine at high speed for about 5
minutes then slow mixing for about 8 minutes.

34
(4) After which the flocculator machine is switched off and the beakers are observed to
determine which beaker has the best result i.e. that has the highest degree of clarity.
(5) The PH of each beaker is obtained using a PH meter, turbidity which is the degree of
clarity of water under treatment, is determined using the turbid meter.

Table for the Result Obtained Below

No of Beakers 1 2 3 4 5 6
Quantity of Alum (Mg/l) 50 60 70 80 90 100
PH Value 3.2 8.10 6.00 8.80 5.80 5.08
Turbidity (NTU) 35.00 31.10 29.1 25.30 25.00 23.20
0

OBSERVATION: from the table above, it was observed that from beaker 1 to 4, the water was
not clear enough. However, clarity starts from beaker 6 and shows the formation of bigger flocks
and settles down faster.
Hence, beaker 6 with PH of 5.08, turbidity of 23.2 NTU is considered as the beaker with the
optimum dosage.
APPLICATION OF OPTIMUM DOSAGE IN THE TREATMENT PLANT
The optimum dosage of alum obtained above could be used to treat 20,000,000 gallons/day using
the general plant formula.
M3/h = dosage (mg/l x flow rate (M3/h)
Density = Mass x 1000
Volume
Where the dosage = 100 mg/l
Flow rate = 20,000,000 g/day, to convert to l/day
1 Gallon = 4 Litre
20,000,000 = x Litre
Therefore: X = 20,000,000 x 4L
1
= 80,000,000 L/day
To convert 80,000 L/day to M3/day
1m3 = 1000L
X m3 = 80,000,000

35
Therefore, X = 80,000,000 = 80,000m3/day
1000

Also, converting, 80,000 M3/day to M3/hr

= 80,000 = 3333.3m3/hr
24 hr
Therefore, flow rate = 3333.3 M3/hr
Density = mass = 50kgx100 =500
20m3 20
= 250kg/m3
Converting kg/m3 to g/L
250kg/m3 x 1000L = 250g/L
1000g
M3/h = 100mg/L x 333.3m3/h
250mg/L x 1000
= 1.3 m3/h

Plant Calibration
The machines which take mixed solution to water to be treated, needs to be calibrated at a
particular position.

The maximum position of the machine is 6 M3/h

6m3/h ___ 100%
1.3m3/h ____ x%
X% = 1.3 m3/h x 100%
6m3/h
= 130
6
= 21.7%
= 22%

4.8 Quantitative Analysis of Water

36
 INTRODUCTION

To determine if certain ions are present in the water by chemically reacting these ions with
another substance to form a new compound (called selective precipitation.

AIM: To detect the presence of a substance in water is to perform a precipitation reaction

where selected ions undergo a chemical change to form new specific products.

MATERIALS/REAGENTS: 1000ml beaker, pipette, conical flasks, turbidi meter, PH

meter, lead (pb)
PROCEDURE: In a 250 mL beaker, add about 125 to 150 mL of water (tap or sea water)
and 3 boiling stones. ii. Gently boil this solution down to about 15 to 20 mL for tap, down to
40 to50 for sea water. As the solution is boiling, label 9 clean 100 mm (smallest) test tubes
(#1 to #9). When the water level reaches about 50 to 75 mL solids (a white residue on the
sides of the beaker) may appear. This is an undesirable effect so two actions must be taken. If
solids begin to appear as the water is boiling then (1) extract about 5 to 10 mL of the
concentrated water into a clean 50-mL beaker then (2) add about 3 drops of dilute nitric acid
(HNO3) to the water in the 250 mL beaker. The acid will re-dissolve the solids back into the
water. Stir well after adding the nitric acid. If the solids remain, add a couple more drops of
acid, the solution should be slightly acidic to avoid precipitation of hydroxides and other
compounds. Remove the flame. Allow the concentrated solution to cool to room temperature.
To test tubes #6 through #9, add approximately 2 mL (about 40 drops) of each of the
following solutions. These are your known samples. You will compare the expected known
reactions to those observed with your water sample. #6 = 0.2 M sodium chloride #8 = 0.05 M
lead(II)nitrate #7 = 3.0 M sulfuric acid #9 = 0.2 M calcium nitrate or magnesium nitrate iii.
Divide the approximately 15 mL concentrated water solution into the 4 separate 100 mm test
tubes prelabeled as #1 through #5. The anions will be analyzed for first. Test tube #1 will be
used to test for the chloride ion (Cl ─), and #2 is for sulfate (SO4 2- ). Next you will test for
cations, test tube #3 will be used to test for lead (Pb), and #4 will be used to test for
calcium/magnesium. Test tube #5 is for the sodium test. iv. Test for each anion and cation
using the following procedures. The anions will be first then the cations.

RESULTS:

37
THE TEST FOR CHLORIDE

A. To test tube #1, add about 4 drops of dilute nitric acid to make sure the solution is acidic.
Test with litmus paper. Result:

B. To test tube #6, add 5 drops of 0.1 M silver nitrate (AgNO3). Does a precipitate form?
What color is it? Add 5 more drops if a solid does not appear. Repeat this test with test tube
#1. Does a precipitate form? Yes or No? (Circle one)

C. Write the molecular equation which describes the reaction in test tube #6. In your water,
the silver ions (Ag+) from silver nitrate react with the chloride ions in your water sample to
form a precipitate silver chloride (AgCl). Note that the atoms were rearranged to form a new
substance. This is a chemical change. Write the net ionic equation for the reaction of silver
ions with chloride ions for Question 3 on the report page (page 4).

II. THE TEST FOR SULFATE

A. To test tube #7, add 5 drops of 0.1M barium nitrate (Ba(NO3)2). Does a precipitate form?
What color is it? Add 5 more drops if a solid does not appear. Repeat this test with test tube
#2 (water). Record your observations here.

B. Write the molecular equation which describes the reaction in test tube #7 for Question 3
on the report page (page 4). In your water sample, the barium ions (Ba 2+) from barium
nitrate react with the sulfate ion in your water solution to form the new substance barium
sulfate (BaSO4). Write the net ionic equation for the reaction of barium ions with sulfate ions
for Question 3 on the report page (page 4).

III. THE TEST FOR LEAD

A. To test tube #8, add 4 drops of 6M HCl (hydrochloric acid). Again if a solid does not
appear add 4 more drops. What color is the solid formed? Write a balanced molecular
equation for Question 3 on the report page (page 4). Repeat this test with your water sample
(test tube #3). If a solid does not appear by 10 drops then the amount of lead in your sample
is too small to be detected by this method of analysis. It is probably safe to assume that the

38
amount of lead found in your sample is below the maximum contaminant level. Breathe a
sigh of relief. Color

IV. THE TEST FOR CALCIUM/MAGNESIUM

A. To test tube #9, add dropwise 0.1 M ammonium carbonate ((NH4)2CO3). After each drop
check for small white precipitate perhaps even crystalline slivers. This would be the
formation of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) or magnesium carbonate (MgCO3). Sometimes
these particles are very small and hard to detect. You might have to rotate the test tube in the
light to catch a glimpse of the crystals. Do not add too much ammonium carbonate, this will
re-dissolve the particles back into solution. Repeat this test with your water sample, test tube
#4.

B. If the first attempt fails, inform your instructor. The instructor will demonstrate the
appearance of the solids with a solution of calcium or magnesium nitrate and ammonium
carbonate. Once you know what you are looking for try step A again on test tube #4.

C. Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction of calcium nitrate with ammonium
carbonate and for the reaction of magnesium nitrate with ammonium carbonate. Since two of
the ions present in solution are called "spectator ions", re-write the two equations as net ion
equations for Question 3 on the report page.

V. THE TEST FOR SODIUM

A. Obtain a tungsen or nichrome wire and bend a small loop at one end. First clean the wire
by dipping it in HCl then burn off the acid using a bunsen burner. Compare the color of the
flame as the acid is being burned off with the color of the flame after the wire has been
heated to red-hot.

B. Dip the wire in a known solution of sodium chloride and perform the flame test on it.
Report the color used to identify the presence of sodium. Clean the wire with HCl again. Dip
the wire in test tube #5. Note the color of the flame.

CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION:

One toxic component of drinking water is lead (Pb). Lead is classified as a B2 carcinogen, it
is known to have cancer-causing properties in animals but there is insufficient data on its

39
 effect on humans. A major source of lead in drinking water is the lead plumbing materials
and fixtures. One of the problems with lead (Pb2+) depends on its suspected ability to replace
calcium (Ca 2+) in bones and tissue. You will be able to test for lead in your water sample
but be aware that this type of analysis will only detect fairly large quantities of the substance.
The maximum contaminant level for lead is 0.06 ppm therefore, hopefully, its presence will
not be detected. Other substances which you will analyze for include the chloride ion (Cl ─),
sulfate polyatomic ion (SO4 2- ), and both calcium and magnesium ions (Ca 2+ and Mg 2+).
The latter two ions cannot be selectively precipitated from each other by the described
method. These ions were chosen because the average contaminant level is 500 ppm each for
the first two and 180 ppm combined for the last two. For more information about the
drinking water in your area contact the water department in your local city government.

4.9 Water Sampling and Analysis:

INTRODUCTION

Ideally, a laboratory infrastructure should be established which will enable all samples to be
returned to a central or regional laboratory within a few hours of being taken. However, this
depends on the availability of a good road system and of reliable motorized transport for all
sampling officers, and these are not available in many countries. Thus, although it may be
possible to establish well-equipped central and even regional laboratories for water analysis, at
the provincial and district levels it may be necessary to rely on a relatively small number of
simple tests. As noted in Chapter 1, this approach is sometimes called critical-parameter water
testing. The most important factor to take into account is that, in most communities, the principal
risk to human health derives from faecal contamination. In some countries there may also be
hazards associated with specific chemical contaminants such as fluoride or arsenic, but the levels
of these substances are unlikely to change significantly with time. Thus, if a full range of

40
chemical analyses is undertaken on new water sources and repeated thereafter at fairly long
intervals, chemical contaminants are unlikely to present an unrecognized hazard. In contrast, the
potential for faecal contamination in untreated or inadequately treated community supplies is
always present. The minimum level of analysis should therefore include testing for indicators of
faecal pollution (thermotolerant (faecal) coliforms), turbidity, and chlorine residual and pH (if
the water is disinfected with chlorine). Even in developing countries poorly served by roads and
transportation, it is usually possible to devise a rational sampling and analytical strategy. This
should incorporate carefully selected critical-parameter tests in remote (usually rural) locations
using simple methods and portable water-testing equipment (see pp. 65–66) where appropriate.
Wherever possible the community should be involved in the sampling process. Where water is
disinfected, primary health workers, schoolteachers, and sometimes community members can be
trained to carry out simple chlorine residual testing. The same people could also collect samples
for physicochemical analysis and arrange for their delivery to the regional laboratory. The use of
community members in this way has significant implications for training and supervision but
would be one way of ensuring more complete surveillance coverage.

AIM: To assess the quality of the water supplied by the supply agency and of that at the point of
use, so that samples of both should be taken.

MATERIALS/REAGENTS: 1000ml beaker, pipette, conical flasks, turbidity meter, PH meter,

lead (pb)
PROCEDURE:

• Sampling points should be selected such that the samples taken are representative of the
different sources from which water is obtained by the public or enters the system.

• These points should include those that yield samples representative of the conditions at the
most unfavourable sources or places in the supply system, particularly points of possible
contamination such as unprotected sources, loops, reservoirs, low-pressure zones, ends of the
system, etc.

• Sampling points should be uniformly distributed throughout a piped distribution system, taking
population distribution into account; the number of sampling points should be proportional to the
number of links or branches.

41
• The points chosen should generally yield samples that are representative of the system as a
whole and of its main components.

• Sampling points should be located in such a way that water can be sampled from reserve tanks
and reservoirs, etc.

• In systems with more than one water source, the locations of the sampling points should take
account of the number of inhabitants served by each source.

• There should be at least one sampling point directly after the clean-water outlet from each
treatment plant.

Sampling sites in a piped distribution network may be classified as:

— Fixed and agreed with the supply agency;

— Fixed, but not agreed with the supply agency; or
— Random or variable.

Each type of sampling site has certain advantages and disadvantages. Fixed sites agreed with the
supplier are essential when legal action is to be used as a 53 means of ensuring improvement;
otherwise, the supply agency may object to a sample result on the grounds that water quality may
have deteriorated in the household, beyond the area of responsibility of the supplier.
Nevertheless, fixed sample points are rare or unknown in some countries.

Fixed sites that are not necessarily recognized by the supply agency are used frequently in
investigations, including surveillance. They are especially useful when results have to be
compared over time, but they limit the possibility of identifying local problems such as cross-
connections and contamination from leaking distribution networks. Sampling regimes using
variable or random sites have the advantage of being more likely to detect local problems but are
less useful for analyzing changes over time.

RESULTS:

42
Model sample collection form Table Minimum sample numbers for piped drinking-water

in the distribution system

Population served No. of monthly samples

,5000 1
5000–100000 1 per 5000 population
.100000 1 per 10000 population, plus 10
Additional samples

Sampling methods for physicochemical analysis:

Results of physicochemical analysis are of no value if the samples tested are not properly
collected and stored. This has important consequences for sampling regimes, sampling
procedures, and methods of sample preservation and storage. In general, the time between
sampling and analysis should be kept to a minimum. Storage in glass or polyethylene bottles at a
low temperature (e.g. 4°C) in the dark is recommended. Sample bottles must be clean but need
not be sterile. Special preservatives may be required for some analytes. Residual chlorine, pH,
and turbidity should be tested immediately after sampling as they will change during storage and
transport.

43
Bacteriological analysis:
The principal risk associated with water in small-community supplies is that of infectious disease
related to faecal contamination. Hence, as described in Chapter, the microbiological examination
of drinking-water emphasizes assessment of the hygienic quality of the supply. This requires the
isolation and enumeration of organisms that indicate the presence of faecal contamination. In
certain circumstances, the same indicator organisms may also be used to assess the efficiency of
drinking-water treatment plants, which is an important element of quality control. Other
microbiological indicators, not necessarily associated with faecal pollution, may also be used for
this purpose.
The isolation of specific pathogens in water should be undertaken only by reference laboratories
for purposes of investigating and controlling outbreaks of disease. Routine isolation in other
circumstances is not practical.
Detailed methods for use in bacteriological analysis are described in Annex 5 (multiple-tube
method), Annex 6 (membrane-filtration method), Annex 7 (onsite testing method), and Annex 8
(presence–absence test).

The transport box for samples for microbiological analysis

44
Indicator organisms

The properties and significance of the commonly used faecal indicator bacteria are described in
detail in Volume 1; a summary is provided here.

Escherichia coli is a member of the family Enterobacteriaceae, and is characterized by

possession of the enzymes β-galactosidase and β-glucuronidase. It grows at 44–45°C on complex
media, ferments lactose and mannitol with the production of acid and gas, and produces indole
from tryptophan. However, some strains can grow at 37°C but not at 44–45°C, and some do not
produce gas. E. coli does not produce oxidase or hydrolyse urea. Complete identification of the
organism is too complicated for routine use, but a number of tests have been developed for rapid
and reliable identification. Some of these methods have been standardized at international and
national levels and accepted for routine use; others are still being developed or evaluated.

Escherichia coli is abundant in human and animal faeces; in fresh faeces it may attain
concentrations of 109 per gram. It is found in sewage, treated effluents, and all natural waters and
soils subject to recent faecal contamination, whether from humans, wild animals, or agricultural
activity. Recently, it has been suggested that E. coli may be present or even multiply in tropical
waters not subject to human faecal pollution. However, even in the remotest regions, faecal
contamination by wild animals, including birds, can never be excluded. Because animals can
transmit pathogens that are infective in humans, the presence of E. coli or thermotolerant

45
coliform bacteria must not be ignored, because the presumption remains that the water has been
faecally contaminated and that treatment has been ineffective.

Thermotolerant coliform bacteria

Thermotolerant coliform bacteria are the coliform organisms that are able to ferment lactose at
44–45°C; the group includes the genus Escherichia and some species of Klebsiella,
Enterobacter, and Citrobacter. Thermotolerant coliforms other than E. coli may also originate
from organically enriched water such as industrial effluents or from decaying plant materials and
soils. For this reason, the term “faecal” coliforms, although frequently employed, is not correct,
and its use should be discontinued.

Regrowth of thermotolerant coliform organisms in the distribution system is unlikely unless

sufficient bacterial nutrients are present, unsuitable materials are in contact with the treated
water, the water temperature is above 13°C, and there is no free residual chlorine.

In most circumstances, concentrations of thermotolerant coliforms are directly related to that

of E. coli. Their use in assessing water quality is therefore considered acceptable for routine
purposes, but the limitations with regard to specificity should always be borne in mind when the
data are interpreted. If high counts of thermotolerant coliforms are found in the absence of
detectable sanitary hazards, additional confirmatory tests specific for E. coli should be carried
out. National reference laboratories developing national standard methods are advised to
examine the specificity of the thermotolerant coliform test for E. coli under local conditions.

Because thermotolerant coliform organisms are readily detected, they have an important
secondary role as indicators of the efficiency of water-treatment processes in removing faecal
bacteria. They may therefore be used in assessing the degree of treatment necessary for waters of
different quality and for defining performance targets for removal of bacteria.

Coliform organisms (total coliforms)

Coliform organisms have long been recognized as a suitable microbial indicator of drinking-
water quality, largely because they are easy to detect and enumerate in water. The term “coliform
organisms” refers to Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacteria capable of growth in the presence of
46
bile salts or other surface-active agents with similar growth-inhibiting properties and able to
ferment lactose at 35–37°C with the production of acid, gas, and aldehyde within 24–48 hours.
They are also oxidase-negative and non-spore-forming and display βgalactosidase activity.

Traditionally, coliform bacteria were regarded as belonging to the genera Escherichia,

Citrobacter, Enterobacter, and Klebsiella. However, as defined by modern taxonomical
methods, the group is heterogeneous. It includes lactosefermenting bacteria, such as
Enterobacter cloacae and Citrobacter freundii, which can be found in both faeces and the
environment (nutrient-rich waters, soil, decaying plant material) as well as in drinking-water
containing relatively high concentrations of nutrients, as well as species that are rarely, if ever,
found in faeces and may multiply in relatively good-quality drinking-water, e.g. Serratia
fonticola, Rabnella aquatilis, and Buttiauxella agrestis.

The existence both of non-faecal bacteria that fit the definitions of coliform bacteria and of
lactose-negative coliform bacteria limits the applicability of this group as an indicator of faecal
pollution. Coliform bacteria should not be detectable in treated water supplies and, if found,
suggest inadequate treatment, posttreatment contamination, or excessive nutrients. The coliform
test can therefore be used as an indicator both of treatment efficiency and of the integrity of the
distribution system. Although coliform organisms may not always be directly related to the
presence of faecal contamination or pathogens in drinking-water, the coliform test is still useful
for monitoring the microbial quality of treated piped water supplies. If there is any doubt,
especially when coliform organisms are found in the absence of thermotolerant coliforms and E.
coli, identification to the species level or analyses for other indicator organisms may be
undertaken to investigate the nature of the contamination. Sanitary inspections will also be
needed.

Faecal streptococci

Faecal streptococci are those streptococci generally present in the faeces of humans and animals.
All possess the Lancefield group D antigen. Taxonomically, they belong to the genera
Enterococcus and Streptococcus. The taxonomy of enterococci has recently undergone important
changes, and detailed knowledge of the ecology of many of the new species is lacking; the genus
Enterococcus now includes all streptococci that share certain biochemical properties and have a
wide tolerance of adverse growth conditions—E. avium, E. casseliflavus, E. cecorum, E. durans,

47
E. faecalis, E. faecium, E. gallinarum, E. hirae, E. malodoratus, E. mundtii, and E. solitarius.
Most of these species are of faecal origin and can generally be regarded as specific indicators of
human faecal pollution for most practical purposes. They may, however, be isolated from the
faeces of animals, and certain species and subspecies, such as E. casseliflavus, E. faecalis var.
liquefaciens, E. malodoratus, and E. solitarius, occur primarily on plant material.

In the genus Streptococcus, only S. bovis and S. equinus possess the group D antigen and
therefore belong to the faecal streptococcus group. They derive mainly from animal faeces.
Faecal streptococci rarely multiply in polluted water, and they are more persistent than E. coli
and coliform bacteria. Their primary value in water-quality examination is therefore as additional
indicators of treatment efficiency. Moreover, streptococci are highly resistant to drying and may
be valuable for routine control after new mains are laid or distribution systems are repaired, or
for detecting pollution of groundwater’s or surface waters by surface run-off.

Principal analytical techniques

The standardization of methods and laboratory procedures is important. International standard

methods should be evaluated under local conditions before they are formally adopted by national
surveillance programmes. A list of ISO standard methods is given in the Bibliography. The
methods described in the annexes to this publication are based on these ISO standard methods,
modified where appropriate in the light of experience in the surveillance of community water
supplies.

The principal methods used in the isolation of indicator organisms from water are the
membrane-filtration (MF) method, the multiple-tube (MT) or most probable number (MPN)
method and presence–absence tests.

Membrane-filtration method

In the membrane-filtration (MF) method, a minimum volume of 10ml of the sample (or dilution
of the sample) is introduced aseptically into a sterile or properly disinfected filtration assembly
containing a sterile membrane filter (nominal pore size 0.2 or 0.45µm). A vacuum is applied and
the sample is drawn

48
 Table 4.3Typical sample volumes for
membrane-filtration analysis

Sample type Sample volume

(ml)

Treated drinking-water 100

Partially treated drinking-water 10–100 Protected source water or groundwater 10–100
Surface water and water from open wells 0.1–100a

a
Volumes less than 10ml should be added to the filtration apparatus after addition of at least 10ml of sterile diluent to ensure
adequate dispersal across the surface of the membrane filter.

through the membrane filter. All indicator organisms are retained on or within the filter, which is
then transferred to a suitable selective culture medium in a Petri dish. Following a period of
resuscitation, during which the bacteria become acclimatized to the new conditions, the Petri
dish is transferred to an incubator at the appropriate selective temperature where it is incubated
for a suitable time to allow the replication of the indicator organisms. Visually identifiable
colonies are formed and counted, and the results are expressed in numbers of “colony forming
units” (CFU) per 100ml of original sample.

This technique is inappropriate for waters with a level of turbidity that would cause the filter
to become blocked before an adequate volume of water had passed through. When it is necessary
to process low sample volumes (less than 10ml), an adequate volume of sterile diluent must be
used to disperse the sample before filtration and ensure that it passes evenly across the entire
surface of the membrane filter. Membrane filters may be expensive in some countries.

Typical sample volumes for different water types are shown in Table 4.3. Where the quality
of the water is totally unknown, it may be advisable to test two or more volumes in order to
ensure that the number of colonies on the membrane is in the optimal range for counting (20–80
colonies per membrane).

Multiple-tube method

The multiple-tube method is also referred to as the most probable number ( MPN) method
because—unlike the MF method—it is based on an indirect assessment of microbial density in
the water sample by reference to statistical tables to determine the most probable number of
49
microorganisms present in the original sample. It is essential for highly turbid samples that
cannot be analysed by membrane filtration. The technique is used extensively for drinking-water
analysis, but it is time-consuming to perform and requires more equipment, glassware, and
consumables than membrane filtration. However, the multipletube method may be more
sensitive than membrane filtration.

Table 4.4Typical sample volumes and numbers of tubes for the multiple-tube method
Sample type Number of tubes for sample volume:
50ml 10ml 1ml 0.1ml 0.01mla
Treated drinking-water 1 5 — — —
Partially treated drinking-water 5 5 5 —
—
Protected source water or 5 5 5 —
groundwater —
Surface water or water from open — 5 5 5
wells —
a
Volumes of 0.1 and 0.01ml are tested by the addition of 1ml of a 1/10 and 1/100 dilution
sample,
Respectively, to 10ml of single-strength culture medium.

The multiple-tube method depends on the separate analysis of a number of volumes of the
same sample. Each volume is mixed with culture medium and incubated. The concentration of
microorganisms in the original sample can then be estimated from the pattern of positive results
(the number of tubes showing growth in each volume series) by means of statistical tables that
give the “most probable number” per 100ml of the original sample.

The combination of sample volumes for processing is selected according to the type of water
sample or known degree of contamination. Various configurations and tables may be used;
typical volumes and dilutions are summarized in the table.
Appropriate volumes of water are added aseptically to tubes or other vessels containing
sterile nutrient medium of a concentration that will ensure the mixture corresponds to single-

50
strength medium. For example, 10ml of sample would typically be added to 10ml of double-
strength medium or 1ml of sample to 10ml of single-strength medium and so on. The tube must
also contain a small inverted glass tube (Durham tube) to facilitate the detection of gas
production. Growth in the medium is confirmed by visible turbidity and/or a colour change.
Tubes are incubated without resuscitation, and the number of positive reactions is recorded after
24 and/or 48 hours, depending on the type of analysis.

Presence–absence tests

Presence–absence tests may be appropriate for monitoring good-quality drinking-water where

positive results are known to be rare. They are not quantitative and, as their name suggests, they
indicate only the presence or absence of the indicator sought. Such results are of very little use in
countries or situations where contamination is common; the purpose of analysis is then to
determine the degree of contamination rather than indicate whether or not contamination is
present. Thus, presence–absence tests are not recommended for use in the analysis of surface
waters, untreated small-community supplies, or larger water supplies that may experience
occasional operational and maintenance difficulties.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION:

Water-quality testing in communities may be subject to the following problems, especially when
the communities or the sampling sites are remote or inaccessible:

— Deterioration of samples during transport to centralized laboratory facilities;

— High cost of transporting samples;

— Inadequate techniques for sample storage and preservation during prolonged transport,
thus limiting the sampling range;

— Increased personnel costs because of the need for repeat sampling journeys;

— The need for reporting, which may necessitate further return journeys.

If there are delays in sample transport and analysis—and therefore in reporting—remedial

action is also likely to be delayed. For these reasons, on-site water testing using portable
equipment is appropriate in many remote areas. Portable equipment is used in many developing

51
countries, and does help to overcome a number of logistic and financial constraints. However, it
varies widely in technical specifications, including the range of analyses that can be performed,
the range of methods employed, its robustness, the degree of independence from central
laboratory facilities, its portability, and requirements for consumables.

Portable testing equipment may also be favored by agencies that undertake project
monitoring in more than one area on a non-routine basis and therefore prefer portability to the
establishment of a conventional laboratory. For reasons that include the following, portable
equipment may also be used in conventional laboratories in place of normal laboratory
equipment, especially when the number of analyses to be performed per day is relatively low.

• Independence from (unreliable) power supplies. Several types of portable equipment either
incorporate a rechargeable battery or may be connected to an external battery. Where energy
supplies are unreliable (because of either voltage fluctuation or intermittent supply), battery
operation may be advantageous.
• Cost. Comparison of the costs of the equipment required, even after allowing for that needed
for back-up, may show that it is more economical to provide portable testing equipment to
peripheral or decentralized laboratories than conventional laboratory equipment.
• Ease of use. Because portable equipment is often designed for use by personnel who are not
fully qualified in laboratory techniques, its use is usually straightforward. However, this does
not obviate the need for proper training of personnel, particularly since some portable
equipment may not be accompanied by clear, well-illustrated manuals in the language of the
users.
Use of portable equipment in conventional laboratories also carries a number of
disadvantages, including limitations in technical specifications. Although not invariably true, the
requirement for portability may mean that portable equipment is of lower precision and
sensitivity than conventional equipment. Moreover, while some types of portable equipment help
to reduce dependence on expensive consumables that may be difficult to obtain in many
countries (e.g. by employing reusable aluminum Petri dishes, rather than dishes made of
disposable plastic or fragile glass), others actually increase dependence on non-standard
glassware and, particularly, consumables (such as microbiological culture media in ampoules and
preweighed reagents for chemical tests). These items are invariably more expensive than

52
ordinary laboratory consumables and may be available only from the manufacturer of the
portable equipment. Independence of special consumables is of particular importance for some
reagents and microbiological culture media; ready-prepared liquid media in ampoules eliminate
errors in media preparation but they have only limited shelf-life. This is an especially relevant
consideration in developing countries, where delays in importation, variability of demand, and
problems with transport may seriously reduce the remaining shelf-life of media. Under these
conditions, it is preferable to supply dehydrated media—ideally in preweighed quantities—with
a relatively long shelf-life.

The use of portable testing equipment may be the result of a commitment to the
decentralization of testing facilities. Whether or not this is the case, it generally means that small
numbers of analyses are undertaken at a larger number of sites, which has important implications
for training:

• The number of personnel carrying out analyses will be greater so that the need for training
will be greater.
• The personnel who are to use the equipment (and who are therefore to be trained) will not be
working in the capital city, but in relatively remote areas far from training centers.
• These personnel are less likely to have received good initial training in laboratory techniques.

Thus there is actually a greater need for training when decentralized water quality testing is
contemplated, which is in contrast to the popular perception of “simplified” portable testing
equipment for which little additional training is required. Many of the benefits expected from
decentralized water-quality testing and/or on-site analysis are unlikely to be realized unless
adequate resources are devoted to training.

4.2.6 Single-application (disposable) test kits

Disposable test kits are both widely marketed and increasingly used in developed countries.
Their reliability may vary widely and they should be properly assessed by a reference laboratory.
In developing countries, there are other drawbacks to the use of disposable kits: unit costs, which
are high in developed countries, may be still higher, and the trade-off against personnel and staff
costs is thus less favorable in developing countries.

53
4.3 Physicochemical analysis

4.3.1 Chlorine residual

The disinfection of drinking-water supplies constitutes an important barrier against waterborne

diseases. Although various disinfectants may be used, chlorine in one form or another is the
principal disinfecting agent employed in small communities in most countries.

Chlorine has a number of advantages as a disinfectant, including its relative cheapness,

efficacy, and ease of measurement, both in laboratories and in the field. An important additional
advantage over some other disinfectants is that chlorine leaves a disinfectant residual that assists
in preventing recontamination during distribution, transport, and household storage of water. The
absence of a chlorine residual in the distribution system may, in certain circumstances, indicate
the possibility of post-treatment contamination.

Three types of chlorine residual may be measured: free chlorine (the most reactive species,
i.e. hypochlorous acid and the hypochlorite ion); combined chlorine (less reactive but more
persistent species formed by the reaction of free chlorine species with organic material and
ammonia); and total chlorine (the sum of the free and combined chlorine residuals). Free
chlorine is unstable in aqueous solution, and the chlorine content of water samples may decrease
rapidly, particularly at warm temperatures. Exposure to strong light or agitation will accelerate
the rate of loss of free chlorine. Water samples should therefore be analysed for free chlorine
immediately on sampling and not stored for later testing.

The method recommended for the analysis of chlorine residual in drinking water employs
N,N-diethyl-p- phenylenediamine, more commonly referred to as DPD. Methods in which o-
tolidine is employed were formerly recommended, but this substance is a recognized carcinogen,
and the method is inaccurate and should not be used. Analysis using starch–potassium iodide is
not specific for free chlorine, but measures directly the total of free and combined chlorine; the
method is not recommended except in countries where it is impossible to obtain or prepare DPD.

Procedures for the determination of free chlorine residual are described in Annex 9.

54
4.3.2 pH

It is important to measure pH at the same time as chlorine residual since the efficacy of
disinfection with chlorine is highly pH-dependent: where the pH exceeds 8.0, disinfection is less
effective. To check that the pH is in the optimal range for disinfection with chlorine (less than
8.0), simple tests may be conducted in the field using comparators such as that used for chlorine
residual. With some chlorine comparators, it is possible to measure pH and chlorine residual
simultaneously. Alternatively, portable pH electrodes and meters are available. If these are used
in the laboratory, they must be calibrated against fresh pH standards at least daily; for field use,
they should be calibrated immediately before each test. Results may be inaccurate if the water
has a low buffering capacity.

Procedures for measuring pH using a comparator are described in Annex 10.

4.3.3 Turbidity

Turbidity is important because it affects both the acceptability of water to consumers, and the
selection and efficiency of treatment processes, particularly the efficiency of disinfection with
chlorine since it exerts a chlorine demand and protects microorganisms and may also stimulate
the growth of bacteria.

In all processes in which disinfection is used, the turbidity must always be low—preferably
below 1 NTU or JTU (these units are interchangeable in practice). It is recommended that, for
water to be disinfected, the turbidity should be consistently less than 5 NTU or JTU and ideally
have a median value of less than

1 NTU.

Turbidity may change during sample transit and storage, and should therefore be measured on
site at the time of sampling. This can be done by means of electronic meters (which are essential
for the measurement of turbidities below 5 NTU). For the monitoring of small-community water
supplies, however, high sensitivity is not essential, and visual methods that employ extinction
and are capable of measuring turbidities of 5 NTU and above are adequate. These rely on robust,
low-cost equipment that does not require batteries and is readily transportable in the field, and
are therefore generally preferred.

55
 Procedures for measuring turbidity in the field using a simple “turbidity tube” are described
in Annex 10.

4.4 Aesthetic parameters

Aesthetic parameters are those detectable by the senses, namely turbidity, colour, taste, and
odour. They are important in monitoring community water supplies because they may cause the
water supply to be rejected and alternative (possibly poorer-quality) sources to be adopted, and
they are simple and inexpensive to monitor qualitatively in the field.

4.4.1 Colour

Colour in drinking-water may be due to the presence of coloured organic matter, e.g. humic
substances, metals such as iron and manganese, or highly coloured industrial wastes. Drinking-
water should be colourless. For the purposes of surveillance of community water supplies, it is
useful simply to note the presence or absence of observable colour at the time of sampling.
Changes in the colour of water and the appearance of new colours serve as indicators that further
investigation is needed.

4.4.2 Taste and odour

Odors in water are caused mainly by the presence of organic substances. Some odours are
indicative of increased biological activity, others may result from industrial pollution. Sanitary
inspections should always include the investigation of possible or existing sources of odour, and
attempts should always be made to correct an odour problem. Taste problems (which are
sometimes grouped with odour problems) usually account for the largest single category of
consumer complaints.

Generally, the taste buds in the oral cavity detect the inorganic compounds of metals such as
magnesium, calcium, sodium, copper, iron, and zinc. As water should be free of objectionable
taste and odour, it should not be offensive to the majority of the consumers. If the sampling
officer has reason to suspect the presence of harmful contaminants in the supply, it is advisable
to avoid direct tasting and swallowing of the water. Under these circumstances, a sample should
be taken for investigation to a central laboratory.

56
4.5 Other analyses of relevance to health

Although the great majority of quality problems with community drinking-water are related to
faecal contamination, a significant number of serious problems may occur as a result of chemical
contamination from a variety of natural and man-made sources. In order to establish whether
such problems exist, chemical analyses must be undertaken. However, it would be extremely
costly to undertake the determination of a wide range of parameters on a regular basis,
particularly in the case of supplies that serve small numbers of people. Fortunately, such
parameters tend be less variable in source waters than faecal contamination, so that alternative
strategies can be employed.

The range of health-related parameters may include:

— Fluoride (where it is known to occur naturally)

— nitrate (where intensification of farming has led to elevated levels in groundwater)

— lead (in areas where it has been used in plumbing)

— Chromium (e.g. in areas where it is mined)

— Arsenic (in areas where it is known to occur naturally)

— Pesticides (where local practices and use indicate that high levels are likely).

If these or any other chemicals of health significance are thought to be present, they should
be monitored and the results examined in the light of the WHO guideline values and any relevant
national standards (see Volumes 1 and 2).

Some health-related parameters may be measured in community supplies by means of

portable test kits based on conventional titrations, comparators, or photometers. If this is done,
the reagents must be of high quality and carefully standardized. Other parameters require
conventional laboratory analysis by spectrophotometry, atomic absorption spectroscopy, or
chromatography, using standard methods.

57
4.6 Analytical quality assurance and quality control

Standard methods for drinking-water analysis should be tested under local conditions for
accuracy and precision, agreed at national level, and applied universally by both water-supply
and regulatory agencies. However, the use of standard methods does not in itself ensure that
reliable and accurate results will be obtained.

In the context of analytical work, the terms quality assurance and quality control are often
treated as synonymous. In fact, they are different concepts.

Analytical quality control is the generation of data for the purpose of assessing and
monitoring how good an analytical method is and how well it is operating. This is normally
described in terms of within-day and day-to-day precision.

Analytical quality assurance, by contrast, comprises all the steps taken by a laboratory to
assure those who receive the data that the laboratory is producing valid results. Quality assurance
thus encompasses analytical quality control but also includes many other aspects such as proving
that the individuals who carried out an analysis were competent to do so, and ensuring that the
laboratory has established and documented analytical methods, equipment calibration
procedures, management lines of responsibility, systems for data retrieval, samplehandling
procedures and so on.

A checklist for effective analytical quality assurance is given in Table 4.6.

Quality assurance as applied to conventional laboratories is relatively straightforward. It is

also important in field testing in view of the more exacting conditions under which it takes place
and the unspecialized nature of the responsible staff. Paradoxically, therefore, quality assurance
has the greatest importance in circumstances where it is most difficult to undertake. The
following are among the possible approaches to overcoming the problem:

• Supervision. An effective network for on-site testing cannot function without adequate
supervision, which should cover all field activities, including waterquality testing. This helps
to maintain adequate standards of analysis.
• Blank sample analysis. It is unlikely that staff will be willing to submit reports from the field
which question their own ability. Furthermore, it is often impractical to prepare, distribute,
and collect the results of known quality-
58
4.10 Water Quality Analysis:

Dispersion & Dissolution in

Water

Quantity returned

Inland
Surface Water Quantity lost
Domestic
Abstractive
Water Uses Irrigation
Ground
Water Industrial

Sea Water

Quality changed
Non-abstractive

59
Sea
Transport
In-land
Waters • crops
River
Pond
Sea
Fishing
Lean
Food
Food
Period
Food
bed•Swimming
Pilgrimage
Water
Picnic
Sunbath
Swimming
Recreation
Sports
Spot
&
Non-abstractive uses•Water
Interventions
Rejunvetion
Conservation
Technological
Technical
interferences
Eco-system

Adverse Effects of Impurities

Problem Constituents
 Aesthetically not acceptable • Clay, Silt, Humus,
Palatability • p
 Health related
affect mucous • Hardness, TDS, Ca, 4Mg,
gastro-intestinal
Dental and skeletal Fluoride
Methaemoglobinemia •• Nitrat
 Encrustation in water • Hardness,
structure Ca, Mg,
 Adverse effects on domestic •

Adverse Effects of
Impurities
60
61
  Contamination / Pollution

 During its traverse water picks up impurities in varying amounts

 Gases from atmosphere

 Inorganic and organic salts from top soil and geological strata

 During its traverse water get contaminated by inorganic and organic salts sometimes
beyond desirable limits

Pollution

 Presence of undesirable substances in the quantities which are harmful to man vegetation
or property is referred to as pollution

 Quality of water depends upon quality and quantity of inorganic and organic salts present
in water

Aims: To measure concentration of the constituents in quantity for characterization of water for
different uses Of the various parameters in potable water few are objectionable even when
62
present in very small quantity Others if only present in unusual quantities as to relegate the water
from the potable to the unusable class The analyst familiar with water quality characterization
will often select parameters to be measured based on experience and intuition

Materials: Irrigation pH Conductivity, Sodium & Potassium Nutrients, Specific compounds

Industries As per specific requirement Domestic Consumption As per BIS Standards Water
Bodies As per CPCB guideline.

Principles:

 Oxygen present in sample oxidizes the divalent manga nous to its higher valence
which precipitates as a brown hydrates oxide after addition of Noah and KI.
 Upon acidification, manganese revert to divalent state and liberates Iodine from
KI equivalent to D.O. content in the sample.
 The liberated Iodine is titrated against standard (N/40) solution of Sodium
thiosulphate using starch as an indicator.

Procedure:

 Collect sample in BOD bottle

 2 ml MnSO4+ 2 ml Alkali iodide-azide+close stopper .
 Mix well + allow the ppt to settle .
 Add 2 ml concentrated H2SO4 + mix well till ppt dissolves .
 Take 203 ml (Correspond to 200 ml) sample in a conical flask+titrate against
Sodium thiosulphate (0.025 N) till pale yellow colour + starch + titrate till blue to
colourless

Calculation.
 1 ml of 0.025N Na2S2O3 = 0.2 mg of O2 ¾ D.O. in mg/l =(0.2 x 1000) x ml of
thiosulphate 200 Results : D.O. mg/l.

Interferences:

 Ferrous ion. Ferric ion.

 Nitrite.

63
  Microbial mass.
 High suspended solids To reduce interferences, modification in the estimation
procedures are suggested.
 Alsterberge azide : Nitrite, higher concentration of ferric ions.
 Redeal Stewart : Ferrous ion.
 Alum / Flocculation : High suspended solids.
 Copper Sulphate Sulfamic acid flocculation : Biological flocs.
 Alkaline Hypochlorite : Complex of sulphur compound

Biochemical Oxygen Demand

A bioassay test, involving measurement of oxygen consumed by micro-organisms while

stabilizing biologically decomposable organic matter under aerobic conditions.

 Need.
 To determine the pollution load of waste water.
 The degree of pollution in water sources.
 Self purification capacity of sources.
 Designing of treatment facilities.
 Efficiency of waste water treatment methods

Principle

 The BOD test is based upon determinations of dissolved oxygen.

 It can be measured directly.
 In general, a dilution procedure is applied.

4.11 TESTING THE HARDNESS OF WATER

64
Introduction:

All natural waters have salts dissolved in them. It is these salts that give water a unique taste.
Sometimes the water can contain too much of these salts and can cause problems when the water
is used for drinking or washing. These problems are caused mainly by the presence of calcium
and magnesium ions in the water. You may have experienced this problem if you have taken a
bath with water that contained too many calcium and magnesium salts. The problem is that you
cannot get the soap to lather and form suds. When this happens, we say that the water is “hard.”

In this experiment, you will analyze a sample of water to measure the amount of calcium (or the
water hardness) by performing titrations on water samples you provide from home or other
sources. In the previous experiment, you learned how to perform a titration and use a buret so an
in-depth explanation is not necessary. However, the reaction in this titration is not a
neutralization reaction as in the acetic acid titration. In this case, an EDTA (ethylenediamine
tetra-acetic acid) solution is the titrant, which will react or capture (also called chelate) the
calcium ions in the water as shown in equation 1 below.

-
OOC N CH2 CH2COO-+
O
Ca 2+ N

-
N O N
OOCCH2 Ca
O O O
CH2CO O-O O

(EDTA4-) (CaEDTA2-)
The reaction between calcium ions and EDTA only occurs at a high pH; therefore, a solution that
has a constant pH of 10 (called a buffer) will to be added to the water sample.

Just as in the acid-base reactions, you must use an indicator to identify when the reaction is
complete. In this experiment, Eriochrome black T, a metal ion indicator, will be used to
visualize the endpoint.

OH OH

65
 N N

-
O3S
O2N

66
67
Eriochrome black T

A metal ion indicator is a compound whose color changes when it binds to a metal ion. For such
an indicator to be useful in the titration of a metal with EDTA, the indicator must give up its
metal ion to the EDTA. The indicator in its free form, i.e. not bound to any metal, ismetal ion to
the EDTA. The indicator in its free form, i.e. not bound to any metal, is blue. A small amount
of indicator is added to the solution containing the Ca 2+ forming a wine red complex (Equation
2.) If we denote the indicator as In2-, we can write the reaction as:

Ca2+ + In2- CaIn Eqn. 2

(Blue) (Wine red)

CaIn + EDTA4- CaEDTA2- + In2- Eqn. 3

(Wine red) (Blue)

In this experiment, the end point will be indicated when the original red solution turns to blue
(Equation 3) indicating that the EDTA has reacted with all the calcium ions in the water sample.

AIMS: The purpose of this experiment is to determine the hardness of a water sample by
measuring the amount of calcium present. This analysis will utilize the method of titration.

PROCEDURE:

1. Bring at least 100 mL of water from home, your dormitory, or any local water supply to lab.
(Note: a 20 oz soda bottle contains 514 mL.)

2. Pour 25 mL of the water sample into a 250 mL Erlenmeyer flask.

3. Obtain 25 mL of DISTILLED water and add it to the same flask. (This water will
not affect the titration, but it makes the endpoint easier to recognize.)

68
4. Using an eye-dropper, add 20 drops of the pH 10 solution (called a buffer) to the same flask.

5. Using a spatula, add a pea size amount of indicator (in the form of a powder) to the same
flask. The color of the solution should be red.

6. Clean and fill your buret with the EDTA solution and record the initial volume.

7. Titrate until the solution has changed color from red to blue. When this happens record the
final volume. Remember, this first time is just a trial run to help you approximate the
equivalence point, this data does not go into your average value of ppm of CaCO3.

8. Repeat steps 1-6 three more times. Calculate the ppm of CaCO3 for each sample and then
calculate the average value for these three trials. Remember to provide a sample
calculation for your data in the space provided under calculations.

RESULTS

After the measurement, it will be necessary to calculate the amount of calcium ions present.
The concentration units used to measure the water hardness is normally parts per million (ppm.)
In this experiment you will measure calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in ppm. (One part per million is
the same as 1 mL/L.) You will be able determine the hardness of your water sample by
measuring the volume of your water sample and the volume (in mL) of the EDTA solution used
to react with all of the calcium in the water sample. You will calculate the ppm of calcium
carbonate in your water sample by using the following calculation

ppm CaCO3 = mL of EDTA used in titration X 1000 ppm

mL of water sample
Once the concentration in ppm is determined, it can be related to the hardness scale in the table.

69
 Concentration (ppm) Hardness Rating
< 61 Soft
61 – 120 Moderately hard
121-180 Hard
> 180 Very hard

Water Hardness Scale

CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION: : To measure concentration of the constituents in

quantity for characterization of water for different uses Of the various parameters in potable
water few are objectionable even when present in very small quantity Others if only present in
unusual quantities as to relegate the water from the potable to the unusable class The analyst
familiar with water quality characterization will often select parameters to be measured based on
experience and intuition

70
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.1. Marketing
The target market after the due processes of water treatment to the general public for both
domestic and industrial purposes. The supply of safe drinking water to the Gusau Population is
almost free of charge considering the huge capital involved in the treatment process. But as a
measure for revenue generation to supplement government efforts, a small amount of money is
deducted to each workers’ salary depending on the salary grade of each employee.
5.2. Costing
The production of portable water involves high capital expenditure no single private
company has come into the business of producing water for public use. Therefore, the treatment
and supply of water is one of the primary responsibilities of the government.
The table below gives on insight into the daily cost of the chemicals used in the plant.

Table: Cost of Chemicals Consumed Daily

CHEMICALS COST DEMAND DAILY COST
Alum (Al2(SO4)3) N160,000.00 10 ton/day 600,000.00
Lime (Ca(OH)2) N110,000.00 3 ton/day 300,000.00
Chlorine (CU2) N395,000.00 3 ton/day 1,25,000.00
TOTAL N545,000.00 15 tones 2,055,000.00

This implies that, the daily chemical consumption amount 2,055,000.00 when compared with
total production of 18 million gallons per day therefore, yearly chemical consumption =
2,055,000 x 365 days = 750,075,000.00

71
Additionally, the annual electricity bill and cost of maintenance amount too N48, 000,000.00 and
N11, 376,000.00 respectively.

5.3. Promotion and Sales of the Company

The organization is promoting steadily in both its plant and laboratory treatment of
water. In the plant, effort is been made by the current administration to increase the quality of
water by constructing new modern chlorine tanks, mixing chambers etc. and the laboratory is
partially well acquired with reagents and equipment needed to carry out the required test.
5.4 Organizational Structure

MANAGING DIRECTOR

GENERAL MANAGER GENERAL MANAGER GENERAL MANAGER

ADMIN AND MAINTENANCE PROJECT PLANNING

FINANCE

COMMERCIAL AREA MANAGER ASS. AREA MANAGER

MANAGER

PERSONAL
I/C OPERATION AND PROJECT AND PLANNING
MANAGER
MAINTENANCE

CHIEF COMMERCIAL I/C OPERATION AND

OFFICER PLANNING

72
The organizational structure of the Gusau water Board

5.5 Conclusion
The Industrial Work Experience Scheme provided me with more Laboratory Knowledge
and Practical’s. I saw the physical application of chemistry and also acquired knowledge base on
my specialized area. Also the Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme contributes a lot to
student that are subjected to work experience and are applying their knowledge which is
theoretical to a practical aspect.

5.6 Recommendation
The federal Government is trying its best and is putting in effort and resources to the
provision of water to the Gusau people, but this effort is not enough to meet the demand of
the growing population of the people, the government should therefore expand and renovate
the existing treatment plants. It is also recommended that the new treatment plant should be
built due to increase in population.

73
 REFERENCES
DWAF (2002). Department of Water Affairs and Forestry. Quality of Domestic Water
Supplies, Treatment Guide: Vol. 4 PP.21 to 22

Chris B, Martink, and George S, (2002), Basic Water Treatment. Quality of Water Origin
and types of Impurities. Thomas Talfood imt, 3rd Edition. PP 5 to 6

Basak N.M, (2003). Water Softening Hand Book. PP 111

Franson M.A.H, (199). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Waste Water.
American Public Health Association Washington PP 131 to 200.

S.S. W.B (2015). Sokoto State Water Pump Manual. Gerstein N, Lime S, (2009). Water
Purification Hand Book, Nova Science Publishers.

www.google.com.ng/books

Wikipedia (2015) Water Resources Available at: (httpllen.in.wikipedia.org/wiki/water

resources). Accessed on: (28 Dec 2015)

74