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101 M. de Humboldt (Kosmos, p. 116) speaks of nine returns of
Halley’s Comet, the comet observed in China in 1378 being
identified with this. But whether we take 1378 or 1380 for the
appearance in that century, if we begin with that, we have only
seven appearances, namely, in 1378 or 1380, in 1456, in 1531, in
1607, in 1682, in 1759, and in 1835.
The only answer which the Newtonians could at this time make to
the difficulty thus presented, was, that an arc so short as that thus
measured, was not to be depended upon for the determination of
such a question; inasmuch as the inevitable errors of observation
might exceed the differences which were the object of research. It
would, undoubtedly, have become the English to have given a more
complete answer, by executing measurements under circumstances
not liable to this uncertainty. The glory of doing this, however, they
for a long time abandoned to other nations. The French undertook
the task with great spirit. 102 In 1733, in one of the meetings of the
French Academy, when this question was discussed, De la
Condamine, an ardent and eager man, proposed to settle this
question by sending members of the Academy to measure a degree
of the meridian near the equator, in order to compare it with the
French degrees, and offered himself for the expedition. Maupertuis,
in like manner, urged the necessity of another expedition to measure
a degree in the neighborhood of the pole. The government received
the applications favorably, and these remarkable scientific missions
were sent out at the national expense.
102 Bailly, iii. 11.
The attraction of all the parts of the earth to one another was thus
proved by experiments, in which the whole mass of the earth is
concerned. But attempts have also been made to measure the
attraction of smaller portions; as mountains, or artificial masses. This
is an experiment of great difficulty; for the attraction of such masses
must be compared with that of the earth, of which it is a scarcely
perceptible fraction; and, moreover, in the case of mountains, the
effect of the mountain will be modified or disguised by unknown or
unappreciable circumstances. In many of the measurements of
degrees, indications of the attraction of mountains had been
perceived; but at the suggestion of Maskelyne, the experiment was
carefully made, in 1774, upon the mountain Schehallien, in Scotland,
the mountain being mineralogically surveyed by Playfair. The result
obtained was, that the attraction of the mountain drew the plumb-line
about six seconds from the vertical; and it was deduced from this, by
Hutton’s calculations, that the density of the earth was about once
and four-fifths that of Schehallien, or four and a half times that of
water.
The mode in which these secret methods were invented, was that
which we have pointed out;—the analysis of a considerable series of
observations. Probably the best example of this was afforded by the
Liverpool Tide-tables. These were deduced by a clergyman named
Holden, from observations made at that port by a harbor-master of
the name of Hutchinson; who was led, by a love of such pursuits, to
observe the tides carefully for above twenty years, day and night.
Holden’s Tables, founded on four years of these observations, were
remarkably accurate.
The theory with which Mr. Lubbock was led to compare his results,
was the Equilibrium-theory of Daniel Bernoulli; and it was found that
this theory, with certain modifications of its elements, represented
the facts to a remarkable degree of precision. Mr. Lubbock pointed
out this agreement especially in the semi-mensual inequality of the
times of high water. The like agreement was afterwards (in 1833)
shown by Mr. Whewell 106 to obtain still more accurately at Liverpool,
both for the Times and Heights; for by this time, nineteen years of
Hutchinson’s Liverpool Observations had also been discussed by Mr.
Lubbock. The other inequalities of the Times and Heights (depending
upon the Declination and Parallax of the Moon and Sun,) were
variously compared with the Equilibrium-theory by Mr. Lubbock and
Mr. Whewell; and the general result was, that the facts agreed with
the condition of equilibrium at a certain anterior time, but that this
anterior time was different for different phenomena. In like manner it
appeared to follow from these researches, that in order to explain the
facts, the mass of the moon must be supposed different in the
calculation at different places. A result in effect the same was
obtained by M. Daussy, 107 an active French Hydrographer; for he
found that observations at various stations could not be reconciled
with the formulæ of Laplace’s Mécanique 460 Céleste (in which the
ratio of the heights of spring-tides and neap-tides was computed on
an assumed mass of the moon) without an alteration of level which
was, in fact, equivalent to an alteration of the moon’s mass. Thus all
things appeared to tend to show that the Equilibrium-theory would
give the formulæ for the inequalities of the tides, but that the
magnitudes which enter into these formulæ must be sought from
observation.
106 Phil. Trans. 1834.
[2d Ed.] [That there would be, in the tidal movements of the ocean,
inequalities of the heights and times of high and low water 461
corresponding to those which the equilibrium theory gives, could be
considered only as a conjecture, till the comparison with observation
was made. It was, however, a natural conjecture; since the waters of
the ocean are at every moment tending to acquire the form assumed
in the equilibrium theory: and it may be considered likely that the
causes which prevent their assuming this form produce an effect
nearly constant for each place. Whatever be thought of this
reasoning, the conjecture is confirmed by observation with curious
exactness. The laws of a great number of the tidal phenomena—
namely, of the Semi-mensual Inequality of the Heights, of the Semi-
mensual Inequality of the Times, of the Diurnal Inequality, of the
effect of the Moon’s Declination, of the effect of the Moon’s Parallax
—are represented very closely by formulæ derived from the
equilibrium theory. The hydrodynamical mode of treating the subject
has not added any thing to the knowledge of the laws of the
phenomena to which the other view had conducted us.
W Emathematical
have travelled over an immense field of astronomical and
labor in the last few pages, and have yet, at the
end of every step, still found ourselves under the jurisdiction of the
Newtonian laws. We are reminded of the universal monarchies,
where a man could not escape from the empire without quitting the
world. We have now to notice some other discoveries, in which this
reference to the law of universal gravitation is less immediate and
obvious; I mean the astronomical discoveries respecting Light.
This discovery, like so many others, once made, appears easy and
inevitable; yet Dominic Cassini had entertained the idea for a
moment, 114 and had rejected it; and Fontenelle had congratulated
himself publicly on having narrowly escaped this seductive error. The
objections to the admission of the truth arose principally from the
inaccuracy of observation, and from the persuasion that the motions
of the satellites were circular and uniform. Their irregularities
disguised the fact in question. As these irregularities became clearly
known, Römer’s discovery was finally established, and the “Equation
of Light” took its place in the Tables.
114 Ib. ii. 419.