Egyptian Journal of Petroleum 32 (2023) 65–73

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Egyptian Journal of Petroleum

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Evaluation of economic viability of beneficiated barite from deposits in

north-eastern Nigeria for use as weighing agent in drilling mud
formulation
A.S. Arabi a,⇑,1, S. Baba b, M.Y. Kwaya a, B.M. Sarki-Yandoka a, S. Bilal d, S. Kasidi c, A.Y. Lawan a,
T. Muhammad e, A.J. Alhassan e, S. David f
a
Department of Geology, Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria
b
Department of Geology, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri, Nigeria
c
Department of Geology, Adamawa State University, Mubi, Nigeria
d
Department of Chemical Engineering, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
e
Centre for Energy Research and Training, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
f
Department of Geology and Mining, Federal University, Lokoja, Nigeria

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Exploitable deposits of barite exist in northeastern Nigeria but are not harnessed because their qualities
Received 13 December 2022 are not to a standard required for drilling mud formulation. The work presented here is a preliminary
Revised 7 February 2023 result obtained from the beneficiation of barite samples from these deposits with the aim of attaining
Accepted 19 February 2023
a level that can be used in drilling mud formulation. Results of elemental, mineralogical, and mud den-
Available online 24 February 2023
sities, cation exchange capacity (CEC), and filtration loss were obtained using Instrumental Neutron
Activation Analysis (INAA), X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), and other API 13B-1 recommended measurements
Keywords:
before and after beneficiation. Barium composition of raw and laboratory-treated samples (GMB, IBI,
Density
Beneficiation
BOK, DUM, and GAM) in percentage (%) are 50.5 ± 0.2, 55.6 ± 0.2, 57.9 ± 0.2, 57.6 ± 0.2, 0.097 ± 0.004,
Drilling and 54.6 ± 0.2, 58.3 ± 0.2, 56.3 ± 0.2, 52.4 ± 0.2, 0.0845 ± 0.007, respectively while major impurity (Fe)
Filtration control is highest (1.52 ± 0.01) in sample GAM and lowest (0.025 ± 0.002) in sample DUM. The densities (g/
Mud m3) obtained after preliminary beneficiation increased to 3.89, 3.39, 4.28, 4.32, and 2.56 for samples
CEC GMB, IBI, BOK, DUM, and GAM, respectively. Filtration loss of 5 % W/V barite-mud formulation reported
12.2 ± 1.4 and 4.95 ± 1.7% more loss than two API-13A grade barite. The filtration loss reverses at 10 % W/
V barite-mud formulation, with test barite reporting on average 3.22 and 1.15% improved filtration con-
trol against the API-13A barites. Mud formulation with loss additives reported significant filtration con-
trol with 23.6, 23.6 and 8.54% improvement over API 13A grade for beneficiated BOK, DUM and IBI
samples. Similarly, the same formulated samples reported identical CEC values against API-Helicon
and improved values against API-1 at 4.67, 7.29 and 4.67% respectively. Even at this stage BOK, DUM
and IBI were improved to level that can be used in drilling mud formulation with samples DUM and
BOK having the best potential (low impurity and high density). These results show that barite deposits
from north-eastern Nigeria have great economic potential.
Ó 2023 Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open
access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction
Nigeria is blessed with abundant mineral resources that can
compete favorably with its petroleum resources. Since the discov-
ery of oil in the Niger Delta region in 1958, many oil wells have
Peer review under responsibility of Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute.
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: asabdullahi.geo@buk.edu.ng (A.S. Arabi).
1 ciated. This study entails the beneficiation of barites from these
ORCID: 0000-0002-3482-998x.
been drilled and none of these oil wells was drilled without the
use of drilling mud whose composition must include some quan-
tity of barite. Millions of tons of API-grade barite are being
imported into the country for use in the formulation of drilling
mud in oil and gas well drilling. The barite deposits found in Nige-
ria are not to standard mostly because their densities are lower
and, in some cases, they contain some impurities that affect their
quality as weighing agents in drilling formulation. These barite
deposits can compare well with the API grade barite when benefi-

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpe.2023.02.001
1110-0621/Ó 2023 Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
A.S. Arabi, S. Baba, M.Y. Kwaya et al.
deposits (Table 1) through impurity removal to enhance their den-
sities. If this standard is attained, it will result in reduced importa-
tion of barite into the country which may lead to self-reliance in
terms of barite needs.
Global dependence on a limited number of countries for specific
mineral commodities could lead to sudden supply disruptions for
many countries, and barite is one such commodity [1]. Barite prices
are linked to purity and this are the case with drilling-grade barite.
Globally, barite prices remained relatively steady until approxi-
mately 2006 relative to 1995 dollars, after which they increased
rapidly until around 2012 and have currently fallen back slightly
since 2014, but still some 200% above the inflated 1995-dollar
base. Projecting global barite production based on 1998 (6 m ton-
nes) to 2013 (8.2 m tonnes) indicates that 9.5 to 10mtpa may not
be an unrealistic market by 2025, tempered somewhat by the
recent drop in oil prices [2].
Generally, the geology of north-eastern Nigeria consists of
ancient (Precambrian) crystalline Basement Complex rocks mainly
Granitic gneiss, migmatites, and Older Granites, on which rest non-
conformably the sedimentary and volcanic rocks ranging in age
from Cretaceous to Quaternary [3]. The Dumne area lies within
the Hawal Basement in the Northeastern sector of Nigeria’s Base-
ment Complex. [4] reported that, the rocks within the Hawal Base-
ment are characterized by high-grade metamorphic rocks,
pervasive Migmatization, and extensive granite plutonism. Most
of the migmatization has been dated as 580 ± 10 Ma. It is bounded
by the Tertiary to Quaternary Chad Basin northwards, the Yola arm
of the Cretaceous Benue Basin southward, and the Gongola Basin
westwards where Baryte occurs at the contact. The area experi-
enced Tertiary magmatism between 7 and 1 Ma [5], during which
volcanic and sub-volcanic rocks were emplaced. These volcanic
and sub-volcanic rocks are extensions of the Cameroun volcanic
line into Nigeria [6]. Earlier during the Mesozoic, transitional alkali
basalts were emplaced in Shani area 146 ± 7.3 Ma < age less
than 127 ± 65 Ma [7]. [8] reported that the gneisses and migma-
tites are the older rocks within the Hawal Basement occupying
mainly low-lying areas, or existing as residual hills.
[9,10]. [11], and [12] reported that Hawal massif consists of
gneisses, granite gneiss, and some minor rocks such as dolerite,
aplite, pegmatite, and some minerals such as quartz crystals and
biotite. [13] and [14] reported that the Dumne area belongs to a
region where tectonic activities that caused the formation of the
Benue trough were accompanied by fracturing and faulting of rock
within the adjoining basement complex unit, subsequent igneous
activities generated mineralizing fluid that accumulated and con-
solidated within these structures. Baryte vein occurred along fault
lines trending ENE-NSW emplaced within gneisses and granite.
(Fig. 1).
In this work, samples were collected from barite deposits in
three northeastern states (Fig. 1) and subjected to laboratory pro-
cedures with the aim of enhancing their quality for drilling fluid
formulation.
Sample collection and processing were based on the recom-
mended practice for field testing water-based drilling fluids API
13B-1, in efforts to beneficiate, and demonstrate the fit for purpose
and suitability of Nigerian bentonite deposits in oil well drilling
applications.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Sampling
Samples of Barite were taken from mining fields at all locations
(Table 1) through excavations already made by local miners in the
field. The representative samples from each location were sub-
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Egyptian Journal of Petroleum 32 (2023) 65–73
jected to preliminary physical examination and flame test to know
if they were indeed baryte samples. For each sample point, the
coordinates were recorded using Global Positioning System (GPS)
while samples were bagged and labeled accordingly. These sam-
ples were submitted for laboratory analysis for their chemical
composition and a confirmatory test. As a field precaution, samples
were handled with care to avoid contamination and to get accurate
laboratory results. The Table below gives detail on state locations
and coordinates of samples collected.
2.2. Sample preparation and analysis
2.2.1. Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA)
A flow chart depicting the entire exercise is provided in Fig. 2.
The inherent sensitivity, accuracy, and low detection of NAA do
not require elaborate sample preparation. However, to ensure a
truly homogeneous sample, the samples were crushed with a lab-
oratory grinder and then pulverized with a high-speed laboratory
blender to a fine powder (less than 75 lm).
The samples were labelled in a way that depicts locations, local-
ity names, and a postfix 1 (standing for field sample) e.g. BOK 1
(Table 2). Another portion of each sample was washed with clean
water, pulverized, and labelled with a postfix 2 (standing for labo-
ratory sample) e.g. BOK 2. About 0.15 g of duplicate portions of the
samples were crushed and packaged in a double-layered poly-
ethene bag. While an identification tag is placed in the outer bag.
Certified Reference Material (CRM); NIST 1633c (Coal Fly Ash)
and IAEA 158 (Lake Sediment) were weighted and packed along
with the samples.
The samples were packed in a vial and irradiated for 6 h at a flux
of 5.0e11 ncm
2 s
1 (long irradiation), then allowed to decay for
3 days and counted on HPGE detector for 1800 s. The samples were
allowed to decay for seven days, then recounted for 3600 s.
The comparative method of analysis employed in this work
requires that a Certified Reference Material (CRM) with known ele-
ments and concentration is treated identically to the sample(s).
The measured activity of an element in the (unknown) sample rel-
ative to the activity and concentration in CRM allows the qualifica-
tion of the subject element as summarized in Eqs. (1) and (2).


Asam M sam e
kTd sam
¼ ð1Þ
Astd M std ðe
kTd Þsam
Where
A = activity of the sample (sam) and standard (std)
M = mass of the element
k = decay constant for the isotope and Td = decay time.
For a stable reactor flux as obtained in NIRR-1, the irradiation,
decay, and counting times are normally fixed for all samples and
standards such that the time-dependent factors cancel. Thus Eq.
(2) simplifies Eq. (1).
W std Astd
C sam ¼ C std ð2Þ
W sam Asam
Where
C = concentration of the element and
W = weight of the sample and standard.
2.2.2. X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)
XRD is a non-destructive test method used to analyse the struc-
ture of crystalline materials. XRD analysis, by way of the study of
the crystal structure, is used to identify the crystalline phases pre-
sent in a material and thereby reveal chemical composition infor-
A.S. Arabi, S. Baba, M.Y. Kwaya et al. Egyptian Journal of Petroleum 32 (2023) 65–73

Table 1
Locations, State, Local Government, and coordinates of sampled points.

S/N STATE SAMPLE ID GEOGRAPHICAL COORDINATE

NORTHINGS (N) EASTINGS (E)
1 ADAMAWA DUM 9° 500 2700 12° 150 1000
2 ADAMAWA GAM 8° 360 5500 11° 490 2100
3 TARABA IBI 8° 060 04.500 9° 490 24.500
4 TARABA BOK 7° 440 4.300 11° 190 28.600
5 GOMBE GOM 10° 180 300 11° 120 3300

Fig. 1. Geologic map of parts of north-eastern Nigeria showing sample locations (inset: location of the three states in Nigeria).

mation. XRD finds the geometry or shape of a molecule using X-
rays. XRD techniques are based on the elastic scattering of X-rays
from structures that have long-range order. The X-rays get dif-
fracted by a crystal because the wavelength of X-rays is like the
inter-atomic spacing in the crystals. Five samples from different
parts of northeastern Nigeria were analysed using the Empyrean
X-ray diffraction system (Malvem panalytica).
2.2.3. Mud formulation
Mud formulations with fluid loss additive (Table 2) were pre-
pared with API 13A grade barite samples (API-1 and API-
Helicon), unbeneficed and beneficiated barite samples along with
additive-free standard API mud formulation (22.4 g of API grade
bentonite in 350 mL of deionized water). The formulation was uti-
lized for studies of Filtration Control and CEC. A further batch of
API standard mud formulations was prepared with an additional
5, 10, and 15% of beneficiated barite (M/V) including the two
67
API-13A grade barite samples. Filtration and Mud Density were
cried out on this batch.
The varieties of formulations allowed studies to be conducted
on the properties of individual barite samples and also provide
room for comparisons to standards based on API-13A
recommendations.
2.2.4. Cation exchange capacity (CEC)
Measurement of CEC allows for the characterization of impor-
tant properties of drilling mud which include water absorption,
swelling capacity, and plasticity among others. A spectroscopic
method developed by Reckitt Benckiser Group. (2017) was
employed. It allows a simplified but more accurate and rapid
method of Analysis [15,16].
2.2.5. Mud filtration
Filtration Volume and Filter Cake measurements dictate the
drilling fluid control properties, which indicate the type and num-
A.S. Arabi, S. Baba, M.Y. Kwaya et al. Egyptian Journal of Petroleum 32 (2023) 65–73

Fig. 2. Procedure flow chart for the entire work exercise.

Table 2 concentrations of Fe and K which can impair the quality of the

Formulation with lost fluid additives. sample as a weighting agent. Samples IBI, GOM, DUM, and BOK
Additive Wt. % Mass (g) had Ba content higher than those of the certified API standard
Water 69.48 243.16
(API-1 and API-Helicon).
Bentonite 3.31 11.58 After beneficiation, samples largely lost the brown coloration
NaOH 0.02 0.06 and appeared translucent, but GMB sample still retains some
XG 0.22 0.77 brown coloration while the GAM sample was opaque. Apart
PAC 0.51 1.79
from this coloration, samples fractured easily during the crush-
nBarite 22.06 77.19
CaCO3 4.41 15.44 ing stage except for GAM, which appears extremely hard and
Total 100 350 produces sparks on impact. Pulverized samples appeared white,
except for GMB (light pink) and GAM (Grey-Ash) (Fig. 3). Obser-
vations of results of NAA (Table 3) indicates that GAM had Ba at
less than 0.1% (1000 ppm), while also reporting significant con-
centration of Ho and Gd (not in results), Fe, and K. All other
ber of solids in the mud and the nature of physical and chemical
samples had Ba concentration between 50 and 58 % (504,800
interactions of the mud with such solids. Filtration was carried
to 583,200 ppm).
out with Lan PLT filter press at 100 psi for 30 min, with filtrate vol-
Analytical grade barite has a barium concentration of 58.8%
ume recorded at 5-minute intervals.
(588,000 ppm). These suggest that studied samples are predomi-
nantly barite with trace impurities. Samples BOK and DUM sample
2.2.6. Mud density reported a decline in Ba concentration after washing, suggesting
The mass of a given volume of mud (Density) measured the that the samples may contain some soluble barite compound e.g.
quantity of barite relative to the overall volume of mud needed BaCl2, Ba(OH)2.
to maintain lubrication while resisting steer stress. Prior to mea- The result of NAA suggests that standard samples used for
surement, samples were conditioned to 21 °C. comparison were blended with density enhancement material
(Fe) for them to meet the required densities. These might have
3. Results and discussions a negative effect on the performance of these materials
because of the high abrasiveness of iron (Fe) found in the
3.1. Neutron Activation Analysis standard.

Elements analyzed as constituents of the different barite sam-
ples and standards are as many as twenty-four elements (Table 3),
most of which are in trace amounts except barium and strontium,
and in a few cases iron. Emphasis was placed on barite major con-
stituents Ba and Sr, as well as other elements that constitute impu-
rities e.g., Na and K. NIST 1633 C, was used as a calibrator CRM,
while IAEA 158 was treated as a sample to study the accuracy of
the analysis (i.e., z-score).
Almost all the samples had substantial concentrations of Ba
except sample GAM which had apart from low Ba content, high
68
3.2. X-ray diffraction
The XRD results of both the raw and beneficiated GAM samples
revealed the presence of quartz, low Ba, and high Fe content
(Table 3). This can also be appreciated as typically displayed on
the spectra of X-Ray Diffraction (blue) structure and Stick pattern
for API and NAA spectrum (red) for the samples analyzed (Fig. 4).
The presence of quartz and impurities such as Fe, Titanium (Ti)
etc. could affect the weighing performance of drilling fluid during
operation.
A.S. Arabi, S. Baba, M.Y. Kwaya et al.
Table 3
Results of Neutron Activation Analysis of field (1) and laboratory-treated (beneficiated) samples (2).
Fig. 3. Photo of Raw, Beneficiated, and Pulverized sample.
3.3. Specific density
The density of the samples improved dramatically after the lab-
oratory procedure (beneficiation) where the densities of samples
BOK and DUM surpassed that of the standard (API) (Fig. 5). Also,
the results of laboratory procedures were observed to affect nega-
tively, the Ba content of these same samples (BOK and DUM), sug-
gesting that the samples may have contained some soluble barite
compounds e.g. BaCl2, Ba(OH)2. But even with the reduced concen-
tration, their densities remained higher than any other sample and
the standard as well. A plot comparing the densities of samples and
standard before and after laboratory procedure is presented in
Fig. 5.
The densities of beneficiated samples reported a significant
improvement over un-beneficiated sample (range 6.2 to 20.3%).
The removal of impurities in the beneficiation procedure means
that readily hydrated ions such as SiOH+2, SiO
, and SiOH
ions
69
Egyptian Journal of Petroleum 32 (2023) 65–73
are absent [17], resulting in volume decrease and improved
density.
Barium-iron levels in sample and implications of weighing
property, Fig. 6 presents the Ba and Fe concentration on samples
DUM, GAM, GOM, IBI, and BOK and standards (API 1 and API Heli-
con). The result indicates that both standards were spiked with Fe
to improve its density while samples IBI and DUM had the highest
Ba contents which is good for weighing properties required in mud
formulation. Having the lowest Fe contents, these samples (DUM
and IBI) could perform better as weighing agents in drilling mud.
Apart from having a higher density than Ba, high Fe content could
impair on the performance of any material as a weighing agent
because of the high abrasivity possessed by Fe and compared to
Ba. Therefore, there is a likelihood that our beneficiated samples
could perform better in terms of their use as weighing agents in
mud formulation.
A.S. Arabi, S. Baba, M.Y. Kwaya et al. Egyptian Journal of Petroleum 32 (2023) 65–73

Fig. 4. XRD) of API and NAA spectrum of the samples.

Fig. 5. Density variation among raw and treated barite samples.

3.4. Cation exchange capacity
The CEC of bentonitic clay project the volume of active sites of
the clay that can attract and hold onto water molecules. Fig. 7
reported the CEC of API standard formulation (Bentonite only)
and the same formulation that different Barite samples have been
added. Fig. 7 showed that the obtained CEC values agreed with lit-
erature values [16,17]. The addition of barite samples did not sig-
nificantly reduce the CEC capacity. Samples with relatively higher
concentration Aluminium (Table 3) often reported increased CEC
capacity, suggesting that the Aluminum in the sample promote
CEC [18].

70
A.S. Arabi, S. Baba, M.Y. Kwaya et al. Egyptian Journal of Petroleum 32 (2023) 65–73

tively) showed that the addition of barite under study improved

the filtration but decrease with an increase in quantity. Fig. 8C (Fil-
tration loss additive formulation) reported much-improved filtra-
tion control for all beneficiated barite samples, with only GMB-2
reporting loss more that the control bentonite-only sample. While
beneficiated GAM sample report excellent filtration control, Table 2
and Figs. 4–6 have established that the sample is not Barite.

3.6. Mud density

The specific density of weighing agents provides a guide to suit-

able formulating drilling fluid. Agents such as Galena and various
iron minerals have higher specific densities, and quantities needed
for suitably weighted drilling fluid are often more expensive and
result in severe abrasion of the drill head. The availability, cost,
and less tendency to cause damage to barite make it a much desir-
able weight agent. Fig. 9 reported the mud densities for various
Barite formulations. An increase in mud density with the addition
of barite (Fig. 9) reported 3.91 ± 0.37% gain against standard ben-
Fig. 6. Levels of Ba and Fe in standards and samples.
tonite mud formulation when 5% barite was added. At 10% added
barite, mud density increased by 6.65 ± 0.57% and 2.63 ± 0.57%
over standard and 5% formulations respectively, while at 15%
added barite, mud density increased by 8.85 ± 1.12% and
2.07 ± 0.89% over standard and 10% formulations respectively.
Samples API and GMB samples reported the most increased
mud densities. Table 3 reported these samples to have the most
iron concentrations. The solubility of iron minerals has well been
established [18,19]. The multivalency and solubility of iron miner-
als allowed improved interaction with water, resulting in more
uniform and denser mud formulation. However, as pointed out
by API 13B-1, the presence iron (and other denser) compounds
result in excessive shearing, thus formulations need be carefully
considered and need large proportions of barite as weighting
agent.

4. Conclusions

Fig. 7. CEC of Raw (1), Beneficiated (2), and API grade samples. This study set out to study barite minerals from northeastern
Nigeria and evaluate their viability for use as weighing material
in drilling mud formulation. Five samples were selected and sub-
3.5. Filtration loss
jected to NAA, XRD, and characterized, before and after beneficia-
tion procedures. The results obtained indicate that some of the
The static filtration behavior of prepared mud samples is
samples compared very well with the standard barite after benefi-
reported in Figs. 8 A-C. Figs. 8A and B (5 and 10% Barite respec-
ciation. For example, densities (g/m3) obtained after preliminary

Fig. 8. A. Mud-5% Barite Formulation. B. Mud-10% Barite Formulation. C. Mud-Barite Formulation with Loss Additive.

71
A.S. Arabi, S. Baba, M.Y. Kwaya et al. Egyptian Journal of Petroleum 32 (2023) 65–73

Fig. 8 (continued)

Fig. 8 (continued)

Fig. 9. Formulated Mud Density.

72
A.S. Arabi, S. Baba, M.Y. Kwaya et al.
beneficiation rose to 3.89, 3.39, 4.28, 4.32, and 2.56 for samples
GMB, IBI, BOK, DUM, and GAM, respectively. CEC and Filtration
control tests reported increased capacity alongside better control,
especially with loss additive formulation. Mud density reported a
3.91, 6.65, and 8.85% increase against standard bentonite for for-
mulations with 5, 10, and 15% added. Even at this stage samples
BOK and DUM were improved to a level that can be used as weigh-
ing agents in drilling mud formulation for oil and gas well drilling
with sample DUM and BOK having the best potential (low impurity
and high density). Results of cation exchange capacity, mud den-
sity, and filtration loss all suggest that samples DUM and BOK
remain the most viable as weighing agents in drilling mud formu-
lation. This result shows that barite deposits from north-eastern
Nigeria have great economic potential that could attract investors
in the solid mineral sub-sector for the development of the country.
This natural attainment of required density makes our barite more
suitable as against the standard which was found to contain some
quantity of iron (Fe) in them, meaning that, it is this iron that was
used to enhance their density, which compromises the effect of
abrasivity of formulated drilling fluid when utilized.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
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