A

PROJECT REPORT
On
“Enhancing Power System Reliability through Smart
Electrical Feeder Integration”

Submitted By

Mr. BHOSALE SHRAVAN RAMESH

Mr. CHOPADE MAHESH CHANDRAKANT

Mr. GODASE VIVEK ASHOK

Mr. KHADANGALE BHUSHAN ANIL

In the partial fulfillment of

Bachelor of Engineering in Electrical
of
Savitribai Phule Pune University,
Pune (Maharashtra)
Guided By
Mr. Shinde H.R.

Department of Electrical Engineering

Adsul’s Technical Campus Chas,
Dist- Ahmednagar – 414 008 (Maharashtra)
ACADEMIC YEAR: 2023-2024
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that, the project on “Enhancing Power System Reliability
through Smart Electrical Feeder Integration,” is a bonafide work completed
under my supervision and guidance in partial fulfillment for the award of
Bachelor of Engineering (Electrical Engineering) Degree of Savitribai Phule
Pune University, Pune, Maharashtra during the academic year 2023-24.

Submitted by

1. Mr. BHOSALE SHRAVAN RAMESH

2. Mr. CHOPADE MAHESH CHANDRAKANT
3. Mr. GODASE VIVEK ASHOK
4. Mr. KHADANGALE BHUSHAN ANIL

Place: Adsul’s Technical Campus Chas, Ahmednagar

Date:

Guide Head
Department of Electronics & Department of Electronics &
Telecommunication Engineering Telecommunication Engineering
ATC,Chas, Ahmednagar ATC,Chas, Ahmednagar

Project Coordinator Principal

Department of Electronics & ATC,Chas, Ahmednagar
Telecommunication Engineering
ATC,Chas, Ahmednagar

External Examiner:
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Every orientation work has imprint of many people and this work is no different.
This work gives me an opportunity to express deep gratitude for the same. While
preparing seminar work received endless help from number of people. This report
would be incomplete if I don’t convey my sincere thanks to all those who were
involved.

First and foremost, I would like to thank my respected guide Prof Shinde H.R.
for giving me an opportunity to present this seminar and his indispensable
support, priceless suggestions, and valuable time.

Finally, I wish to thank my friends and my family for being supportive, without
whom this seminar would not have seen the light of day. Every work is an
outcome of full-proof planning, continuous hard work and Organized effort. This
work is a combination of all the three put together sincerely.

1. Mr. BHOSALE SHRAVAN RAMESH

2. Mr. CHOPADE MAHESH CHANDRAKANT
3. Mr. GODASE VIVEK ASHOK
4. Mr. KHADANGALE BHUSHAN ANIL
 INDEX
CHAPTER 1

1.1INTRODUCTION

1.2PROBLEM STATEMENT

1.3OBJECTIVE

CHAPTER 2

2.1LIETRATURE SURVEY

CHAPTER 3

3.1ABSTRACT

3.2BLOCK DIAGRAM

3.3WORKING

CHAPTER 4

4.1HARDEARE DESCREPTION

4.2SOFTWARE DESCREPTION

CHAPTER 5

5.1ADVANTAGES

5.2DISADVANTAGES

5.3APPLICATION

CHAPTER 6

6.1CONCLUSION

6.2FUTURE SCOPE

CHAPTER 7

7.1 REFERENCE
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
PRIBLEM STATEMENT
OBJECTIVE
 ABSTRACT

Electricity is the most important resource that we have in our

daily routine. Can we even imagine a day without electricity? From Internet
surfing to domestic applications, from industrial usage to household usage,
everywhere we need electricity. So, what about its optimal use? Being a useful
resource, it is our responsibility that we use electricity with proper care and
with zero wastage.Hence load shedding option is one of the approaches that
we can go with. This can help us to save electricity up to a large extent. The
demand for electrical energy is increasing. Today over 21% of the total
electrical energy generated in India is lost in transmission (4-6%) and
distribution (15-18%).
The electrical power deficit is currently about 18% in the
country. Clearly, reduction in distribution losses can reduce this deficit by
significantly. Its possibility to bring down the distribution losses to a 6-8 %
level in India with the help of newer technological option (including
information technology) in the electrical power distribution sector which will
enable better monitoring and control.
Electrical distribution on is required in order to manage the power
utility in such shortage period. Day by day, the generation electricity is no
full- filling the users wants, hence, the exact utility & distribution is necessary.
The electrical power distribution is done in Manuel ways.
The time schedule is made & accordingly the distribution control
panels are operated as per the schedule in manually, operated systems, there
may be many misilligul pressure is there. In order to over- come such
difficulties, an automated RF based power distribution system is adopted. It
will consist of µ-controller based programmable system, to which the
required, program can be done as per the schedule. In this project we have
developed regularized and time scheduled system which is controlled by the
microcontroller.
 INTRODUCTION

For proper functioning of the complete distribution system, the power

generation system must be operated in the stable condition. The stable
condition is defined as the power generated by the system must be completely
utilized in running and remaining in losses so that equation may become valid.
Reserved power + power generated = System Running power + losses. But
the problem may arise if there is an extra demand in the Load, which will
make the system unstable during demand time.

This will affect the system stability and the demand will also not get
fulfilled because of a specific range of pre-installed generation system which
cannot generate more than its capacity. Hence, we say there serve power for
critical/extra loading is not possible. Thus, it becomes very important to shed
the Load of some zones to meet the demand of other zones and providing next
time to those which were shed before. Since, till now, Load Shedding was
done manually but if done using “Programmed devices” to control, it may
prove more efficient.

The reason is that the entire substation can be controlled by a single

controlled substation and command can be transferred from single centered
substation to ease the work of different person. The control of various feeders
, substation, Distribution Transformer and Various distribution Points are not
easier to controlat a time, therefore to meet this problem a single centered
station designed with Programmable Load shedding system to operate them
all from a single location. The problem of theft can also be reduced by a very
great margin because it completely closes the power to a specific zone.

Thus, after completely cutting the power from a particular zone, no

one can access power from any other nearby locations under the restricted
zone, but with manual handling at substation people try to steal the connection
from other active connections of nearby zone but when this new technology
is employed, it completely cuts off the total power available inthat zone. Thus,
Load shedding is the technique which can be used where there is a heavy
demand of power & is beyond the capacity of system to generate it.

The biggest problem is to deal with the assembly of various

components including feeders, distribution points, etc all at a time, therefore
to meet the problem a single centered station designed with Programmable
Load Shedding system to operate them all from a single location. Therefore,
a system must be designed which can control the supply over specific period
for every zones.

The aim of our project is keeping the power system stability i.e. keep
the bulk power or transmission system energized together with as much of the
load as possible. In our case the of intelligent load shedding, the load sheds
are assumed to be distributed among the feeders: chosen loads among the
network are disconnected. Any part of the power system will detoriate if there
is an excess of load over available generation. The prime movers and their
associated generators begin to slow down as they attempt to carry excess load.
 .
1.2. Aim & Objectives

1.2.1. Aim
• The aim of our project is keeping the power system stability
i.e. keep the bulk power or transmission system energized
together with as much of the load as possible.
• In our case the of intelligent load shedding, the load sheds are
assumed to be distributed among the feeders: chosen loads
among the network are disconnected.
• Any part of the power system will detoreate if there is an
excess of load over available generation.
• The prime movers and their associated generators begin to
slow down as they attempt to carry excess load.Tie lines to
other parts of the system or to other power systems across a
power pool attempt to supply the excess load.This
combination of events can cause the tie lines to open from
overload.
• This results in one or more electrically isolated islands in
which load may exceed the available generation.
.

1.2.2 Objectives
1) To increase the efficiency.
2) To reduce human efforts
3) To reduce the labor cost.
4) To reduce the time.
5) Automatic controlling system
6) Controlling easily.
2. Literature Review
Hina Yadav, Kamla Prasan Ray, Mridula Gupta, Differential
multiresonator stacked microstrip antenna for wireless energy
harvesting, International Journal of RF and Microwave Computer-
Aided Engineering, 10.1002/mmce.22828, 31, 10, (2021).This paper
focuses on a single-stage voltage doubler topology using two Schottky diodes,
namely HSMS 280C. A single-stage voltage double is selected because the
topology provides a sufficient DC voltage for powering a power management
chip such as BQ25570 with input power starting with -5 dBm onwards. The
Schottky diode is used due to its high junction capacitance, Cj of 1.6 pF. The
rectifier is designed to operate in the industrial, scientific, and medical 868-
MHz/915- MHz band. The maximum efficiency of 90.9 % and 78.11 % was
obtained at 868 MHz and 915 MHz, respectively, using a load value of 200 Ω
with a low input power of -5 dBm. The designed rectifier can be used as part
of the receiver antenna's end side to form a rectenna. The rectifier has been
studied and simulated using Advanced Design System and verified by using
analytical equations. The same L-type impedance matching has been used
throughout the study for consistency.

Mohd Hezri Abdullah, Arjuna Marzuki, Mohd Tafir Mustaffa, Design of

Unlicensed Dual Band Quasi-Yagi Antenna Using Semi-Bowtie for
Indoor Wireless Power Transfer Application, Journal of
Communications, 10.12720/jcm.16.12.535-544, (535-544), (2021). This
paper focuses on antenna for harvesting energy from a dedicated transmitter.
The potential novel quasi-Yagi antenna with semi-bowtie driven element can
be used as part of rectenna due to its characteristic of having directional
properties and considerably wide bandwidth covering the Industrial,
Scientific, and Medical(ISM) band consists of 863-870 MHz band and 902-
928 MHz band. The modified quasi-Yagi is designed on a low-cost FR4
substrate with a physical size of 130 x 100 mm2 equivalent to 0.35λo x 0.27λo.
The antenna has a peak directivity of 2.7 dBi and peak gain

of 2.2 dBi in the targeted unlicensed bands with bandwidth of 14.4% for the
range between 0.820- 0.944 GHz. The shift in the resonant frequency is
achieved by varying the phase shifter length and maintaining the same width
for consistency. The antenna's operating frequency range varies between 0.8
GHz until 1 GHz which is less than 1 GHz by using semi-bowtie as driven
element with a specific 7.22⸰ flare angle

Bikash R. Behera, Priya R. Meher, Sanjeev K. Mishra, Microwave

antennas—An intrinsic part of RF energy harvesting systems: A
contingent study about its design methodologies and state‐of‐art
technologies in current scenario, International Journal of RF and
Microwave Computer-Aided Engineering, 10.1002/mmce.22148, 30, 5,
(2020). consumer and commercial usage, the surge for continuous power
requirements has initiated promising research toward alternative sources of
energy. It includes the domain of wireless power transmission, internet-of-
things, wireless sensor nodes, machine-to-machine, and radio frequency
identification. Thus, the overall scope of this review article is to witness
microwave antennas and itsimplementation in RF energy harvesting system
through ambient RF signals. For this reason, unified understanding of
classicalelectromagnetism is needed; beginning with the fundamentals of RF
transmission and the exploration of concepts such as Fraunhofer's Distance
and Friis Transmission Equation. It is followed up by the analogy of
dependency of parameters like circuit build-up, conversion efficiencies and
amount of power harvested, which is quite crucial from the rectifier point-of-
view.
Van-Long Nguyen, Van-Truong Truong, Dac-Binh Ha, Tan-Loc Vo,
Yoonill Lee, Performance Analysis of Relay Selection on Cooperative
Uplink NOMA Network with Wireless Power Transfer, Industrial
Networks and Intelligent Systems, 10.1007/978-3-030-63083-6_3, (32-
44), (2020). Wireless power transmission in the next-generation wireless
networks is the subject that attracts a lot of attention from academia and industry.
In this work, we study and analyze the performance of relay

selection on uplink non-orthogonalmultiple access (NOMA) networks with

wireless power transmission. Specifically, the considered system consists of one
base station, multiple power-constrained relays and a pair of NOMA users. The
best relay (with highest energy harvested from the base station) is chosen to
cooperate with two users which use NOMA scheme to send messages to the base
station. To analyze the performance, based on the statistical characteristics of
signal-to- noise ratio (SNR) and signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio (SINR),
using the Gaussian-Chebyshev quadrature method, the closed-form expressions
of outage probability and throughput for two users are derived
 CHAPTER 3
SYSTEM DESIGN
3.1ABSTRACT
Introducing an integrated feeder system ensures the seamless operation of
transformers within the power distribution network, optimizing efficiency and
reliability. The primary transformer serves as the backbone of the system, transferring
electrical power with precision and stability. However, to mitigate the risks
associated with overloading and overheating, a standby transformer is strategically
integrated into the system.
Under normal operating conditions, both transformers can efficiently supply the load,
alternating as needed to prevent thermal stress and prolong equipment lifespan. This
dynamic load-sharing mechanism not only enhances the overall efficiency of the
transformers but also minimizes the likelihood of interruption to power supply due to
overload.
The integration of multiple transformers in parallel operation mirrors the concept of
parallel operation of transformers, distributing the system load effectively. When the
load on the primary transformer surpasses its rated capacity, the standby transform er
seamlessly engages, alleviating the excess load and preventing overheating -induced
damage to the transformer insulation.
By seamlessly transitioning between transformers and utilizing parallel operation, the
integrated feeder system ensures uninterrupted power supply to energy consumers.
This proactive approach not only safeguards against potential disruptions caused by
transformer overloading but also optimizes the longevity and performance of the
power distribution infrastructure.
interruption of supply due to transformer overloading or overheating can be avoided.
3.2BLOCK DIAGRAM
HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS
• Transformer
 • Rectifier
• regulator
• Arduino
• LCD
• DC load
• Relay
• Diode
• Resistor
• Capacitor

SOFTWARE REQUIREMENT
• Arduino IDE
• Eagle

POWER SUPPLY
230V AC supply is given to the step down transformer

The basic building blocks of a regulated DC power supply are as follows:

A step down transformer

A rectifier

A DC filter

A regulator

Step Down Transformer

A step down transformer will step down the voltage from the ac mains to the required voltage
level. The turn’s ratio of the transformer is so adjusted such as to obtain the required voltage value.
The output of the transformer is given as an input to the rectifier circuit.

Rectification

Rectifier is an electronic circuit consisting of diodes which carries out the rectification process.
Rectification is the process of converting an alternating voltage or current into corresponding direct
(DC) quantity. The input to a rectifier is ac whereas its output is unidirectional pulsating DC.
Usually a full wave rectifier or a bridge rectifier is used to rectify both the half cycles of the ac
supply (full wave rectification)..'

DC Filtration'

The rectified voltage from the rectifier is a pulsating DC voltage having very high ripple content.
But this is not we want, we want a pure ripple free DC voltage.Hence a filter is used. Different
types of filters are used such as capacitor filter, LC filter, Choke input filter, π type filter.

Regulation

This is the last block in a regulated DC power supply. The output voltage or current will change
or fluctuate when there is change in the input from ac mains or due to change in load current at the
output of the regulated power supply or due to other factors like temperature changes. This problem
can be eliminated by using a regulator. A regulator will maintain the output constant even when
changes at the input or any other changes occur. Transistor series regulator, Fixed and variable IC
regulators or a zener diode operated in the zener region can be used depending on their
applications. IC’s like 78XX and 79XX are used to obtained fixed values of voltages at the output.
Waveform.7812 ic gives constant 12v dc and 7805 gives constant 5v dc.Output of 7805 is given
to the arduino lcd and all sensors where required power.

LCD
LCD is a flat optical display device which uses liquid crystals' light-modulating properties
combined with polarizers. Liquid crystals do not directly emit light, but use a backlight or reflector
to create colour or monochromeimages. Lcd interfacing with arduino to display some
values.LM016L 16*2 lcd is used.

Step-Down Transformer

Stepdown transformer is used to provide the 12v supply to the controlling equipment’s. 240v to
12v-0-12 transformer used. The output of this transformer is 24v secondary side with a centre
tapping. Voltage Regulator 7805&7812 ic voltage regulator is used to provide constant DC voltage
to the equipment’s. for relay 12v regulator 7812ic is used, 7805ic is for the 5v sensors and Arduino
board .

Relays

Relay is a electronic switch which is used to connect the capacitor to the load if the PF is low. It
has three terminals common, NO (normally open) & NC(normally closed) if the relay is triggered
by the signal it changes from one terminal to another. 12v relay is used, but the signal from µc is
5v, a relay driver circuit is with uln2003 driver ic used. the 12v signal to the relay units. Directly
given.

In this project we use two transformer which are connecting in parallel . voltage regulator circuit
is used for gives the regulated output of this transformer. The main controller of this project is
ARDUINO controller . LCD is used to display the current taken by the load. And these relays are
used to switch the transformer , second relay is used to switch the second parallel transformer. By
demonstration purpose by using the pot to increase the current taken by the load. Initially the
project works on the first transformer. Whenever current increases or a current taken by this load
increases that time the project is able to connect this second parallel transformer automatically.

Whenever the current increases more than the threshold level limit that time project automatically
cuts off power to the load. Now we will see how this works. Whenever current taken by the load
is only 30% or less than 50% then load is working on the first transformer. Next when we increase
the load current , now it is 50% so this project automatically connects the second transformer. The
second parallel ttansformer comes into the picture. Whenever the load current increases more than
threshold level that is its load current is more than the 50%.
 CHAPTER 4

H/W AND S/W DESCRIPTION

4.1HARDWARE DESCRIPTION
Voltage Transformer
One of the main reasons that we use alternating AC voltages and currents in our homes
and workplace’s is that AC supplies can be easily generated at a convenient voltage, transformed
(hence the name transformer) into much higher voltages and then distributed

The reason for transforming the voltage to a much higher level is that higher distribution
voltages implies lower currents for the same power and therefore lower I2R losses along the
networked grid of cables. These higher AC transmission voltages and currents can then be
reduced to a much lower, safer and usable voltage level where it can be used to supply electrical
equipment in our homes and workplaces, and all this is possible thanks to the basic

Voltage Transformer.

A Typical Voltage Transformer

The Voltage Transformer can be thought of as an electrical component rather than an
electronic component. A transformer basically is very simple static (or stationary) electro-
magnetic passive electrical device that works on the principle of Faraday’s law of induction by
converting electrical energy from one value to another.

The transformer does this by linking together two or more electrical circuits using a
common oscillating magnetic circuit which is produced by the transformer itself. A transformer
operates on the principals of “electromagnetic induction”, in the form of Mutual Induction.

Mutual induction is the process by which a coil of wire magnetically induces a voltage into
another coil located in close proximity to it. Then we can say that transformers work in the
“magnetic domain”, and transformers get their name from the fact that they “transform” one
voltage or current level into another.

Transformers are capable of either increasing or decreasing the voltage and current levels
of their supply, without modifying its frequency, or the amount of Electrical Power being
transferred from one winding to another via the magnetic circuit.

A single phase voltage transformer basically consists of two electrical coils of wire, one
called the “Primary Winding” and another called the “Secondary Winding”. For this tutorial we
will define the “primary” side of the transformer as the side that usually takes power, and the
“secondary” as the side that usually delivers power. In a single-phase voltage transformer the
primary is usually the side with the higher voltage.

These two coils are not in electrical contact with each other but are instead wrapped
together around a common closed magnetic iron circuit called the “core”. This soft iron core is not
solid but made up of individual laminations connected together to help reduce the core’s losses.

The two coil windings are electrically isolated from each other but are magnetically linked
through the common core allowing electrical power to be transferred from one coil to the other.
When an electric current passed through the primary winding, a magnetic field is developed which
induces a voltage into the secondary winding as shown.

Single Phase Voltage Transformer

In other words, for a transformer there is no direct electrical connection between the two
coil windings, thereby giving it the name also of an Isolation Transformer. Generally, the primary
winding of a transformer is connected to the input voltage supply and converts or transforms the
electrical power into a magnetic field. While the job of the secondary winding is to convert this
alternating magnetic field into electrical power producing the required output voltage as shown.

Transformer Construction (single-phase)

• Where:

• VP - is the Primary Voltage

• VS - is the Secondary Voltage

• NP - is the Number of Primary Windings

• NS - is the Number of Secondary Windings

• Φ (phi) - is the Flux Linkage

Notice that the two coil windings are not electrically connected but are only linked magnetically.
A single-phase transformer can operate to either increase or decrease the voltage applied to the
primary winding. When a transformer is used to “increase” the voltage on its secondary winding
with respect to the primary, it is called a Step-up transformer. When it is used to “decrease” the
voltage on the secondary winding with respect to the primary it is called a Step-down
transformer.

However, a third condition exists in which a transformer produces the same voltage on its
secondary as is applied to its primary winding. In other words, its output is identical with respect
to voltage, current and power transferred. This type of transformer is called an “Impedance
Transformer” and is mainly used for impedance matching or the isolation of adjoining electrical
circuits.

The difference in voltage between the primary and the secondary windings is achieved by changing
the number of coil turns in the primary winding ( NP ) compared to the number of coil turns on the
secondary winding ( NS ).
As the transformer is basically a linear device, a ratio now exists between the number of turns of
the primary coil divided by the number of turns of the secondary coil. This ratio, called the ratio
of transformation, more commonly known as a transformers “turns ratio”, ( TR ). This turns ratio
value dictates the operation of the transformer and the corresponding voltage available on the
secondary winding.

It is necessary to know the ratio of the number of turns of wire on the primary winding compared
to the secondary winding. The turns ratio, which has no units, compares the two windings in order
and is written with a colon, such as 3:1 (3-to-1). This means in this example, that if there are 3
volts on the primary winding there will be 1 volt on the secondary winding, 3 volts-to-1 volt. Then
we can see that if the ratio between the number of turns changes the resulting voltages must also
change by the same ratio, and this is true.

Transformers are all about “ratios”. The ratio of the primary to the secondary, the ratio of the input
to the output, and the turns ratio of any given transformer will be the same as its voltage ratio. In
other words for a transformer: “turns ratio = voltage ratio”. The actual number of turns of wire on
any winding is generally not important, just the turns ratio and this relationship is given as:

A Transformers Turns Ratio

Assuming an ideal transformer and the phase angles: ΦP ≡ ΦS

Note that the order of the numbers when expressing a transformers turns ratio value is very
important as the turns ratio 3:1 expresses a very different transformer relationship and output
voltage than one in which the turns ratio is given as: 1:3.

Transformer Basics Example No1

A voltage transformer has 1500 turns of wire on its primary coil and 500 turns of wire for its
secondary coil. What will be the turns ratio (TR) of the transformer.

This ratio of 3:1 (3-to-1) simply means that there are three primary windings for every one
secondary winding. As the ratio moves from a larger number on the left to a smaller number on
the right, the primary voltage is therefore stepped down in value as shown.
Transformer Basics Example No2

If 240 volts rms is applied to the primary winding of the same transformer above, what will be
the resulting secondary no load voltage.

Again confirming that the transformer is a “step-down transformer as the primary voltage is 240
volts and the corresponding secondary voltage is lower at 80 volts.

Then the main purpose of a transformer is to transform voltages at preset ratios and we can see
that the primary winding has a set amount or number of windings (coils of wire) on it to suit the
input voltage. If the secondary output voltage is to be the same value as the input voltage on the
primary winding, then the same number of coil turns must be wound onto the secondary core as
there are on the primary core giving an even turns ratio of 1:1 (1-to-1). In other words, one coil
turn on the secondary to one coil turn on the primary.

If the output secondary voltage is to be greater or higher than the input voltage, (step-up
transformer) then there must be more turns on the secondary giving a turns ratio of 1:N (1-to-N),
where N represents the turns ratio number. Likewise, if it is required that the secondary voltage
is to be lower or less than the primary, (step-down transformer) then the number of secondary
windings must be less giving a turns ratio of N:1 (N-to-1).

Transformer Action

We have seen that the number of coil turns on the secondary winding compared to the primary
winding, the turns ratio, affects the amount of voltage available from the secondary coil. But if
the two windings are electrically isolated from each other, how is this secondary voltage
produced?

We have said previously that a transformer basically consists of two coils wound around a
common soft iron core. When an alternating voltage ( VP ) is applied to the primary coil, current
flows through the coil which in turn sets up a magnetic field around itself, called mutual
inductance, by this current flow according to Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction. The
strength of the magnetic field builds up as the current flow rises from zero to its maximum value
which is given asdΦ/dt.
As the magnetic lines of force setup by this electromagnet expand outward from the coil the soft
iron core forms a path for and concentrates the magnetic flux. This magnetic flux links the turns
of both windings as it increases and decreases in opposite directions under the influence of the
AC supply.

However, the strength of the magnetic field induced into the soft iron core depends upon the
amount of current and the number of turns in the winding. When current is reduced, the magnetic
field strength reduces.

When the magnetic lines of flux flow around the core, they pass through the turns of the
secondary winding, causing a voltage to be induced into the secondary coil. The amount of
voltage induced will be determined by: N.dΦ/dt (Faraday’s Law), where N is the number of coil
turns. Also this induced voltage has the same frequency as the primary winding voltage.

Then we can see that the same voltage is induced in each coil turn of both windings because the
same magnetic flux links the turns of both the windings together. As a result, the total induced
voltage in each winding is directly proportional to the number of turns in that winding. However,
the peak amplitude of the output voltage available on the secondary winding will be reduced if
the magnetic losses of the core are high.

If we want the primary coil to produce a stronger magnetic field to overcome the cores magnetic
losses, we can either send a larger current through the coil, or keep the same current flowing, and
instead increase the number of coil turns ( NP ) of the winding. The product of amperes times
turns is called the “ampere-turns”, which determines the magnetising force of the coil.

So assuming we have a transformer with a single turn in the primary, and only one turn in the
secondary. If one volt is applied to the one turn of the primary coil, assuming no losses, enough
current must flow and enough magnetic flux generated to induce one volt in the single turn of the
secondary. That is, each winding supports the same number of volts per turn.

As the magnetic flux varies sinusoidally, Φ = Φmax sinωt, then the basic relationship between
induced emf, ( E ) in a coil winding of N turns is given by:

emf = turns x rate of change

 • Where:

• ƒ - is the flux frequency in Hertz, = ω/2π

• Ν - is the number of coil windings.

• Φ - is the flux density in webers

This is known as the Transformer EMF Equation. For the primary winding emf, N will be the
number of primary turns, ( NP ) and for the secondary winding emf, N will be the number of
secondary turns, ( NS ).

Also please note that as transformers require an alternating magnetic flux to operate correctly,
transformers cannot therefore be used to transform or supply DC voltages or currents, since the
magnetic field must be changing to induce a voltage in the secondary winding. In other
words,transformers DO NOT operate on steady state DC voltages, only alternating or
pulsating voltages.

If a transformers primary winding was connected to a DC supply, the inductive reactance of the
winding would be zero as DC has no frequency, so the effective impedance of the winding will
therefore be very low and equal only to the resistance of the copper used. Thus the winding will
draw a very high current from the DC supply causing it to overheat and eventually burn out,
because as we know I = V/R.

Transformer Basics
A single phase transformer has 480 turns on the primary winding and 90 turns on the secondary
winding. The maximum value of the magnetic flux density is 1.1T when 2200 volts, 50Hz is
applied to the transformer primary winding. Calculate:

a). The maximum flux in the core.

b). The cross-sectional area of the core.

c). The secondary induced emf.

Bridge rectifier
Bridge rectifier circuit is a common part of the electronic power supplies. Many electronic
circuits require rectified DC power supply for powering the various electronic basic
componentsfrom available AC mains supply. We can find this rectifier in a wide variety of
electronic AC power devices like home appliances, motor controllers, modulation process,
welding applications, etc.

A Bridge rectifier is an Alternating Current (AC) to Direct Current (DC) converter that
rectifies mains AC input to DC output. Bridge Rectifiers are widely used in power supplies that
provide necessary DC voltage for the electronic components or devices. They can be constructed
with four or more diodes or any other controlled solid state switches.
Depending on the load current requirements, a proper bridge rectifier is selected. Components’
ratings and specifications, breakdown voltage, temperature ranges, transient current rating,
forward current rating, mounting requirements and other considerations are taken into account
while selecting a rectifier power supply for an appropriate electronic circuit’s application.
 This bridge rectifier uses diodes for rectifying the input as shown in the figure. Since the
diode is a unidirectional device that allows the current flow in one direction only. With this
configuration of diodes in the rectifier, it doesn’t allow the power to vary depending on the load
requirement. So this type of rectifier is used in constant or fixed power supplies.
VOLTAGE REGULATOR
The most commonly used regulating modes will be covered. The linear regulator is the
basic building block of nearly every power supply used in electronics. The IC linear regulator is
so easy to use that it is virtually foolproof, and so inexpensive that it is usually one of the
cheapest components in an electronic assembly. This project will present information that gives
the user greater understanding of how a linear regulator works, and will help to de-mystify
regulator specifications and applications specifications and applications.

Every electronic circuit is designed to operate off of some supply voltage, which is
usually assumed to be constant. A voltage regulator provides this constant DC output voltage and
contains circuitry that continuously holds the output voltage at the design value regardless of
changes in load current or input voltage

VOLTAGE REGULATOR IC 7805:

 7805 is a voltage regulator integrated circuit. It is a member of 78xx series of fixed
linear voltage regulator ICs. The voltage source in a circuit may have fluctuations and would not
give the fixed voltageoutput.

The voltage regulator IC maintains the output voltage at a constant value. The xx in 78xx
indicates the fixed output voltage it is designed to provide. 7805 provides +5V regulated power
supply. Capacitors of suitable values can be connected at input and output pins depending upon
the respective voltage levels.

VOLTAGE REGULATOR IC 7812

7812 is a voltage regulator integrated circuit. It is a member of 78xx series of fixed
linear voltage regulator ICs. The voltage source in a circuit may have fluctuations and would not
give the fixed voltage output.
The voltage regulator IC maintains the output voltage at a constant value. The xx in 78xx
indicates the fixed output voltage it is designed to provide. 7812 provides +12V regulated power
supply. Capacitors of suitable values can be connected at input and output pins depending upon
the respective voltage levels.

ARDUINO
Introduction
Arduino is an open-source platform used for building electronics projects. Arduino
consists of both a physical programmable circuit board (often referred to as a microcontroller)
and a piece of software, or IDE (Integrated Development Environment) that runs on your
computer, used to write and upload computer code to the physical board.
The Arduino platform has become quite popular with people just starting out with
electronics, and for good reason. Unlike most previous programmable circuit boards, the
Arduino does not need a separate piece of hardware (called a programmer) in order to load new
code onto the board – you can simply use a USB cable. Additionally, the Arduino IDE uses a
simplified version of C++, making it easier to learn to program. Finally, Arduino provides a
standard form factor that breaks out the functions of the micro-controller into a more accessible
pack
 This is an Arduino
The Uno is one of the more popular boards in the Arduino family and a great choice for
beginners. We’ll talk about what’s on it and what it can do later in the tutorial.
Over the years Arduino has been the brain of thousands of projects, from everyday
objects to complex scientific instruments. A worldwide community of makers - students,
hobbyists, artists, programmers, and professionals - has gathered around this open-source
platform, their contributions have added up to an incredible amount of accessible knowledge that
can be of great help to novices and experts alike.

Arduino was born at the Ivrea Interaction Design Institute as an easy tool for fast
prototyping, aimed at students without a background in electronics and programming. As soon as
it reached a wider community, the Arduino board started changing to adapt to new needs and
challenges, differentiating its offer from simple 8-bit boards to products for IoT applications,
wearable, 3D printing, and embedded environments. All Arduino boards are completely open-
source, empowering users to build them independently and eventually adapt them to their
particular needs. The software, too, is open-source, and it is growing through the contributions of
users worldwide.
Arduino Pin Diagram

A typical example of Arduino board is Arduino Uno. It consists of ATmega328- a 28 pin

microcontroller.
 Arduino Pin Diagram

Arduino Uno consists of 14 digital input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM
outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz crystal oscillator, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP
header, and a reset button

Power Jack: Arduino can be power either from the pc through a USB or through external source
like adaptor or a battery. It can operate on a external supply of 7 to 12V. Power can be applied
externally through the pin Vin or by giving voltage reference through the IORef pin.

Digital Inputs: It consists of 14 digital inputs/output pins, each of which provide or take up 40mA
current. Some of them have special functions like pins 0 and 1, which act as Rx and Tx respectively
, for serial communication, pins 2 and 3-which are external interrupts, pins 3,5,6,9,11 which
provides pwm output and pin 13 where LED is connected.

Analog inputs: It has 6 analog input/output pins, each providing a resolution of 10 bits.

ARef: It provides reference to the analog inputs

Reset: It resets the microcontroller when low.

Arduino Architecture:

Arduino’s processor basically uses the Harvard architecture where the program code and
program data have separate memory. It consists of two memories- Program memory and the data
memory.The code is stored in the flash program memory, whereas the data is stored in the data
memory. The Atmega328 has 32 KB of flash memory for storing code (of which 0.5 KB is used
for the bootloader), 2 KB of SRAM and 1 KB of EEPROM and operates with a clock speed of
16MHz.

Arduino Architecture
Steps to program an Arduino

• Programs written in Arduino are known as sketches. A basic sketch consists of 3 parts
1. Declaration of Variables
2. Initialization: It is written in the setup () function.
3. Control code: It is written in the loop () function.

• The sketch is saved with .ino extension. Any operations like verifying, opening a sketch, saving
a sketch can be done using the buttons on the toolbar or using the tool menu.
• The sketch should be stored in the sketchbook directory.
• Chose the proper board from the tools menu and the serial port numbers.
• Click on the upload button or chose upload from the tools menu. Thus the code is uploaded by
the bootloader onto the microcontroller.
 Few of basic Adruino functions are:

• digitalRead(pin): Reads the digital value at the given pin.

• digitalWrite(pin, value): Writes the digital value to the given pin

• pinMode(pin, mode): Sets the pin to input or output mode.

• analogRead(pin): Reads and returns the value.

• analogWrite(pin, value): Writes the value to that pin.

• serial.begin(baud rate): Sets the beginning of serial communication by setting the bit rate.

Why Arduino?

Thanks to its simple and accessible user experience, Arduino has been used in thousands
of different projects and applications. The Arduino software is easy-to-use for beginners, yet
flexible enough for advanced users. It runs on Mac, Windows, and Linux. Teachers and students
use it to build low cost scientific instruments, to prove chemistry and physics principles, or to get
started with programming and robotics. Designers and architects build interactive prototypes,
musicians and artists use it for installations and to experiment with new musical instruments.
Makers, of course, use it to build many of the projects exhibited at the Maker Faire, for example.
Arduino is a key tool to learn new things. Anyone - children, hobbyists, artists, programmers -
can start tinkering just following the step by step instructions of a kit, or sharing ideas online
with other members of the Arduino community.

There are many other microcontrollers and microcontroller platforms available for
physical computing. Parallax Basic Stamp, Netmedia's BX-24, Phidgets, MIT's Handyboard, and
many others offer similar functionality. All of these tools take the messy details of
microcontroller programming and wrap it up in an easy-to-use package. Arduino also simplifies
the process of working with microcontrollers, but it offers some advantage for teachers, students,
and interested amateurs over other systems:

• Inexpensive - Arduino boards are relatively inexpensive compared to other microcontroller

platforms. The least expensive version of the Arduino module can be assembled by hand, and even
the pre-assembled Arduino modules cost less than $50
• Cross-platform - The Arduino Software (IDE) runs on Windows, Macintosh OSX, and Linux
operating systems. Most microcontroller systems are limited to Windows.
• Simple, clear programming environment - The Arduino Software (IDE) is easy-to-use for
beginners, yet flexible enough for advanced users to take advantage of as well. For teachers, it's
 conveniently based on the Processing programming environment, so students learning to program
in that environment will be familiar with how the Arduino IDE works.
• Open source and extensible software - The Arduino software is published as open source tools,
available for extension by experienced programmers. The language can be expanded through C++
libraries, and people wanting to understand the technical details can make the leap from Arduino
to the AVR C programming language on which it's based. Similarly, you can add AVR-C code
directly into your Arduino programs if you want to.
• Open source and extensible hardware - The plans of the Arduino boards are published under a
Creative Commons license, so experienced circuit designers can make their own version of the
module, extending it and improving it. Even relatively inexperienced users can build
the breadboard version of the module in order to understand how it works and save
money.
•

What's on the board?

There are many varieties of Arduino boards (explained on the next page) that can be used
for different purposes. Some boards look a bit different from the one below, but most Arduinos
have the majority of these components in common:
Power (USB / Barrel Jack)

Every Arduino board needs a way to be connected to a power source. The Arduino UNO
can be powered from a USB cable coming from your computer or a wall power supply (like this)
that is terminated in a barrel jack. In the picture above the USB connection is labeled (1) and the
barrel jack is labeled (2).
The USB connection is also how you will load code onto your Arduino board. More on
how to program with Arduino can be found in our Installing and Programming Arduino tutorial.
NOTE: Do NOT use a power supply greater than 20 Volts as you will overpower (and thereby
destroy) your Arduino. The recommended voltage for most Arduino models is between 6 and 12
Volts.

Pins (5V, 3.3V, GND, Analog, Digital, PWM, AREF)

The pins on your Arduino are the places where you connect wires to construct a circuit
(probably in conjuction with a breadboard and some wire. They usually have black plastic
‘headers’ that allow you to just plug a wire right into the board. The Arduino has several
different kinds of pins, each of which is labeled on the board and used for different functions.

• GND (3): Short for ‘Ground’. There are several GND pins on the Arduino, any of which
can be used to ground your circuit.
• 5V (4) & 3.3V (5): As you might guess, the 5V pin supplies 5 volts of power, and the
3.3V pin supplies 3.3 volts of power. Most of the simple components used with the
Arduino run happily off of 5 or 3.3 volts.
• Analog (6): The area of pins under the ‘Analog In’ label (A0 through A5 on the UNO)
are Analog In pins. These pins can read the signal from an analog sensor (like
a temperature sensor) and convert it into a digital value that we can read.
• Digital (7): Across from the analog pins are the digital pins (0 through 13 on the UNO).
These pins can be used for both digital input (like telling if a button is pushed) and digital
output (like powering an LED).
• PWM (8): You may have noticed the tilde (~) next to some of the digital pins (3, 5, 6, 9,
10, and 11 on the UNO). These pins act as normal digital pins, but can also be used for
something called Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM). We have a tutorial on PWM, but for
now, think of these pins as being able to simulate analog output (like fading an LED in
and out).
• AREF (9): Stands for Analog Reference. Most of the time you can leave this pin alone. It
is sometimes used to set an external reference voltage (between 0 and 5 Volts) as the
upper limit for the analog input pins.
Reset Button

Just like the original Nintendo, the Arduino has a reset button (10). Pushing it will
temporarily connect the reset pin to ground and restart any code that is loaded on the Arduino.
This can be very useful if your code doesn’t repeat, but you want to test it multiple times. Unlike
the original Nintendo however, blowing on the Arduino doesn’t usually fix any problems.

Power LED Indicator

Just beneath and to the right of the word “UNO” on your circuit board, there’s a tiny LED
next to the word ‘ON’ (11). This LED should light up whenever you plug your Arduino into a
power source. If this light doesn’t turn on, there’s a good chance something is wrong. Time to re-
check your circuit!

TX RX LEDs

TX is short for transmit, RX is short for receive. These markings appear quite a bit in
electronics to indicate the pins responsible for serial communication. In our case, there are two
places on the Arduino UNO where TX and RX appear – once by digital pins 0 and 1, and a
second time next to the TX and RX indicator LEDs (12). These LEDs will give us some nice
visual indications whenever our Arduino is receiving or transmitting data (like when we’re
loading a new program onto the board).

Main IC

The black thing with all the metal legs is an IC, or Integrated Circuit (13). Think of it as
the brains of our Arduino. The main IC on the Arduino is slightly different from board type to
board type, but is usually from the ATmega line of IC’s from the ATMEL company. This can be
important, as you may need to know the IC type (along with your board type) before loading up
a new program from the Arduino software. This information can usually be found in writing on
the top side of the IC. If you want to know more about the difference between various IC’s,
reading the datasheets is often a good idea.

How to Design your own Arduino?

We can also design our own Arduino by following the schematic given by the Arduino vendor
and also available at the websites. All we need are the following components- A breadboard, a led,
a power jack, a IC socket, a microcontroller, few resistors, 2 regulators, 2 capacitors.

• The IC socket and the power jack are mounted on the board.
• Add the 5v and 3.3v regulator circuits using the combinations of regulators and capacitors.
• Add proper power connections to the microcontroller pins.
• Connect the reset pin of the IC socket to a 10K resistor.
• Connect the crystal oscillators to pins 9 and 10
• Connect the led to the appropriate pin.
• Mount the female headers onto the board and connect them to the respective pins on the chip.
• Mount the row of 6 male headers, which can be used as an alternative to upload programs.
• Upload the program on the Microcontroller of the readymade Adruino and then pry it off and
place back on the user kit.

Application

• Xoscillo, an open-source oscilloscope

• Arduinome, a MIDI controller device that mimics the Monome
• OBDuino, a trip computer that uses the on-board diagnostics interface found in most modern
cars
• Ardupilot, drone software and hardware
• Gameduino, an Arduino shield to create retro 2D video games
• ArduinoPhone, a do-it-yourself cellphone
• Water quality testing platform
• Automatic titration system based on Arduino and stepper motor
• Low cost data glove for virtual reality applications
• Impedance sensor system to detect bovine milk adulteration
• Homemade CNC using Arduino and DC motors with close loop control by Homofaciens
• DC motor control using Arduino and H-Bridge
LCD DISPLAY
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) screen is an electronic display module and find a wide range
of applications. A 16x2 LCD display is very basic module and is very commonly used in various
devices and circuits. These modules are preferred over seven segments and other multi
segment LEDs. The reasons being: LCDs are economical; easily programmable; have no limitation
of displaying special & even custom characters (unlike in seven segments), animations and so on.
A 16x2 LCD means it can display 16 characters per line and there are 2 such lines. In this LCD
each character is displayed in 5x7 pixel matrix. This LCD has two registers, namely, Command
and Data.
The command register stores the command instructions given to the LCD. A command is an
instruction given to LCD to do a predefined task like initializing it, clearing its screen, setting the
cursor position, controlling display etc. The data register stores the data to be displayed on the
LCD. The data is the ASCII value of the character to be displayed on the LCD. Click to learn more
about internal structure of a LCD.
Pin Description:

Pin
Function Name
No
1 Ground (0V) Ground
2 Supply voltage; 5V (4.7V – 5.3V) Vcc
3 Contrast adjustment; through a variable resistor VEE
Selects command register when low; and data register Register
4
when high Select
5 Low to write to the register; High to read from the register Read/write
6 Sends data to data pins when a high to low pulse is given Enable
7 DB0
8 DB1
9 DB2
10 DB3
8-bit data pins
11 DB4
12 DB5
13 DB6
14 DB7
15 Backlight VCC (5V) Led+
16 Backlight Ground (0V) Led-

ALL LCD HAVE

• Eight(8) Data pins

• VCC (Apply 5v here)
• GND (Ground this pin)
• RS (Register select)
• RW (read - write)
• EN (Enable)
• V0 (Set Lcd contrast)

8-Data pins carries 8-bit data or command from an external unit such as microcontroller.
V0 (Set Lcd contrast)
Set lcd contrast here. Best way is to use variable resistor such as potentiometer. Output of the
potentiometer is connected to this pin. Rotate the potentiometer knob forward and backward to adjust the
lcd contrast.

RS(Register select)
Their are two registers in every lcd
1 Command Register
2 Data Register
Command Register
When we send commands to lcd these commands go to Command register and are processed their.
Commands with their full description are given in the picture below.
When RS=0 Command Register is Selected.
Data Register
When we send Data to lcd it goes to data register and is processed their.
When RS=1 Data Register is selected.
RW(Read - Write)
When RW=1 We want to read data from lcd.
When RW=0 We want to write to lcd.

EN(Enable signal)
When you select the register(Command and Data) and set RW(read - write) now its time to execute the
instruction. By instruction i mean the 8-bit data or 8-bit command present on Data lines of lcd.
This requires an extra voltage push to execute the instruction and EN(enable) signal is used for this
purpose. Usually we make it en=0 and when we want to exectue the instruction we make it. high
en=1 for some milli seconds. After this we again make it ground en=0. high en=1 for some milli
seconds. After this we again make it ground en=0

Interfacing LCD
VEE pin is meant for adjusting the contrast of the LCD display and the contrast can be adjusted
by varying the voltage at this pin. This is done by connecting one end of a POT to the Vcc (5V),
other end to the Ground and connecting the center terminal (wiper) of of the POT to the VEE pin.
See the circuit diagram for better understanding.

The JHD162A has two built in registers namely data register and command register. Data register
is for placing the data to be displayed , and the command register is to place the commands. The
16×2 LCD module has a set of commands each meant for doing a particular job with the display.
We will discuss in detail about the commands later. High logic at the RS pin will select the data
register and Low logic at the RS pin will select the command register. If we make the RS pin high
and the put a data in the 8 bit data line (DB0 to DB7) , the LCD module will recognize it as a data
to be displayed . If we make RS pin low and put a data on the data line, the module will recognize
it as a command.

R/W pin is meant for selecting between read and write modes. High level at this pin enables read
mode and low level at this pin enables write mode.

E pin is for enabling the module. A high to low transition at this pin will enable the module.

DB0 to DB7 are the data pins. The data to be displayed and the command instructions are placed
on these pins.

LED+ is the anode of the back light LED and this pin must be connected to Vcc through a suitable
series current limiting resistor. LED- is the cathode of the back light LED and this pin must be
connected to ground.

16×2 LCD module commands.

16×2 LCD module has a set of preset command instructions. Each command will make the module
to do a particular task. The commonly used commands and their function are given in the table
below.

Command Function

0F LCD ON, Cursor ON, Cursor blinking ON

01 Clear screen

02 Return home

04 Decrement cursor

06 Increment cursor
 0E Display ON ,Cursor blinking OFF

80 Force cursor to the beginning of 1st line

C0 Force cursor to the beginning of 2nd line

38 Use 2 lines and 5×7 matrix

83 Cursor line 1 position 3

3C Activate second line

08 Display OFF, Cursor OFF

C1 Jump to second line, position1

OC Display ON, Cursor OFF

C1 Jump to second line, position1

C2 Jump to second line, position2

LCD initialization.

The steps that has to be done for initializing the LCD display is given below and these steps are
common for almost all applications.

▪ Send 38H to the 8 bit data line for initialization

▪ Send 0FH for making LCD ON, cursor ON and cursor blinking ON.
▪ Send 06H for incrementing cursor position.
▪ Send 01H for clearing the display and return the cursor.
Sending data to the LCD.

The steps for sending data to the LCD module is given below. I have already said that the LCD
module has pins namely RS, R/W and E. It is the logic state of these pins that make the module
to determine whether a given data input is a command or data to be displayed.

▪ Make R/W low.

▪ Make RS=0 if data byte is a command and make RS=1 if the data byte is a data to be
displayed.
▪ Place data byte on the data register.
▪ Pulse E from high to low.
▪ Repeat above steps for sending another data.

The circuit diagram given above shows how to interface a 16×2 LCD module with AT89S1
microcontroller. Capacitor C3, resistor R3 and push button switch S1 forms the reset circuitry.
Ceramic capacitors C1,C2 and crystal X1 is related to the clock circuitry which produces the
system clock frequency. P1.0 to P1.7 pins of the microcontroller is connected to the DB0 to DB7
pins of the module respectively and through this route the data goes to the LCD module. P3.3,
P3.4 and P3.5 are connected to the E, R/W, RS pins of the microcontroller and through this route
the control signals are transffered to the LCD module. Resistor R1 limits the current through the
back light LED and so do the back light intensity. POT R2 is used for adjusting the contrast of
the display. Program for interfacing LCD to 8051 microcontroller is shown below.

DC MOTOR

A DC motor in simple words is a device that converts direct current(electrical energy) into

mechanical energy. It’s of vital importance for the industry today, and is equally important for

engineers to look into the working principle of DC motor in details that has been discussed in

this article. In order to understand the operating principle of dc motor we need to first look into

its constructional feature.

The very basic construction of a dc motor contains a current carrying armature which is connected

to the supply end through commutator segments and brushes and placed within the north south

poles of a permanent or an electro-magnet as shown in the diagram below. Now to go into the

details of the operating principle of DC motorits important that we have a clear understanding

of Fleming’s left hand rule to determine the direction of force acting on the arm

Armature conductors of dc motor Fleming’s left hand rule says that if we extend the index finger,

middle finger and thumb of our left hand in such a way that the current carrying conductor is placed

in a magnetic field (represented by the index finger) is perpendicular to the direction of current

(represented by the middle finger), then the conductor experiences a force in the direction
(represented by the thumb) mutually perpendicular to both the direction of field and the current in

the conductor.

For clear understanding the principle of DC motor we have to determine the magnitude of the

force, by considering the diagram below. We know that when an infinitely small charge dq is made

to flow at a velocity ‘v’ under the influence of an electric field E, and a magnetic field B, then the

Lorentz Force dF experienced by the charge is given by:-

For the operation of dc motor, considering E = 0

i.e. it’s the cross product of dq v and magnetic field B.

Where dL is the length of the conductor carrying charge q.

From the 1st diagram we can see that the construction of a DC motor is such that the direction of
current through the armature conductor at all instance is perpendicular to the field. Hence the
force acts on the armature conductor in the direction perpendicular to the both uniform field and
current is constant.

So if we take the current in the left hand side of the armature conductor to be I, and current at right

hand side of the armature conductor to be − I, because they are flowing in the opposite direction

with respect to each other.

Then the force on the left hand side armature conductor,

Similarly force on the right hand side conductor

∴we can see that at that position the force on either side is equal in magnitude but opposite in

direction. And since the two conductors are separated by some distance w = width of the armature

turn, the two opposite forces produces a rotational force or a torque that results in the rotation of

the armature conductor.

Now let's examine the expression of torque when the armature turn crate an angle of α with its

initial position.

The torque produced is given by,

Where α is the angle between the plane of the armature turn and the plane of reference or the initial

position of the armature which is here along the direction of magnetic field.

The presence of the term cosα in the torque equation very well signifies that unlike force the torque

at all position is not the same. It in fact varies with the variation of the angle α. To explain the

variation of torque and the principle behind rotation of the motor let us do a step wise analysis.

Step 1: Initially considering the armature is in its starting point or reference position where the

angle α = 0.

Since α = 0, the term cos α = 1, or the maximum value, hence torque at this position is maximum

given by τ = BILw. This high starting torque helps in overcoming the initial inertia of rest
Step 2: Once the armature is set in motion, the angle α between the actual position of the armature

and its reference initial position goes on increasing in the path of its rotation until it becomes 90°

from its initial position. Consequently the term cosα decreases and also the value of torque.

The torque in this case is given by τ = BILwcosα which is less than BIL w when α is greater than

0°.
Step 3: In the path of the rotation of the armature a point is reached where the actual position of

the rotor is exactly perpendicular to its initial position, i.e. α = 90°, and as a result the term cosα =

0.

The torque acting on the conductor at this position is given by,

i.e. virtually no rotating torque acts on the armature at this instance. But still the armature does not

come to a standstill, this is because of the fact that the operation of dc motor has been engineered

in such a way that the inertia of motion at this point is just enough to overcome this point of null

torque. Once the rotor crosses over this position the angle between the actual position of the

armature and the initial plane again decreases and torque starts acting on it again.
 Potentiometer

Potentiometer is a small sized electronic component whose resistance can be adjusted

manually. Increasing or decreasing the value of resistance controls the amount of current flowing
in a circuit. The potentiometer is used in various electronics, for example: is used as volume knob
in music systems, as fan regulators etc. Potentiometer has two strips made on it resistive and
conductive. Resistive strip is made of carbon and is responsible for potentiometer’s resistance
variance feature. Conductive strip helps the potentiometer to carry the current into the circuit in
accordance with the resistance. To understand the theory of our humble potentiometers (or pots),
let us know the parts of the potentiometer:
· Lugs: Potentiometers by convention have three lugs

Resistive Strip: This is the heart of the potentiometer. It is a carbon strip that is printed on a phenolic
strip. There are metal contacts in the end to connect it to the lugs.
· Metal Wiper: When we rotate the shaft, it in turn rotates a metallic wiper which connects the
lug 1 and lug2.

Working of Potentiometers
The metallic wiper acts as a conducting path between the lug 1 and lug 2. So the resistance between
the left lug and the centre lug is the resistance of the part of carbon strip over which the metallic
wiper has traversed. When we rotate the shaft of the potentiometer, we actually rotate the metallic
wiper attached to it and hence change the resistance. This way the pot acts as a variable resistance

Taper
The relation between the position of wiper and the resistance is called the taper of the
potentiometer. In other words taper decides how the resistance will vary when we turn the pot.
Taper divides potentiometers broadly into two types:
· Linear Pots: In these pots, the resistance between lug 1 and lug 2 is directly proportional to the
distance moved by the wiper. These are the common pots found in labs and are inexpensive.
· Logarithmic Pots: In these pots, the resistance between lug1 and lug 2 is a logarithmic function
of the wiper position. Actually their taper graph looks more like a 10x graph. They are expensive
and not readily available. Also there are reverse logarithmic pots which are similar to logarithmic
pots, which have a taper opposite to that of log pots. More about logarithmic pots in the next
section.
How to check the taper with an ohm meter? Set the pot to the centre position (50% rotation)
and measure the resistance between the centre pin and each of the outer pins. If the resistance is
equal (50% of the pots value) the pot is linear. If the values are not equal, the pot is an log taper.

Logarithmic Pots
These pots are extensively used in audio electronics and hence are also called audio pots. The
reason for their wide use in audio electronics especially in volume control owes to the perception
of loudness by human ears. If two sources produce sound, then the human ear will perceive one
source twice as loud as the other only if the intensity of sound of one source is ten times the other.
So by using audio pots we are able to achieve perceivable change in loudness by slight turning of
the pot. If a linear pot is used instead, we will notice that loudness changes only when the pot is
turned to its full extent.

How logarithmic tapering is achieved?

Well to answer this, we need to go back to the heart of the potentiometer, the resistive strip. One
way to achieve log taper is to change the width of the cross section of the resistive strip. For
cheaper log pots, the cross section width remains same but two or three resistive materials of
different resistivity are used to approximate a log taper.
How to make a linear pot behave like a logarithmic pot?
Log pots are expensive and tough to find. One idea is to make a circuit whose transfer function
is not exactly but similar to logarithmic function. One such circuit is as follows:

Let the total resistance of the pot be R, R1 be the resistance between lug 3 and lug 1 and R2 be the
resistance between lug 1 and lug 2. R3 is a resistance put in parallel to R2. We define x=R2/R (the
fraction of resitance swept by the wiper) and y=R3/R.
The relation between input voltage Vin and output voltage across R3 come out to be

Below is the graph of Vin/Vout when y=4 and x is varied between 0 to 1 which looks similar to a
log graph (isn’t it?)
The only catch here is that using the above circuit in place of a log pot will reduce the input
resistance that the source voltage will see. So some amount of experimentation should be done to
choose the value of y. Similarly, reverse log pots can be emulated using linear pot by simply
putting R3 resistance across R1 and taking the output voltage across R2.

Ways to Connect Pot

· Trimmer resistance:
Connecting pot as shown in the figure way makes it behave like a variable resistance. When you
turn the shaft you are basically reducing the resistance.

It is advisable to short lug 1 and lug 2 because if the wiper shorts then there is resistance which
will prevent the full signal to pass to Vout.
· Voltage Divider: This is generally used to control the amount of input signal passing to the
output.
TRIMMING POTENTIOMETERS

These are also potentiometers but are “set and forget” devices which are directly mounted on to
PCB or bread board to fine tune the circuit. For example, you want to bias a transistor to an exact
potential which in turn relies on resistance, you can use a trim pot to get the exact voltage (by
changing the resistance) and then forget about it. One might have to use a screwdriver to change
the resistance which might not be very convenient but this way it is difficult to change the
resistance once you have set it to the desired resistance.

This is a very basic instrument used for comparing emf two cells and for calibrating ammeter,
voltmeter and watt-meter. The basic

working principle of potentiometer

Suppose we have connected two battery in head to head and tale to tale through a galvanometer.
That means the positive terminals of both battery are connected together and negative terminals
are also connected together through a galvanometer as shown in the figure below.
Here in the figure it is clear that if the voltage of both battery cells is exactly equal, there will be
no circulating current in the circuit and hence the galvanometer shows null deflection. The
working principle of potentiometer depends upon this phenomenon.

Now let's think about another circuit, where a battery is connected across a resistor via a
switch and a rheostat as shown in the figure below, there will be a voltage drop across the resistor.
As there is a voltage drop across the resistor, this portion of the circuit can be considered as a
voltage source for other external circuits. That means anything connected across the resistor will
get voltage. If the resistor has uniform cross section throughout its length, the electrical resistance
per unit length of the resistor is also uniform throughout its length. Hence, voltage drop per unit
length of the resistor is also uniform. Suppose the current through the resistor is i A and resistance
per unit length of the resistor is r Ω. Then the voltage appears per unit length across the resistor
would be 'ir' ans say it is v volt.
Now, positive terminal of a standard cell is connected to point A on the sliding resistor and
negative terminal of the same is connected with a galvanometer. Other end of the galvanometer is
in contact with the resistor via a sliding contact as shown in the figure above. By adjusting this
sliding end, a point like B is found where, there is no current through the galvanometer, hence no
deflection of galvanometer. That means emf of the standard cell is just balanced by the voltage
drop appears across AB. Now if the distance between point A and B is L, then it can be written
emf of standard cell E = Lv volt. As v (voltage drop per unit length of the sliding resistor) is known
and L is measured from the scale attached to the resistor, the value of E i.e. emf of standard cell
can also be calculated from the above simple equation very easily.
We said earlier in this section that one of the uses of potentiometer is to compare emfs of different
cells. Let's discuss how a dc potentiometer can compare emfs of two different cells. Let's think of
two cells whose emf's are to be compared are joined as shown in the figure below. The positive
terminals of the cells and source battery are joined together. The negative terminals of the cells are
joined with the galvanometer in turn through a two way switch. The other end of the galvanometer
is connected to a sliding contact on the resistor. Now by adjusting sliding contact on the resistor,
it is found that the null deflection of galvanometer comes for first cell at a length of L on the scale
and after positioning to way switch to second cell and then by adjusting the sliding contact, it is
found that the null deflection of galvanometer comes for that cell at a length of L1 on the scale.

Let's think of the first cell as standard cell and it's emf is E and second cell is unknown cell whose
emf is E1. Now as per above explanation,

E=Lv volt

And

L1=L1vvolt

Dividing one equation by other, we get

As the emf of the standard cell is known, hence emf of the unknown cell can easily be determined.

RELAY
A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire wrapped around a soft iron core, an iron
yoke which provides a low reluctancepath for magnetic flux, a movable iron armature, and one
or more sets of contacts (there are two in the relay pictured). The armature is hinged to the yoke
and mechanically linked to one or more sets of moving contacts. It is held in place by a spring so
that when the relay is de-energized there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this condition,
one of the two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the other set is open. Other
relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on their function. The relay in the
picture also has a wire connecting the armature to the yoke. This ensures continuity of the circuit
between the moving contacts on the armature, and the circuit track on the printed circuit
board (PCB) via the yoke, which is soldered to the PCB.
When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic field that activates the
armature, and the consequent movement of the movable contact(s) either makes or breaks
(depending upon construction) a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts was closed
when the relay was de-energized, then the movement opens the contacts and breaks the connection,
and vice versa if the contacts were open. When the current to the coil is switched off, the armature
is returned by a force, approximately half as strong as the magnetic force, to its relaxed position.
Usually this force is provided by a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor
starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate quickly. In a low-voltage application this reduces
noise; in a high voltage or current application it reduces arcing.
When the coil is energized with direct current, a diode is often placed across the coil to dissipate
the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would otherwise generate
a voltage spike dangerous to semiconductor circuit components. Such diodes were not widely used
before the application of transistors as relay drivers, but soon became ubiquitous as
early germanium transistors were easily destroyed by this surge. Some automotive relays include
a diode inside the relay case.
If the relay is driving a large, or especially a reactive load, there may be a similar problem of surge
currents around the relay output contacts. In this case a snubber circuit (a capacitor and resistor in
series) across the contacts may absorb the surge. Suitably rated capacitors and the associated
resistor are sold as a single packaged component for this commonplace use.
If the coil is designed to be energized with alternating current (AC), some method is used to split
the flux into two out-of-phase components which add together, increasing the minimum pull on
the armature during the AC cycle. Typically this is done with a small copper "shading ring"
crimped around a portion of the core that creates the delayed, out-of-phase component,[9] which
holds the contacts during the zero crossings of the control voltage.
A relay can be compared to a vacuum tube and solid state transistor amplifier because both can
use a small voltage and current in one circuit to control a large voltage and current in another
circuit. However, unlike tubes and transistors, a relay cannot produce a variable output; It can only
switch on and off similar to a logic circuit in a computer. But the relay has the advantage of being
able to completely isolate its input circuit from its output.Below is a drawing of a Single Pole
Double Throw (SPDT) relay. A single contact called the Common contact switches between a
Normally Closed contact and a Normally Open contact. The Common contact is attached to an
armature which is a strip of metal that is hinged at one end and has electrical contacts, usually
made of silver, at the other end. A spring pulls the armature up so its contact connects to the
Normally Closed contact. An electromagnet below the armature attracts the armature when it is
energized and pulls it down so its contact disconnects from the Normally Closed contact and
connects to the Normally Open contact instead.The electromagnet is made of a coil of fine
enameled copper wire wound on a plastic bobbin that has an iron core in its center. A magnetic
field is created in the iron core when current flows through the coil. The number of turns in the
coil and the wire size determine the voltage that must applied to it. Relays are available for
operation at almost any voltage but the most common are 5, 6, 9, 12, 24 and 48 volts DC. The coil
current also depends on the number of turns and

wire

size and usually ranges from 30 to 200 milliamperes.There is no connection between the coil and any
of the contacts. The contacts are completely electrically isolated from the circuit that powers the coil.

In a device using a relay where the relay contacts are brought out to a terminal block or other
termination, the contacts can be used to switch any type of DC or AC load that is within the voltage
and current ratings of the contacts. This is usually marked on the relay.
A relay does not provide power for a load, it just switches power from a power source, on
and off, similar to how a wall switch turns a lamp on and off but does not itself provide the
power that lights the lamp. Relays are made in many configurations, sizes and shapes, coil
voltage and current, contact voltage and current. They are available as:

Single Pole Single Throw SPST either Normally Open or Normally Closed
Single Pole Double Throw SPDT as above
Double Pole Single Throw DPST either Normally Open or Normally Closed
Double Pole Double Throw DPDT

1N4007

Diodes are used to convert AC into DC these are used as half wave rectifier or full wave
rectifier. Three points must he kept in mind while using any type of diode.
1. Maximum forward current capacity
2. Maximum reverse voltage capacity
3. Maximum forward voltage capacity

Fig: 1N4007 diodes

The number and voltage capacity of some of the important diodes available in the market are as follows:
• Diodes of number IN4001, IN4002, IN4003, IN4004, IN4005, IN4006 and IN4007 have maximum
reverse bias voltage capacity of 50V and maximum forward current capacity of 1 Amp.
• Diode of same capacities can be used in place of one another. Besides this diode of more capacity
can be used in place of diode of low capacity but diode of low capacity cannot be used in place of
diode of high capacity. For example, in place of IN4002; IN4001 or IN4007 can be used but IN4001
or IN4002 cannot be used in place of IN4007.The diode BY125made by company BEL is
 equivalent of diode from IN4001 to IN4003. BY 126 is equivalent to diodes IN4004 to 4006 and
BY 127 is equivalent to diode IN4007.

Fig:PN Junction diode

PN JUNCTION OPERATION

Now that you are familiar with P- and N-type materials, how these materials are joined
together to form a diode, and the function of the diode, let us continue our discussion with the
operation of the PN junction. But before we can understand how the PN junction works, we
must first consider current flow in the materials that make up the junction and what happens
initially within the junction when these two materials are joined together.

Current Flow in the N-Type Material

Conduction in the N-type semiconductor, or crystal, is similar to conduction in a copper

wire. That is, with voltage applied across the material, electrons will move through the crystal
just as current would flow in a copper wire. This is shown in figure 1-15. The positive potential
of the battery will attract the free electrons in the crystal. These electrons will leave the crystal
and flow into the positive terminal of the battery. As an electron leaves the crystal, an electron
 from the negative terminal of the battery will enter the crystal, thus completing the current path.
Therefore, the majority current carriers in the N-type material (electrons) are repelled by the
negative side of the battery and move through the crystal toward the positive side of the battery.

Current Flow in the P-Type Material

Current flow through the P-type material is illustrated. Conduction in the P material is by
positive holes, instead of negative electrons. A hole moves from the positive terminal of the P
material to the negative terminal. Electrons from the external circuit enter the negative terminal
of the material and fill holes in the vicinity of this terminal. At the positive terminal, electrons
are removed from the covalent bonds, thus creating new holes. This process continues as the
steady stream of holes (hole current) moves toward the negative terminal.
RESISTORS
A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component designed to oppose an electric current by
producing a voltage drop between its terminals in proportion to the current, that is, in accordance
with Ohm's law:
V = IR
Resistors are used as part of electrical networks and electronic circuits. They are extremely
commonplace in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds
and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel/chrome).

The primary characteristics of resistors are their resistance and the power they can
dissipate. Other characteristics include temperature coefficient, noise, and inductance. Less well-
known is critical resistance, the value below which power dissipation limits the maximum
permitted current flow, and above which the limit is applied voltage. Critical resistance depends
upon the materials constituting the resistor as well as its physical dimensions; it's determined by
design.
Resistors can be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits, as well as integrated circuits.
Size, and position of leads (or terminals) are relevant to equipment designers; resistors must be
physically large enough not to overheat when dissipating their power.
A resistor is a two-terminal passive electronic component which implements electrical
resistance as a circuit element. When a voltage V is applied across the terminals of a resistor, a
current I will flow through the resistor in direct proportion to that voltage. The reciprocal of the
constant of proportionality is known as the resistance R, since, with a given voltage V, a larger
value of R further "resists" the flow of current I as given by Ohm's law:

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are
ubiquitous in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds
and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome).
Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits, particularly analog devices, and can also
be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits.
The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial
resistors are manufactured over a range of more than 9 orders of magnitude. When specifying that
resistance in an electronic design, the required precision of the resistance may require attention to
the manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor, according to its specific application. The
temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in some precision applications.
Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum power rating which must exceed the
anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is mainly of concern in
power electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are physically larger and may
require heat sinking. In a high voltage circuit, attention must sometimes be paid to the rated
maximum working voltage of the resistor.
The series inductance of a practical resistor causes its behaviour to depart from ohms law;
this specification can be important in some high-frequency applications for smaller values of
resistance. In a low-noise amplifier or pre-amp the noise characteristics of a resistor may be an
issue. The unwanted inductance, excess noise, and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent
on the technology used in manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally specified individually
for a particular family of resistors manufactured using a particular technology.[1] A family of
discrete resistors is also characterized according to its form factor, that is, the size of the device
and position of its leads (or terminals) which is relevant in the practical manufacturing of circuits
using them.
Units
The ohm (symbol: Ω) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon Ohm.
An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured over a
very large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 mΩ = 10−3 Ω), kilohm (1 kΩ = 103 Ω),
and megohm (1 MΩ = 106 Ω) are also in common usage.
The reciprocal of resistance R is called conductance G = 1/R and is measured in Siemens
(SI unit), sometimes referred to as a mho. Thus a Siemens is the reciprocal of an ohm: S = Ω − 1.
Although the concept of conductance is often used in circuit analysis, practical resistors are always
specified in terms of their resistance (ohms) rather than conductance.

Theory of operation

Ohm's law

The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified in Ohm's law:

Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I) passing
through it, where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R).
Equivalently, Ohm's law can be stated:

This formulation of Ohm's law states that, when a voltage (V) is present across a resistance (R), a
current (I) will flow through the resistance. This is directly used in practical computations. For
example, if a 300 ohm resistor is attached across the terminals of a 12 volt battery, then a current
of 12 / 300 = 0.04 amperes (or 40 milliamperes) will flow through that resistor.

Series and parallel resistors

In a series configuration, the current through all of the resistors is the same, but the voltage
across each resistor will be in proportion to its resistance. The potential difference (voltage) seen
across the network is the sum of those voltages, thus the total resistance can be found as the sum
of those resistances:

As a special case, the resistance of N resistors connected in series, each of the same resistance R,
is given by NR.
Resistors in a parallel configuration are each subject to the same potential difference (voltage),
however the currents through them add. The conductances of the resistors then add to determine
the conductance of the network. Thus the equivalent resistance (Req) of the network can be
computed:

The parallel equivalent resistance can be represented in equations by two vertical lines "||" (as in
geometry) as a simplified notation. For the case of two resistors in parallel, this can be calculated
using:

As a special case, the resistance of N resistors connected in parallel, each of the same resistance
R, is given by R/N.
A resistor network that is a combination of parallel and series connections can be broken up into
smaller parts that are either one or the other. For instance,
However, some complex networks of resistors cannot be resolved in this manner, requiring more
sophisticated circuit analysis. For instance, consider a cube, each edge of which has been replaced
by a resistor. What then is the resistance that would be measured between two opposite vertices?
In the case of 12 equivalent resistors, it can be shown that the corner-to-corner resistance is 5⁄6 of
the individual resistance. More generally, the Y-Δ transform, or matrix methods can be used to
solve such a problem.[2][3]
One practical application of these relationships is that a non-standard value of resistance can
generally be synthesized by connecting a number of standard values in series and/or parallel. This
can also be used to obtain a resistance with a higher power rating than that of the individual
resistors used. In the special case of N identical resistors all connected in series or all connected
in parallel, the power rating of the individual resistors is thereby multiplied by N.

Power dissipation

The power P dissipated by a resistor (or the equivalent resistance of a resistor network) is

calculated as:
The first form is a restatement of Joule's first law. Using Ohm's law, the two other forms can be
derived.
The total amount of heat energy released over a period of time can be determined from the integral
of the power over that period of time:

Practical resistors are rated according to their maximum power dissipation. The vast
majority of resistors used in electronic circuits absorb much less than a watt of electrical power
and require no attention to their power rating. Such resistors in their discrete form, including most
of the packages detailed below, are typically rated as 1/10, 1/8, or 1/4 watt.
Resistors required to dissipate substantial amounts of power, particularly used in power supplies,
power conversion circuits, and power amplifiers, are generally referred to as power resistors; this
designation is loosely applied to resistors with power ratings of 1 watt or greater. Power resistors
are physically larger and tend not to use the preferred values, color codes, and external packages
described below.
If the average power dissipated by a resistor is more than its power rating, damage to the
resistor may occur, permanently altering its resistance; this is distinct from the reversible change
in resistance due to its temperature coefficient when it warms. Excessive power dissipation may
raise the temperature of the resistor to a point where it can burn the circuit board or adjacent
components, or even cause a fire. There are flameproof resistors that fail (open circuit) before they
overheat dangerously.
Note that the nominal power rating of a resistor is not the same as the power that it can
safely dissipate in practical use. Air circulation and proximity to a circuit board, ambient
temperature, and other factors can reduce acceptable dissipation significantly. Rated power
dissipation may be given for an ambient temperature of 25 °C in free air. Inside an equipment case
at 60 °C, rated dissipation will be significantly less; a resistor dissipating a bit less than the
maximum figure given by the manufacturer may still be outside the safe operating area and may
prematurely fail.
LED
LEDs are semiconductor devices. Like transistors, and other diodes, LEDs are made out of
silicon. What makes an LED give off light are the small amounts of chemical impurities that are
added to the silicon, such as gallium, arsenide, indium, and nitride. When current passes through
the LED, it emits photons as a byproduct. Normal light bulbs produce light by heating a metal
filament until its white hot. Because LEDs produce photons directly and not via heat, they are far
more efficient than incandescent bulbs. Not long ago LEDs were only bright enough to be used as
indicators on dashboards or electronic equipment. But recent advances have made LEDs bright
enough to rival traditional lighting technologies. Modern LEDs can replace incandescent bulbs in
almost any application.

LEDs are based on the semiconductor diode. When the diode is forward biased (switched
on), electrons are able to recombine with holes and energy is released in the form of light. This
effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light is determined by the energy gap of
the semiconductor. The LED is usually small in area (less than 1 mm2) with integrated optical
components to shape its radiation pattern and assist in reflection.

LEDs present many advantages over traditional light sources including lower energy consumption,
longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size and faster switching. However, they are
relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat management than traditional light
sources.
 Applications of LEDs are diverse. They are used as low-energy and also for replacements
for traditional light sources in well-established applications such as indicators and automotive
lighting. The compact size of LEDs has allowed new text and video displays and sensors to be
developed, while their high switching rates are useful in communications technology. So here the
role of LED is to indicate the status of the components like relays and power circuit etc…

LED Circuits

To build LED circuits, it helps to be familiar with Ohm's law, and the concepts of voltage,
resistance, and current. LEDs do not have resistance like a resistor does. LEDs have a dynamic
resistance, that is their resistance changes depending on how much current passes through them.
But it's easiest to think of them as having NO resistance. This means that if you just connect an
LED to a battery, you'll have a short circuit. That's bad. You would probably ruin your LED.

So an LED circuit needs some resistance in it, so that it isn't a short circuit. Actually we
need a very specific amount of resistance. Among the specifications for LEDs, a "maximum
forward current" rating is usually given. This is the most current that can pass through the LED
without damaging it, and also the current at which the LED will produce the most light. A specific
value of resistor is needed to obtain this exact current. There is one more complication. LEDs
consume a certain voltage. This is known as the "forward voltage drop", and is usually given with
the specs for that LED. This must be taken into account when calculating the correct value of
resistor to use. So to drive an LED using a voltage source and a resistor in series with the LED,
use the following equation to determine the needed resistance:

Ohm's = (Source Voltage - LED Voltage Drop) / Amps

For example, to drive an LED from your car's 12v system, use the following values:
Source Voltage = 13.4 volts (12v car systems aren't really 12v in most cases)
Voltage Drop = 3.6 volts (Typical for a blue or white LED)

Desired Current = 30 milliamps (again, a typical value)

So the resistor we need is:
(13.4 - 3.6) / (30 / 1000) = 327 ohms

CAPACITORS
A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of
conductors separated by a dielectric. When a voltage potential difference exists between the
conductors, an electric field is present in the dielectric. This field stores energy and produces a
mechanical force between the plates. The effect is greatest between wide, flat, parallel, narrowly
separated conductors.

An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, which is

measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential
difference between them. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of
leakage current. The conductors and leads introduce an equivalent series resistance and the
dielectric has an electric field strength limit resulting in a breakdown voltage.
The properties of capacitors in a circuit may determine the resonant frequency and
quality factor of a resonant circuit, power dissipation and operating frequency in a digital logic
circuit, energy capacity in a high-power system, and many other important aspects.
 A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a device for storing electric charge. The
forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two conductors separated by a
non-conductor. Capacitors used as parts of electrical systems, for example, consist of metal foils
separated by a layer of insulating film.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing
alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in the
resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies and for many other purposes.
A capacitor is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors separated
by a dielectric (insulator). When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a
static electric field develops in the dielectric that stores energy and produces a mechanical force
between the conductors. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance,
measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential
difference between them.
The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of
conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates", referring to an early means of
construction. In practice the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current
and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the conductors
and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.

Theory of operation
Main article: Capacitance

Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal electric field. A dielectric

(orange) reduces the field and increases the capacitance.
A simple demonstration of a parallel-plate capacitor
A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region[8]. The non-
conductive region is called the dielectric or sometimes the dielectric medium. In simpler terms,
the dielectric is just an electrical insulator. Examples of dielectric mediums are glass, air, paper,
vacuum, and even a semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A
capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence
from any external electric field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their
facing surfaces,[9] and the dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one
farad means that one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the
device.[10]
The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits. An ideal
capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of charge ±Q
on each conductor to the voltage V between them:[8]

Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to vary. In
this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:

Energy storage

Work must be done by an external influence to "move" charge between the conductors in a
capacitor. When the external influence is removed the charge separation persists in the electric
field and energy is stored to be released when the charge is allowed to return to its equilibrium
position. The work done in establishing the electric field, and hence the amount of energy stored,
is given by:[11]

Current-voltage relation

The current i(t) through any component in an electric circuit is defined as the rate of flow of a
charge q(t) passing through it, but actual charges, electrons, cannot pass through the dielectric
layer of a capacitor, rather an electron accumulates on the negative plate for each one that leaves
the positive plate, resulting in an electron depletion and consequent positive charge on one
electrode that is equal and opposite to the accumulated negative charge on the other. Thus the
charge on the electrodes is equal to the integral of the current as well as proportional to the voltage
as discussed above. As with any antiderivative, a constant of integration is added to represent the
initial voltage v (t0). This is the integral form of the capacitor equation,[12]

.
Taking the derivative of this, and multiplying by C, yields the derivative form,[13]

.
The dual of the capacitor is the inductor, which stores energy in the magnetic field rather than the
electric field. Its current-voltage relation is obtained by exchanging current and voltage in the
capacitor equations and replacing C with the inductance L.

Parallel plate model

Dielectric is placed between two conducting plates, each of area A and with a separation of d.
The simplest capacitor consists of two parallel conductive plates separated by a dielectric with
permittivity ε (such as air). The model may also be used to make qualitative predictions for other
device geometries. The plates are considered to extend uniformly over an area A and a charge
density ±ρ = ±Q/A exists on their surface. Assuming that the width of the plates is much greater
than their separation d, the electric field near the centre of the device will be uniform with the
magnitude E = ρ/ε. The voltage is defined as the line integral of the electric field between the plates

Solving this for C = Q/V reveals that capacitance increases with area and decreases with separation

.
The capacitance is therefore greatest in devices made from materials with a high permittivity.
 CHAPTER 5
ADVANTAGES
APPLICATION
6.3 The features of project: -

• Provides a whole solution for distribution automation

of city and countrypower grids.
• Improves service reliability, power quality and reduces grid power loss.
• Monitoring of power distribution from power plant to power
substations.
• Automation control of switch yard.
• Automatic selection of bus bar in case of maintenance or supply line
failure.
• Continuous monitoring and detection of power
failure on various transmission lines,
power substation, power poles and at transformer drum.
• Automatic sequential power cutoff provision for various
areas so as toimplement load shedding in most effective
way.
6.4.1 Advantages

The circuit required power supply for charging the battery

is very less. (12V,500mah)
The components required for this hardware is easily available in
market.
It reduces the human efforts.
It provides real time operation, with displaying the current
time, date, monthand year on LCD display.

6.4.2 Applications

It can be used in real time system.

We can implement the whole circuit into small module later.
Less power consuming and safe system.
In schools and colleges for playing the national anthem and ringing
the bell according tothe scheduled time.
CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION
6.1CONCLUSION
the advent of Smart Substation and Feeder Automation heralds a transformative era
in the realm of electrical power distribution. As we look ahead into the future, the
seamless integration of advanced technologies such as intelligent sensors,
communication networks, and sophisticated control systems promises unparalleled
efficiency and reliability. The predictive analytics and real-time monitoring
capabilities embedded in these smart solutions will not only enhance the overall
performance of substations but also revolutionize the management of feeder
systems. Consequently, we anticipate a future where power grids operate with
unprecedented responsiveness, adaptability, and resilience, ensuring a sustainable
and uninterrupted energy supply for communities worldwide. The Smart Substation
and Feeder Automation represent a pivotal step towards a more intelligent,
interconnected, and efficient power infrastructure that will shape the energy
landscape for years to com
CHAPTER 7
REFERANCES

84
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