Electronic Components

Electronic Components
These pages are intended to help you to identify components, find out their values and learn about their
function in circuits.
• Capacitors
• Connectors and Cables
• Diodes including zener diodes
• Integrated Circuits (Chips)
o 4000 series logic ICs (pin connections etc)
o 74 series logic ICs (pin connections etc)
• Lamps
• LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes)
• Relays
• Resistors
o Resistor Colour Code Calculator
• Switches
• Transistors
o Heat sinks for transistors
• Variable Resistors
• Other components including LDRs and thermistors
If you are new to electronics you may wish to see the page with advice on buying a
starter kit of components.
To find out what precautions, if any, need to be taken when soldering components please
see the page on soldering. This site also has a table of circuit symbols which includes brief
information about the function of each component. You can use the simple tester project to
check many of the components.
Page 1 of 77
Capacitors
Function
Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors in timing circuits because it
takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They are used to smooth varying DC supplies
by acting as a reservoir of charge. They are also used in filter circuits because capacitors
easily pass AC (changing) signals but they block DC (constant) signals.
Capacitance
This is a measure of a capacitor's ability to store charge. A large capacitance means that
more charge can be stored. Capacitance is measured in farads, symbol F. However 1F is
very large, so prefixes are used to show the smaller values.
Three prefixes (multipliers) are used, µ (micro), n (nano) and p (pico):
• µ means 10-6 (millionth), so 1000000µF = 1F

• n means 10-9 (thousand-millionth), so 1000nF = 1µF
• p means 10-12 (million-millionth), so 1000pF = 1nF
Capacitor values can be very difficult to find because there are many types of capacitor
with different labelling systems!
There are many types of capacitor but they can be split into two groups,
polarised and unpolarised. Each group has its own circuit symbol.
Polarised capacitors (large values, 1µF +)
Examples:
Circuit symbol:
Electrolytic Capacitors
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Electrolytic capacitors are polarised and they must be connected the correct way round,
at least one of their leads will be marked + or -. They are not damaged by heat when
soldering.
There are two designs of electrolytic capacitors; axial where the leads are attached to each
end (220µF in picture) and radial where both leads are at the same end (10µF in picture).
Radial capacitors tend to be a little smaller and they stand upright on the circuit board.
It is easy to find the value of electrolytic capacitors because they are clearly printed with
their capacitance and voltage rating. The voltage rating can be quite low (6V for example)
and it should always be checked when selecting an electrolytic capacitor. It the project
parts list does not specify a voltage, choose a capacitor with a rating which is greater than
the project's power supply voltage. 25V is a sensible minimum for most battery circuits.
Tantalum Bead Capacitors
Tantalum bead capacitors are polarised and have low voltage ratings like electrolytic
capacitors. They are expensive but very small, so they are used where a large capacitance
is needed in a small size.
Modern tantalum bead capacitors are printed with their capacitance and voltage in full.
However older ones use a colour-code system which has two stripes (for the two digits)
and a spot of colour for the number of zeros to give the value in µF. The standard colour
code is used, but for the spot, grey is used to mean × 0.01 and white means × 0.1 so that
values of less than 10µF can be shown. A third colour stripe near the leads shows the
voltage (yellow 6.3V, black 10V, green 16V, blue 20V, grey 25V, white 30V,
pink 35V).
For example: blue, grey, black spot means 68µF For

example: blue, grey, white spot means 6.8µF For
example: blue, grey, grey spot means 0.68µF
Unpolarised capacitors (small values, up to 1µF)
Examples: Circuit symbol:
Small value capacitors are unpolarised and may be connected either way round. They are
not damaged by heat when soldering, except for one unusual type (polystyrene). They
have high voltage ratings of at least 50V, usually 250V or so. It can be difficult to find the
values of these small capacitors because there are many types of them and several
different labelling systems!
Many small value capacitors have their value printed but without a multiplier,
so you need to use experience to work out what the multiplier should be!
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For example 0.1 means 0.1µF = 100nF.
Sometimes the multiplier is used in place of the decimal point:

For example: 4n7 means 4.7nF.
Capacitor Number Code
A number code is often used on small capacitors where printing is difficult:
• the 1st number is the 1st digit,

• the 2nd number is the 2nd digit,
• the 3rd number is the number of zeros to give the capacitance in pF.
• Ignore any letters - they just indicate tolerance and voltage rating.
For example: 102 means 1000pF = 1nF (not 102pF!)
For example: 472J means 4700pF = 4.7nF (J means 5% tolerance).
Capacitor Colour Code Colour Code

Colour Number
A colour code was used on polyester capacitors for
many years. It is now obsolete, but of course there are Black 0
many still around. The colours should be read like the Brown 1
resistor code, the top three colour bands giving the
value in pF. Ignore the 4th band (tolerance) and 5th Red 2
band (voltage rating). Orange 3
For example: Yellow 4

Green 5
brown, black, orange means 10000pF = 10nF =
Blue 6
0.01µF.
Violet 7
Note that there are no gaps between the colour bands, Grey 8
so 2 identical bands actually appear as a wide band.
White 9
For example:
wide red, yellow means 220nF = 0.22µF.
Polystyrene Capacitors
This type is rarely used now. Their value (in pF) is normally
printed without units. Polystyrene capacitors can be damaged by heat when soldering (it
melts the polystyrene!) so you should use a heat sink (such as a crocodile clip). Clip the
heat sink to the lead between the capacitor and the joint.
Real capacitor values (the E3 and E6 series)
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You may have noticed that capacitors are not available with every possible value, for
example 22µF and 47µF are readily available, but 25µF and 50µF are not!
Why is this? Imagine that you decided to make capacitors every 10µF giving 10, 20, 30, 40,
50 and so on. That seems fine, but what happens when you reach 1000? It would be
pointless to make 1000, 1010, 1020, 1030 and so on because for these values 10 is a very
small difference, too small to be noticeable in most circuits and capacitors cannot be made
with that accuracy.
To produce a sensible range of capacitor values you need to increase the size of the 'step'
as the value increases. The standard capacitor values are based on this idea and they form
a series which follows the same pattern for every multiple of ten.
The E3 series (3 values for each multiple of ten)

10, 22, 47, ... then it continues 100, 220, 470, 1000, 2200, 4700, 10000 etc.
Notice how the step size increases as the value increases (values roughly double each
time).
The E6 series (6 values for each multiple of ten)

10, 15, 22, 33, 47, 68, ... then it continues 100, 150, 220, 330, 470, 680, 1000 etc.
Notice how this is the E3 series with an extra value in the gaps.
The E3 series is the one most frequently used for capacitors because many types cannot
be made with very accurate values.
Variable capacitors
Variable capacitors are mostly used in radio tuning circuits and

they are sometimes called 'tuning capacitors'. They have very
small capacitance values, typically between 100pF and 500pF
(100pF = 0.0001µF). The type illustrated usually has trimmers Variable Capacitor Symbol
built in (for making small adjustments - see below) as well as
the main variable capacitor.
Many variable capacitors have very short spindles which are

not suitable for the standard knobs used for variable resistors
and rotary switches. It would be wise to check that a suitable
knob is available before ordering a variable capacitor.
Variable Capacitor
Photograph © Rapid Electronics
Variable capacitors are not normally used in timing circuits
because their capacitance is too small to be practical and the range of values available is
very limited. Instead timing circuits use a fixed capacitor and a variable resistor if it is
necessary to vary the time period.
Trimmer capacitors
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Trimmer capacitors (trimmers) are miniature variable
capacitors. They are designed to be mounted directly onto the
circuit board and adjusted only when the circuit is built.
Trimmer Capacitor Symbol
A small screwdriver or similar tool is required to adjust
trimmers. The process of adjusting them requires patience
because the presence of your hand and the tool will slightly
change the capacitance of the circuit in the region of the
trimmer!
Trimmer capacitors are only available with very small

capacitances, normally less than 100pF. It is impossible to
reduce their capacitance to zero, so they are usually specified Trimmer Capacitor
by their minimum and maximum values, for example 2-10pF.
Trimmers are the capacitor equivalent of presets which are miniature variable resistors.
Connectors and Cables

Battery clips and holders
The standard battery clip fits a 9V PP3 battery and many

battery holders such as the 6 × AA cell holder shown.
Battery holders are also available with wires attached, with
pins for PCB mounting, or as a complete box with lid, switch
and wires.
Many small electronic projects use a 9V PP3 battery but if

you wish to use the project for long periods a better choice
is a battery holder with 6 AA cells. This has the same
voltage but a much longer battery life and it will work out Photographs © Rapid Electronics
cheaper in the long run.
Larger battery clips fit 9V PP9 batteries but these are rarely used now.
Terminal blocks and PCB terminals
Terminal blocks are usually supplied in 12-way

lengths but they can be cut into smaller blocks with
a sharp knife, large wire cutters or a junior
hacksaw. They are sometimes called 'chocolate PCB Terminal block
blocks' because of the way they can be easily cut terminal
to size. block Photographs © Rapid Electronics
PCB mounting terminal blocks provide an easy

way of making semi-permanent connections to PCBs. Many are designed to interlock to
provide more connections.
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Crocodile clips
The 'standard' crocodile clip has no cover and a screw

contact. However, miniature insulated crocodile clips are
more suitable for many purposes including test leads.
They have a solder contact and lugs which fold down to
grip the cable's insulation, increasing the strength of the Crocodile clips
joint. Remember to feed the cable through the plastic Photographs © Rapid Electronics
cover before soldering! Add and remove the cover by
fully opening the clip, a piece of wood can be used to hold the jaws open.
4mm plugs, sockets and terminals
These are the standard single pole connectors used on meters and other electronic
equipment. They are capable of passing high currents (typically 10A) and most designs are
very robust. Shrouded plugs and sockets are available for use with high voltages where
there is a risk of electric shock. A wide variety of
colours is available from most suppliers.
Plugs
Plugs may have a screw or solder terminal to hold the
cable. Check if you need to thread the cable through
the cover before connecting it. Some plugs, such as
those illustrated, are 'stackable' which means that they
include a socket to accept another plug, allowing
several plugs to be connected to the same point - a
very useful feature for test leads.
Sockets
These are usually described as 'panel mounting'
because they are designed to be fitted to a case. Most
sockets have a solder contact but the picture shows
other options. Fit the socket in the case before
attaching the wire otherwise you will be unable to add
the mounting nut.
Terminals
In addition to a socket these have provision for 4mm terminal
attaching a wire by threading it through a hole (or and solder tag
wrapping it around the post) and tightening the top nut
by hand. They usually have a threaded stud to fit a
solder tag inside the case.
Photographs © Rapid Electronics
Page 7 of 77
2mm plugs and sockets
These are smaller versions of the 4mm plugs and sockets

described above, but terminals are not readily available.
The plugs illustrated are stackable. Despite their small
size these connectors can pass large currents and some Photograph © Rapid Electronics
are rated at 10A.
DC power plugs and sockets
These 2-pole plugs and sockets ensure that the polarity

of a DC supply cannot be accidentally reversed. The
standard sizes are 2.1 and 2.5mm plug diameter.
Standard plugs have a 10mm shaft, 'long' plugs have a
14mm shaft. Sockets are available for PCB or chassis
mounting and most include a switch on the outer contact Photographs © Rapid Electronics
which is normally used to disconnect an internal battery
when a plug is inserted.
Miniature versions with a 1.3mm diameter plug are used where small size is essential, such
as for personal cassette players.
Jack plugs and sockets
These are intended for audio signals so

mono and stereo versions are available.
The sizes are determined by the plug
diameter: ¼" (6.3mm), 3.5mm and 2.5mm.
The 2.5mm size is only available for ¼" (6.3mm) jack plug and socket
mono.
Screened plugs have metal bodies

connected to the COM contact. Most
connections are soldered, remember to
thread cables through plug covers before
soldering! Sockets are designed for PCB
or chassis mounting.
3.5mm jack plug and socket
¼" plug connections are similar to those
for 3.5mm plugs shown below. ¼" socket
connections are COM, R and L in that
order from the mounting nut, ignore R for
mono use. Most ¼" sockets have switches
3.5mm jack line socket
on all contacts which open as the plug is (for fitting to a cable)
inserted so they can be used to isolate
internal speakers for example. Photographs © Rapid Electronics
The connections for 3.5mm plugs and sockets are shown below. Plugs have a lug which
should be folded down to grip the cable's insulation and increase the strength of the joint.
Page 8 of 77
3.5mm mono sockets have a switch contact which can be used to switch off an internal
speaker as the plug is inserted. Ignore this contact if you do not require the switching
action.
L = left channel signal

R = right channel signal
COM = common (0V,
screen)
Do not use jack plugs for

power supply connections 3.5mm jack plug and socket connections
because the contacts may be (the R connection is not present on mono plugs)
briefly shorted as the plug is inserted. Use DC power connectors for this.
Phono plugs and sockets
These are used for screened cables carrying

audio and video signals. Stereo connections are
made using a pair of phono plugs and sockets.
The centre contact is for the signal and the outer
contact for the screen (0V, common). Screened
plugs have metal bodies connected to the outer
contact to give the signal additional protection
from electrical noise. Sockets are available for
PCB or chassis mounting, singly for mono, or in
pairs for stereo. Line sockets are available for Photographs © Rapid Electronics
making extension leads.
Construction of a screened cable
Coax plugs and sockets
These are similar to the phono plugs and sockets described

above but they are designed for use with screened cables
carrying much higher frequency signals, such as TV aerial
leads. They provide better screening because at high Photographs © Rapid Electronics
frequencies this is essential to reduce electrical noise.
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BNC plugs and sockets
These are designed for screened cables carrying

high frequency signals where an undistorted and
noise free signal is essential, for example
oscilloscope leads. BNC plugs are connected with a
push and twist action, to disconnect you need to
twist and pull.
Plugs and sockets are rated by their impedance BNC plug, photograph © Rapid Electronics
(50 or 75 ) which must be the same as the
cable's impedance. If the connector and cable impedances are not matched the signal will
be distorted because it will be partly reflected at the connection, this is the electrical
equivalent of the weak reflection which occurs when light passes through a glass window.
DIN plugs and sockets
These are intended for audio signals but they can be used for
other low-current purposes where a multi-way connector is
required. They are available from 3 way to 8 way. 5 way is
used for stereo audio connections. The contacts are
numbered on the connector, but they are not in numerical DIN plug
order! For audio use the 'common' (0V) wire is connected to
contact 2. 5 way plugs and sockets are available in two
versions: 180° and 270° (the angle refers to the ar c formed by
the contacts).
Plastic covers of DIN plugs (and line sockets) are removed by

depressing the retaining lug with a small screwdriver. You may
also need small pliers to extract the body from the cover but
do not pull on the pins themselves to avoid damage.
Remember to thread the cable through the cover before 5 way 180° DIN socket
starting to solder the connections! (chassis mounting)
Soldering DIN plugs is easier if you clamp the insert with the Photographs © Rapid Electronics
pins. Wires should be pushed into the hollow pins - first 'tin'
the wires (coat them with a thin layer of solder) then melt a little solder into the hollow pin
and insert the wire while keeping the solder molten. Take care to avoid melting the plastic
base, stop and allow the pin to cool if necessary.
Mini-DIN connectors are used for computer equipment such as keyboards and mice but
they are not a good choice for general use unless small size is essential.
Page 10 of 77
D connectors
These are multi-pole connectors with provision for screw

fittings to make semi-permanent connections, for example on
computer equipment. The D shape prevents incorrect
connection. Standard D-connectors have 2 rows of contacts
(top picture); 9, 15 and 25-way versions are the most popular.
High Density D-connectors have 3 rows of contacts (bottom
picture); a 15-way version is used to connect computer
monitors for example.
Note that covers (middle picture) are usually sold separately

because both plugs and sockets can be fitted to cables by
fitting a cover to a chassis mounted connector. PCB mounting
versions of plugs and sockets are also available. The contacts
are usually numbered on the body of the connector, although
you may need a magnifying glass to see the very small Photographs © Rapid Electronics
markings. Soldering D-connectors requires a steady hand due
to the closeness of the contacts, it is easy to accidently unsolder a contact you have just
completed while attempting to solder the next one!
IDC communication connectors
These multi-pole insulation displacement connectors

are used for computer and telecommunications
equipment. They automatically cut through the
insulation on wires when installed and special tools
are required to fit them. They are available as 4, 6 and
8-way versions.
The 8-way RJ45 is the standard connector for modern

computer networks. If you regularly use these you
may be interested in our network lead tester project.
Standard UK telephone connectors are similar in style but a slightly different shape. They
are called BT (British Telecom) connectors.
Cables
Cable... flex... lead... wire... what do all these terms mean?
• A cable is an assembly of one or more conductors (wires) with some flexibility.

• A flex is the proper name for the flexible cable fitted to mains electrical appliances.
• A lead is a complete assembly of cable and connectors.
• A wire is a single conductor which may have an outer layer of insulation (usually
plastic).
•
Page 11 of 77
Single core equipment wire
This is one solid wire with a plastic coating available in a wide

variety of colours. It can be bent to shape but will break if repeatedly flexed. Use it for
connections which will not be disturbed, for example links between points of a circuit board.
Typical specification: 1/0.6mm (1 strand of 0.6mm diameter), maximum current 1.8A.
Stranded wire
This consists of many fine strands of wire covered by an outer plastic coating. It is flexible
and can withstand repeated bending without breaking. Use it for connections which may be
disturbed, for example wires outside cases to sensors and switches. A very flexible version
('extra-flex') is used for test leads.
Typical specifications:
10/0.1mm (10 strands of 0.1mm diameter), maximum current 0.5A.
16/0.2mm (16 strands of 0.2mm diameter), maximum current 3A.
55/0.1mm (55 strands of 0.1mm diameter), maximum current 6A, used for test leads.
Signal cable
Signal cable consists of several colour-coded cores of

stranded wire housed within an outer plastic sheath.
With a typical maximum current of 1A per core it is
suitable for low voltage, low current signals where
screening from electrical interference is not required.
The picture shows 6-core cable, but 4-core and 8-core
are also readily available.
Page 12 of 77
Screened cable
The diagram shows the construction of screened Screened cable (mono)

cable. The central wire carries the signal and the
screen is connected to 0V (common) to shield
the signal from electrical interference. Screened
cable is used for audio signals and dual versions
are available for stereo. Screened cable (stereo)
Screened cable (stereo)

Construction of a screened cable
Co-axial cable
This type of screened cable (see above) Photograph © Rapid Electronics

is designed to carry high frequency
signals such as those found in TV aerials and oscilloscope leads.
Mains flex
Flex is the proper name for the flexible cable used to

connect appliances to the mains supply. It contains
2 cores (for live and neutral) or 3 cores (for live,
neutral and earth). Mains flex has thick insulation for
the high voltage (230V in UK) and it is available with
various current ratings: 3A, 6A and 13A are popular sizes in the UK.
Mains flex is sometimes used for low voltage circuits which pass a high current, but please think carefully
before using it in this way. The distinctive colours of mains flex should act as a warning of the mains high
voltage which can be lethal; using mains flex for low voltage circuits can undermine this warning.
Diodes
Example: Circuit symbol:
Function
Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of the circuit symbol shows
the direction in which the current can flow. Diodes are the electrical version of a valve and
early diodes were actually called valves.
Page 13 of 77
Forward Voltage Drop
Electricity uses up a little energy pushing its

way through the diode, rather like a person
pushing through a door with a spring. This
means that there is a small voltage across a
conducting diode, it is called the forward
voltage drop and is about 0.7V for all normal
diodes which are made from silicon. The
forward voltage drop of a diode is almost
constant whatever the current passing through
the diode so they have a very steep
characteristic (current-voltage graph).
Reverse Voltage
When a reverse voltage is applied a perfect diode does not conduct, but all real diodes leak
a very tiny current of a few µA or less. This can be ignored in most circuits because it will
be very much smaller than the current flowing in the forward direction. However, all diodes
have a maximum reverse voltage (usually 50V or more) and if this is exceeded the diode
will fail and pass a large current in the reverse direction, this is called breakdown.
Ordinary diodes can be split into two types: Signal diodes which pass small currents of
100mA or less and Rectifier diodes which can pass large currents. In addition there are
LEDs (which have their own page) and Zener diodes (at the bottom of this page).
Connecting and soldering
Diodes must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may
be labelled a or + for anode and k or - for cathode (yes, it really is k,
not c, for cathode!). The cathode is marked by a line painted on the
body. Diodes are labelled with their code in small print, you may need
a magnifying glass to read this on small signal diodes!
Small signal diodes can be damaged by heat when soldering, but

the risk is small unless you are using a germanium diode (codes beginning OA...) in which
case you should use a heat sink clipped to the lead between the joint and the diode body. A
standard crocodile clip can be used as a heat sink.
Rectifier diodes are quite robust and no special precautions are needed for soldering
them.
Testing diodes
You can use a multimeter or a simple tester (battery, resistor and LED) to check that a
diode conducts in one direction but not the other. A lamp may be used to test a
rectifier diode, but do NOT use a lamp to test a signal diode because the large current
passed by the lamp will destroy the diode!
Page 14 of 77
Signal diodes (small current)
Signal diodes are used to process information (electrical signals) in circuits, so they are
only required to pass small currents of up to 100mA.
General purpose signal diodes such as the 1N4148 are made from silicon and have a
forward voltage drop of 0.7V.
Germanium diodes such as the OA90 have a lower forward voltage drop of 0.2V and this
makes them suitable to use in radio circuits as detectors which extract the audio signal
from the weak radio signal.
For general use, where the size of the forward voltage drop is less important, silicon diodes
are better because they are less easily damaged by heat when soldering, they have a
lower resistance when conducting, and they have very low leakage currents when a
reverse voltage is applied.
Protection diodes for relays
Signal diodes are also used with relays to protect

transistors and integrated circuits from the brief high
voltage produced when the relay coil is switched off.
The diagram shows how a protection diode is
connected across the relay coil, note that the diode is
connected 'backwards' so that it will normally NOT
conduct. Conduction only occurs when the relay coil is
switched off, at this moment current tries to continue
flowing through the coil and it is harmlessly diverted
through the diode. Without the diode no current could
flow and the coil would produce a damaging high
voltage 'spike' in its attempt to keep the current flowing.
Rectifier diodes (large current) Maximum

Maximum
Diode Reverse
Rectifier diodes are used in power supplies to convert Current
Voltage
alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC), a process 1N4001 1A 50V
called rectification. They are also used elsewhere in circuits
where a large current must pass through the diode. 1N4002 1A 100V
1N4007 1A 1000V
All rectifier diodes are made from silicon and therefore have 1N5401 3A 100V
a forward voltage drop of 0.7V. The table shows maximum
current and maximum reverse voltage for some popular 1N5408 3A 1000V
rectifier diodes. The 1N4001 is suitable for most low voltage circuits with a current of less
than 1A.
Also see: Power Supplies
Page 15 of 77
Bridge rectifiers
There are several ways of connecting diodes to

make a rectifier to convert AC to DC. The bridge
rectifier is one of them and it is available in special
packages containing the four diodes required.
Bridge rectifiers are rated by their maximum
current and maximum reverse voltage. They have
four leads or terminals: the two DC outputs are
labelled + and -, the two AC inputs are labelled .
The diagram shows the operation of a bridge

rectifier as it converts AC to DC. Notice how alternate pairs of diodes conduct.
Also see: Power Supplies
Various types of Bridge Rectifiers

Note that some have a hole through their centre for attaching to a heat sink
Zener diodes
a = anode, k = cathode
Zener diodes are used to maintain a fixed voltage. They are

designed to 'breakdown' in a reliable and non-destructive way so that they can be used in
reverse to maintain a fixed voltage across their terminals. The diagram shows how they
are connected, with a resistor in series to limit the current.
Zener diodes can be distinguished from ordinary diodes by their code and breakdown
voltage which are printed on them. Zener diode codes begin BZX... or BZY... Their
breakdown voltage is printed with V in place of a decimal point, so 4V7 means 4.7V for
example.
Zener diodes are rated by their breakdown voltage and maximum power:
Page 16 of 77
• The minimum voltage available is 2.7V.
• Power ratings of 400mW and 1.3W are common.
Integrated Circuits (Chips)

Integrated Circuits are usually called ICs or chips. They are complex circuits which have
been etched onto tiny chips of semiconductor (silicon). The chip is packaged in a plastic
holder with pins spaced on a 0.1" (2.54mm) grid which will fit the holes on stripboard and
breadboards. Very fine wires inside the package link the chip to the pins.
Pin numbers
The pins are numbered anti-clockwise around the IC (chip)

starting near the notch or dot. The diagram shows the
numbering for 8-pin and 14-pin ICs, but the principle is the
same for all sizes.
Chip holders (DIL sockets)
ICs (chips) are easily damaged by heat when soldering and their short pins
cannot be protected with a heat sink. Instead we use a chip holder, strictly
called a DIL socket (DIL = Dual In-Line), which can be safely soldered onto the
circuit board. The chip is pushed into the holder when all soldering is complete.
Chip holders are only needed when soldering so they are not used on breadboards.
Commercially produced circuit boards often have chips soldered directly to the board without a chip holder,
usually this is done by a machine which is able to work very quickly. Please don't attempt to do this yourself
because you are likely to destroy the chip and it will be difficult to remove without damage by de-soldering.
Removing a chip from its holder
If you need to remove a chip it can be gently prised out of the holder with a small flat-blade
screwdriver. Carefully lever up each end by inserting the screwdriver blade between the
chip and its holder and gently twisting the screwdriver. Take care to start lifting at both ends
before you attempt to remove the chip, otherwise you will bend and possibly break the pins.
Page 17 of 77
Static precautions
Many ICs are static sensitive and can be damaged when you
touch them because your body may have become charged with
static electricity, from your clothes for example. Static sensitive
ICs will be supplied in antistatic packaging with a warning label
and they should be left in this packaging until you are ready to
use them.
Antistatic bags for ICs
It is usually adequate to earth your hands by touching a metal Photograph © Rapid Electronics
water pipe or window frame before handling the IC but for the
more sensitive (and expensive!) ICs special equipment is
available, including earthed wrist straps and earthed work
surfaces. You can make an earthed work surface with a sheet of aluminium kitchen foil and
using a crocodile clip to connect the foil to a metal water pipe or window frame with a 10k
resistor in series.
Datasheets
Datasheets are available for most ICs giving detailed

information about their ratings and functions. In some PDF files
To view and print PDF files you need
cases example circuits are shown. The large amount of an Acrobat Reader which may be
information with symbols and abbreviations can make downloaded free for Windows, Mac,
datasheets seem overwhelming to a beginner, but they RISC OS, or UNIX/Linux computers.
are worth reading as you become more confident If you are not sure which type of
because they contain a great deal of useful information computer you have it is probably
Windows.
for more experienced users designing and testing
circuits.
Sinking and sourcing current
Chip outputs are often said to 'sink' or 'source' current. The terms
refer to the direction of the current at the chip's output.
If the chip is sinking current it is flowing into the output. This

means that a device connected between the positive supply (+Vs)
and the chip output will be switched on when the output is low
(0V).
If the chip is sourcing current it is flowing out of the output. This

means that a device connected between the chip output and the
negative supply (0V) will be switched on when the output is high
(+Vs).
It is possible to connect two devices to a chip output so that one is

on when the output is low and the other is on when the output is
high. This arrangement is used in the Level Crossing project to
Page 18 of 77
make the red LEDs flash alternately.
The maximum sinking and sourcing currents for a chip output are usually the same but
there are some exceptions, for example 74LS TTL logic chips can sink up to 16mA but only
source 2mA.
Using diodes to combine outputs
The outputs of chips (ICs) must never be directly connected

together. However, diodes can be used to combine two or more
digital (high/low) outputs from a chip such as a counter. This can
be a useful way of producing simple logic functions without using
logic gates!
The diagram shows two ways of combining outputs using diodes.

The diodes must be capable of passing the output current.
1N4148 signal diodes are suitable for low current devices such as
LEDs.
For example the outputs Q0 - Q9 of a 4017 1-of-10 counter go high in turn. Using diodes to
combine the 2nd (Q1) and 4th (Q3) outputs as shown in the bottom diagram will make the
LED flash twice followed by a longer gap. The diodes are performing the function of an
OR gate.
The 555 and 556 Timers
The 8-pin 555 timer chip is used in many projects, a

popular version is the NE555. Most circuits will just
specify '555 timer IC' and the NE555 is suitable for
these. The 555 output (pin 3) can sink and source
up to 200mA. This is more than most chips and it is
sufficient to supply LEDs, relay coils and low current
lamps. To switch larger currents you can
connect a transistor.
The 556 is a dual version of the 555 housed in a 14-

pin package. The two timers (A and B) share the
same power supply pins.
Low power versions of the 555 are made, such as

the ICM7555, but these should only be used when
specified (to increase battery life) because their
maximum output current of about 20mA (with 9V
supply) is too low for many standard 555 circuits.
The ICM7555 has the same pin arrangement as a standard 555.
Page 19 of 77
Logic ICs (chips)
Logic ICs process digital signals and there are many devices, including logic gates, flip-
flops, shift registers, counters and display drivers. They can be split into two groups
according to their pin arrangements: the 4000 series and the 74 series which consists of
various families such as the 74HC, 74HCT and 74LS.
For most new projects the 74HC family is the best choice. The older 4000 series is the
only family which works with a supply voltage of more than 6V. The 74LS and 74HCT
families require a 5V supply so they are not convenient for battery operation.
The table below summarises the important properties of the most popular logic families:
74 Series 74 Series 74 Series

Property 4000 Series
74HC 74HCT 74LS
High- High-speed CMOS TTL Low-power
Technology CMOS
speed CMOS TTL compatible Schottky
Power Supply 3 to 15V 2 to 6V 5V ±0.5V 5V ±0.25V
Very high impedance. 'Float' high to logic
Very high impedance. Unused inputs must
Unused inputs must be 1 if unconnected.
be connected to +Vs or 0V. Inputs cannot
Inputs be reliably driven by 74LS outputs unless a
connected to +Vs or 1mA must be
0V. Compatible with drawn out to hold
'pull-up' resistor is used (see below).
74LS (TTL) outputs. them at logic 0.
Can sink and source Can sink up to
Can sink and source
about 5mA (10mA Can sink and source 16mA (enough to
about 20mA, enough
with 9V supply), about 20mA, enough to light an LED), but
to light an LED. To
Outputs enough to light an
switch larger
light an LED. To switch source only about
LED. To switch larger currents use a 2mA. To switch
currents use a
larger currents use a transistor. larger currents use
transistor.
transistor. a transistor.
One output can drive
One output can
up to 50 CMOS,
One output can drive up to 50 CMOS, 74HC drive up to 10 74LS
Fan-out 74HC or 74HCT
or 74HCT inputs, but only 10 74LS inputs. inputs or 50 74HCT
inputs, but only one
inputs.
74LS input.
Maximum
about 1MHz about 25MHz about 25MHz about 35MHz
Frequency
Power
consumption A few µW. A few µW. A few µW. A few mW.
of the IC itself
Page 20 of 77
Mixing Logic Families Driving 4000 or 74HC inputs from a
74LS output using a pull-up resistor.
It is best to build a circuit using just one logic family, but if necessary the different families
may be mixed providing the power supply is suitable for all of them. For example mixing
4000 and 74HC requires the power supply to be in the range 3 to 6V. A circuit which
includes 74LS or 74HCT ICs must have a 5V supply.
A 74LS output cannot reliably drive a 4000 or 74HC input unless a 'pull-up' resistor of
2.2k is connected between the +5V supply and the input to correct the slightly different
voltage ranges used for logic 0.
Note that a 4000 series output can drive only one 74LS input.
4000 Series CMOS

Quick links to
individual ICs
This family of logic ICs is numbered from 4000 onwards, and from 4500
onwards. They have a B at the end of the number (e.g. 4001B) which refers 4000 4060
to an improved design introduced some years ago. Most of them are in 14-pin 4001 4068
or 16-pin packages. They use CMOS circuitry which means they use very 4002 4069
little power and can tolerate a wide range of power supply voltages (3 to 15V) 4011 4070
making them ideal for battery powered projects. CMOS is pronounced 4012 4071
4017 4072
'see-moss' and stands for Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor. 4020 4073
4023 4075
However the CMOS circuitry also means that they are static sensitive. 4024 4077
Touching a pin while charged with static electricity (from your clothes for 4025 4081
example) may damage the IC. In fact most ICs in regular use are quite 4026 4082
4028 4093
tolerant and earthing your hands by touching a metal water pipe or window 4029 4510
frame before handling them will be adequate. ICs should be left in their 4030 4511
protective packaging until you are ready to use them. For the more sensitive 4040 4516
(and expensive!) ICs special equipment is available, including earthed wrist 4049 4518
4050 4520
straps and earthed work surfaces.
For further information, including pin connections, please use the quick links
on the right or go to 4000 Series ICs.
Page 21 of 77
74 Series: 74LS, 74HC and 74HCT
Quick links to
individual ICs
There are several families of logic ICs numbered from 74xx00 onwards with
letters (xx) in the middle of the number to indicate the type of circuitry, eg 7400 7432
74LS00 and 74HC00. The original family (now obsolete) had no letters, eg 7402 7442
7400. 7403 7447
7404 7486
The 74LS (Low-power Schottky) family (like the original) uses TTL 7405 7490
7408 7493
(Transistor-Transistor Logic) circuitry which is fast but requires more power 7409 74132
than later families. 7410 74160
7411 74161
The 74HC family has High-speed CMOS circuitry, combining the speed of 7412 74162
7414 74163
TTL with the very low power consumption of the 4000 series. They are
7420 74192
CMOS ICs with the same pin arrangements as the older 74LS family. Note 7421 74193
that 74HC inputs cannot be reliably driven by 74LS outputs because the 7427 74390
voltage ranges used for logic 0 are not quite compatible, use 74HCT instead. 7430 74393
The 74HCT family is a special version of 74HC with 74LS TTL-compatible 74HC4017
74HC4020
inputs so 74HCT can be safely mixed with 74LS in the same system. In fact
74HC4040
74HCT can be used as low-power direct replacements for the older 74LS ICs 74HC4060
in most circuits. The minor disadvantage of 74HCT is a lower immunity to 74HC4511
noise, but this is unlikely to be a problem in most situations.
Beware that the 74 series is often still called the 'TTL series' even though the latest ICs do
not use TTL!
For further information, including pin connections, please use the quick links on the right or
go to 74 series ICs.
The CMOS circuitry used in the 74HC and 74HCT series ICs means that they are static
sensitive. Touching a pin while charged with static electricity (from your clothes for
example) may damage the IC. In fact most ICs in regular use are quite tolerant and
earthing your hands by touching a metal water pipe or window frame before handling them
will be adequate. ICs should be left in their protective packaging until you are ready to use
them.
PIC microcontrollers
A PIC is a Programmable Integrated Circuit microcontroller, a 'computer-on-a-chip'. They

have a processor and memory to run a program responding to inputs and controlling
outputs, so they can easily achieve complex functions which would require several
conventional ICs.
Programming a PIC microcontroller may seem daunting to a
beginner but there are a number of systems designed to make
this easy. The PICAXE system is an excellent example because it
uses a standard computer to program (and re-program) the PICs;
no specialist equipment is required other than a low-cost
download lead. Programs can be written in a simple version of http://www.picaxe.co.uk/
BASIC or using a flowchart. The PICAXE programming software
and extensive documentation is available to download free of charge, making the system
Page 22 of 77
ideal for education and users at home. For further information (including downloads) please
see http://www.picaxe.co.uk/
If you think PICs are not for you because you have never written a computer program,
please look at the PICAXE system! It is very easy to get started using a few simple BASIC
commands and there are a number of projects available as kits which are ideal for
beginners. The system is stocked by Rapid Electronics.
4000 series CMOS Logic ICs

General characteristics
Quick links to
individual ICs
• Supply: 3 to 15V, small fluctuations are tolerated.
• Inputs have very high impedance (resistance), this is good because it means they
4000 4060
will not affect the part of the circuit where they are connected. However, it also
4001 4068
means that unconnected inputs can easily pick up electrical noise and rapidly
4002 4069
change between high and low states in an unpredictable way. This is likely to make
4011 4070
the chip behave erratically and it will significantly increase the supply current. To
4012 4071
prevent problems all unused inputs MUST be connected to the supply (either +Vs or
4017 4072
0V), this applies even if that part of the chip is not being used in the circuit!
4020 4073
• Outputs can sink and source only about 1mA if you wish to maintain the correct 4023 4075
output voltage to drive CMOS inputs. If there is no need to drive any inputs the 4024 4077
maximum current is about 5mA with a 6V supply, or 10mA with a 9V supply (just 4025 4081
enough to light an LED). To switch larger currents you can connect a transistor. 4026 4082
• Fan-out: one output can drive up to 50 inputs. 4028 4093
• Gate propagation time: typically 30ns for a signal to travel through a gate with a 9V 4029 4510
supply, it takes a longer time at lower supply voltages. 4030 4511
• Frequency: up to 1MHz, above that the 74 series is a better choice. 4040 4516
• Power consumption (of the chip itself) is very low, a few µW. It is much greater at 4049 4518
high frequencies, a few mW at 1MHz for example. 4050 4520
There are many ICs in the 4000 series and this page only covers a selection, concentrating
on the most useful gates, counters, decoders and display drivers. For each IC there is a diagram showing the
pin arrangement and brief notes explain the function of the pins where necessary. The notes also explain if
the IC's properties differ substantially from the standard characteristics listed above.
If you are using another reference please be aware that there is some variation in the terms used to describe
input pins. I have tried to be logically consistent so the term I have used describes the pin's function when
high (true). For example 'disable clock' on the 4026 is often labelled 'clock enable' but this can be confusing
because it enables the clock when low (false). An input described as 'active low' is like this, it performs its
function when low. If you see a line drawn above a label it means it is active low, for example: (say
'reset-bar').
Static precautions
The CMOS circuitry means that 4000 series ICs are static sensitive. Touching a pin while charged with static
electricity (from your clothes for example) may damage the IC. In fact most ICs in regular use are quite
tolerant and earthing your hands by touching a metal water pipe or window frame before handling them will be
adequate. ICs should be left in their protective packaging until you are ready to use them.
Page 23 of 77
Gates
Quad 2-input gates
• 4001 quad 2-input NOR

• 4011 quad 2-input NAND
• 4030 quad 2-input EX-OR (now obsolete)
• 4070 quad 2-input EX-OR
• 4071 quad 2-input OR
• 4077 quad 2-input EX-NOR
• 4081 quad 2-input AND
• 4093 quad 2-input NAND with Schmitt trigger
inputs
The 4093 has Schmitt trigger inputs to provide good noise immunity. They are ideal for slowly changing or
noisy signals. The hysteresis is about 0.5V with a 4.5V supply and almost 2V with a 9V supply.
Triple 3-input gates
• 4023 triple 3-input NAND

• 4025 triple 3-input NOR
• 4073 triple 3-input AND
• 4075 triple 3-input OR
Notice how gate 1 is spread across the two ends of the

package.
Dual 4-input gates
• 4002 dual 4-input NOR

• 4012 dual 4-input NAND
• 4072 dual 4-input OR
• 4082 dual 4-input AND
NC = No Connection (a pin that is not used).
Page 24 of 77
4068 8-input NAND/AND* gate
This gate has a propagation time which is about 10 times
longer than normal so it is not suitable for high speed circuits.
* = The AND output (pin 1) is not available on some

versions of the 4068.
4069 hex NOT (inverting buffer)
4049 hex NOT and 4050 hex buffer
• 4049 hex NOT (inverting buffer)

• 4050 hex non-inverting buffer
Inputs: These ICs are unusual because their gate inputs can
withstand up to +15V even if the power supply is a lower
voltage.
Outputs: These ICs are unusual because they are capable of

driving 74LS gate inputs directly. To do this they must have a
+5V supply (74LS supply voltage). The gate output is sufficient
to drive four 74LS inputs.
Page 25 of 77
Note the unusual arrangement of the power supply pins for these ICs!
4000 dual 3-input NOR gate and NOT gate

Two 3-input NOR gates and a single NOT gate in one
package.
Decade and 4-bit Counters
4017 decade counter (1-of-10)

The count advances as the clock input becomes high
(on the rising-edge). Each output Q0-Q9 goes high in
turn as counting advances. For some functions (such as
flash sequences) outputs may be combined
using diodes.
The reset input should be low (0V) for normal operation

(counting 0-9). When high it resets the count to zero (Q0
high). This can be done manually with a switch between
reset and +Vs and a 10k resistor between reset and 0V.
Counting to less than 9 is achieved by connecting the
relevant output (Q0-Q9) to reset, for example to count
0,1,2,3 connect Q4 to reset.
The disable input should be low (0V) for normal operation. When high it disables counting so that clock
pulses are ignored and the count is kept constant.
The ÷10 output is high for counts 0-4 and low for 5-9, so it provides an output at 1/10 of the clock frequency. It
can be used to drive the clock input of another 4017 (to count the tens).
Example projects: Heart-shaped badge | Network Lead Tester
Page 26 of 77
4026 decade counter and 7-segment
display driver
The count advances as the clock input becomes high
(on the rising-edge). The outputs a-g go high to light
the appropriate segments of a common-cathode 7-
segment display as the count advances. The maximum
output current is about 1mA with a 4.5V supply and
4mA with a 9V supply. This is sufficient to directly drive
many 7-segment LED displays. The table below shows
the segment sequence in detail.
The reset input should be low (0V) for normal operation

(counting 0-9). When high it resets the count to zero.
The disable clock input should be low (0V) for normal

operation. When high it disables counting so that clock
pulses are ignored and the count is kept constant.
The enable display input should be high (+Vs) for

normal operation. When low it makes outputs a-g low,
giving a blank display. The enable out follows this
input but with a brief delay.
The ÷10 output (h in table) is high for counts 0-4 and

low for 5-9, so it provides an output at 1/10 of the clock
frequency. It can be used to drive the clock input of
another 4026 to provide multi-digit counting.
The not 2 output is high unless the count is 2 when it

goes low.
Example project: 'Random' flasher for 8 LEDs

This project uses the 4026 in an unconventional way, the outputs a-g and the ÷10 output (h) are used to flash
individual LEDs in a complex pattern which appears random if not studied too closely!
4029 up/down synchronous counter with

preset
The 4029 is a synchronous counter so its outputs change
precisely together on each clock pulse. This is helpful if you
need to connect the outputs to logic gates because it avoids
the glitches which occur with ripple counters.
The count occurs as the clock input becomes high (on the
rising-edge). The up/down input determines the direction of
counting: high for up, low for down. The state of up/down
should be changed when the clock is high.
Page 27 of 77
For normal operation (counting) preset, and carry in should be low.
The binary/decade input selects the type of counter: 4-bit binary (0-15) when high; decade (0-9) when low.
The counter may be preset by placing the desired binary number on the inputs A-D and briefly making the
preset input high. There is no reset input, but preset can be used to reset the count to zero if inputs A-D are
all low.
Connecting synchronous counters in a chain: please see 4510/16 below.
4510 up/down decade (0-9) counter with preset

4516 up/down 4-bit (0-15) counter with
preset
These are synchronous counters so their outputs change
precisely together on each clock pulse. This is helpful if you need
to connect their outputs to logic gates because it avoids the
glitches which occur with ripple counters.
The count occurs as the clock input becomes high (on the rising-
edge). The up/down input determines the direction of counting:
high for up, low for down. The state of up/down should be
changed when the clock is high.
For normal operation (counting) preset, reset and carry in

should be low. When reset is high it resets the count to zero
(0000, QA-QD low). The clock input should be low when
resetting.
The counter may be preset by placing the desired binary number on the inputs A-D and briefly making the
preset input high, the clock input should be low when this happens.
Connecting synchronous counters in a chain

The diagram below shows how to link synchronous counters, notice how all the clock (CK) inputs are linked.
Carry out (CO) feeds carry in (CI) of the next counter. Carry in (CI) of the first counter should be low for
4029, 4510 and 4516 counters.
4518 dual decade (0-9) counter

4520 dual 4-bit (0-15) counter
These contain two separate synchronous counters, one on
each side of the chip.
Normally a clock signal is connected to the clock input, with

the enable input held high. Counting advances as the clock
signal becomes high (on the rising-edge). Special
Page 28 of 77
arrangements are used if the 4518/20 counters are linked in a chain, as explained below.
For normal operation the reset input should be low, making it high resets the counter to zero (0000, QA-QD
low).
Counting to less than the maximum (9 or 15) can be achieved by connecting the appropriate output(s) to
the reset input, using an AND gate if necessary. For example to count 0 to 8 connect QA (1) and QD (8) to
reset using an AND gate.
Connecting 4518 and 4520 counters in a chain

The diagram below shows how to link 4518 and 4520 counters. Notice how the normal clock inputs are held
low, with the enable inputs being used instead. With this arrangement counting advances as the enable input
becomes low (on the falling-edge) allowing output QD to supply a clock signal to the next counter. The
complete chain is a ripple counter, although the individual counters are synchronous! If it is essential to have
truly synchronous counting a system of logic gates is required, please see a 4518/20 datasheet for further
details.
7-bit, 12-bit and 14-bit counters
4020 14-bit (÷16,384) ripple counter

The 4020 is a ripple counter so beware that glitches may
occur in any logic gate systems connected to its outputs due to
the slight delay before the later counter outputs respond to a
clock pulse.
The count advances as the clock input becomes low (on the
falling-edge), this is indicated by the bar over the clock label.
This is the usual clock behaviour of ripple counters and it
means a counter output can directly drive the clock input of the
next counter in a chain.
Output Qn is the nth stage of the counter, representing 2n, for

example Q4 is 24 = 16 (1/16 of clock frequency) and Q14 is
214 = 16384 (1/16384 of clock frequency). Note that Q2 and Q3
are not available.
The reset input should be low for normal operation (counting). When high it resets the count to zero (all
outputs low).
Also see: 4040 (12-bit) and 4060 (14-bit with internal oscillator).
Page 29 of 77
4024 7-bit (÷128) ripple counter
occur in any logic gate systems connected to its outputs due
to the slight delay before the later counter outputs respond to
a clock pulse.
means a counter output can directly drive the clock input of
the next counter in a chain.
Output Qn is the nth stage of the counter, representing 2n,

for example Q4 is 24 = 16 (1/16 of clock frequency) and Q7 is 27 = 128 (1/128 of clock frequency).
outputs low).
4040 12-bit (÷4096) ripple counter

occur in any logic gate systems connected to its outputs due to
the slight delay before the later counter outputs respond to a
clock pulse.
means a counter output can directly drive the clock input of the
next counter in a chain.
Output Qn is the nth stage of the counter, representing 2n, for

example Q4 is 24 = 16 (1/16 of clock frequency) and Q12 is
212 = 4096 (1/4096 of clock frequency).
outputs low).
Page 30 of 77
4060 14-bit (÷16,384) ripple counter with
internal oscillator
occur in any logic gate systems connected to its outputs
due to the slight delay before the later counter outputs
respond to a clock pulse.
The count advances as the clock input becomes low (on

the falling-edge), this is indicated by the bar over the clock
label. This is the usual clock behaviour of ripple counters
and it means a counter output can directly drive the clock
input of the next counter in a chain. The clock can be
driven directly, or connected to the internal oscillator
(see below).
Output Qn is the nth stage of the counter, representing 2n,

for example Q4 is 24 = 16 (1/16 of clock frequency) and Q14
is 214 = 16384 (1/16384 of clock frequency). Note that Q1-3
and Q11 are not available.
The reset input should be low for normal operation

(counting). When high it resets the count to zero (all
outputs low).
The 4060 includes an internal oscillator. The clock

signal may be supplied in three ways:
• From an external source to the clock input, as for

a normal counter. In this case there should be no
connections to external C and external R (pins 9
and 10).
• RC oscillator as shown in the diagram. The
oscillator drives the clock input with an approximate frequency f = 1/2×R1×C (it partly depends on the
supply voltage). R1 should be at least 50k if the supply voltage is less than 7V. R2 should be
between 2 and 10 times R1.
• Crystal oscillator as shown in the diagram, note that there is no connection to pin 9. The 32768 Hz
crystal will give a 2Hz signal at the last output, Q14.
Also see: 4020 (14-bit) and 4040 (12-bit), neither have internal oscillators.
Decoders
4028 BCD to decimal (1 of 10) decoder

The appropriate output Q0-9 becomes high in response to the
BCD (binary coded decimal) input. For example an input of
Page 31 of 77
binary 0101 (=5) will make output Q5 high and all other outputs low.
The 4028 is a BCD (binary coded decimal) decoder intended for input values 0 to 9 (0000 to 1001 in binary).
With inputs from 10 to 15 (1010 to 1111 in binary) all outputs are low.
Note that the 4028 can be used as a 1-of-8 decoder if input D is held low.
7-segment Display Drivers
4511 BCD to 7-segment display driver

The appropriate outputs a-g become high to display the BCD
(binary coded decimal) number supplied on inputs A-D. The
outputs a-g can source up to 25mA. The 7-segment display
segments must be connected between the outputs and 0V with
a resistor in series (330 with a 5V supply). A common
cathode display is required.
Display test and blank input are active-low so they should be

high for normal operation. When display test is low all the
display segments should light (showing number 8). When
blank input is low the display will be blank (all segments off).
The store input should be low for normal operation. When

store is high the displayed number is stored internally to give a
constant display regardless of any changes which may occur to
the inputs A-D.
The 4511 is intended for BCD (binary coded decimal). Inputs values from 10 to 15 (1010 to 1111 in binary)
will give a blank display (all segments off).
Quick links to
individual ICs
7400 7432
7402 7442
7403 7447
7404 7486
7405 7490
7408 7493
7409 74132
7410 74160
7411 74161
7412 74162
7414 74163
7420 74192
7421 74193
7427 74390
7430 74393
74HC4017
74HC4020
74HC4040
Page 32 of 77
74 Series Logic ICs 74HC4060
74HC4511
General characteristics
There are several families of logic chips numbered from 74xx00 onwards with letters (xx) in
the middle of the number to indicate the type of circuitry, eg 74LS00 and 74HC00. The
original family (now obsolete) had no letters, eg 7400.
The 74LS (Low-power Schottky) family (like the original) uses TTL (Transistor-Transistor
Logic) circuitry which is fast but requires more power than later families. The 74 series is
often still called the 'TTL series' even though the latest chips do not use TTL!
The 74HC family has High-speed CMOS circuitry, combining the speed of TTL with the
very low power consumption of the 4000 series. They are CMOS chips with the same pin
arrangements as the older 74LS family. Note that 74HC inputs cannot be reliably driven by
74LS outputs because the voltage ranges used for logic 0 are not quite compatible, use
74HCT instead.
The 74HCT family is a special version of 74HC with 74LS TTL-compatible inputs so 74HCT
can be safely mixed with 74LS in the same system. In fact 74HCT can be used as low-
power direct replacements for the older 74LS ICs in most circuits. The minor disadvantage
of 74HCT is a lower immunity to noise, but this is unlikely to be a problem in most
situations.
The CMOS circuitry used in the 74HC and 74HCT series ICs means that they are static
sensitive. Touching a pin while charged with static electricity (from your clothes for
example) may damage the IC. In fact most ICs in regular use are quite tolerant and
earthing your hands by touching a metal water pipe or window frame before handling them
will be adequate. ICs should be left in their protective packaging until you are ready to use
them.
To compare the different logic families please see the Summary table of logic families
For most new projects the 74HC family is the best choice.
The 74LS and 74HCT families require a 5V supply so they are not convenient for battery
operation.
74HC and 74HCT family characteristics:
• 74HC Supply: 2 to 6V, small fluctuations are tolerated.

• 74HCT Supply: 5V ±0.5V, a regulated supply is best.
• Inputs have very high impedance (resistance), this is good because it means they will not affect the
part of the circuit where they are connected. However, it also means that unconnected inputs can
easily pick up electrical noise and rapidly change between high and low states in an unpredictable
way. This is likely to make the chip behave erratically and it will significantly increase the supply
current. To prevent problems all unused inputs MUST be connected to the supply (either +Vs or 0V),
this applies even if that part of the chip is not being used in the circuit!
Note that 74HC inputs cannot be reliably driven by 74LS outputs because the voltage ranges
used for logic 0 are not quite compatible. For reliability use 74HCT if the system includes some 74LS
chips.
• Outputs can sink and source about 4mA if you wish to maintain the correct output voltage to drive
logic inputs, but if there is no need to drive any inputs the maximum current is about 20mA. To switch
larger currents you can connect a transistor.
Page 33 of 77
• Fan-out: one output can drive many inputs (50+), except 74LS inputs because these require a higher
current and only 10 can be driven.
• Gate propagation time: about 10ns for a signal to travel through a gate.
• Frequency: up to 25MHz.
• Power consumption (of the chip itself) is very low, a few µW. It is much greater at high frequencies,
a few mW at 1MHz for example.
74LS family TTL characteristics:
• Supply: 5V ±0.25V, it must be very smooth, a regulated supply is best. In addition to the normal
supply smoothing, a 0.1µF capacitor should be connected across the supply near the chip to remove
the 'spikes' generated as it switches state, one capacitor is needed for every 4 chips.
• Inputs 'float' high to logic 1 if unconnected, but do not rely on this in a permanent (soldered) circuit
because the inputs may pick up electrical noise. 1mA must be drawn out to hold inputs at logic 0. In a
permanent circuit it is wise to connect any unused inputs to +Vs to ensure good immunity to noise.
• Outputs can sink up to 16mA (enough to light an LED), but they can source only about 2mA. To
switch larger currents you can connect a transistor.
• Fan-out: one output can drive up to 10 74LS inputs, but many more 74HCT inputs.
• Gate propagation time: about 10ns for a signal to travel through a gate.
• Frequency: up to about 35MHz (under the right conditions).
• Power consumption (of the chip itself) is a few mW.
Open Collector Outputs
Some 74 series ICs have open collector outputs, this

means they can sink current but they cannot source
current. They behave like an NPN transistor switch.
The diagram shows how an open collector output can

be connected to sink current from a supply which has a
higher voltage than the logic IC supply. The maximum
load supply is 15V for most open collector ICs.
Open collector outputs can be safely connected

together to switch on a load when any one of them is
low; unlike normal outputs which must be combined
using diodes.
There are many ICs in the 74 series and this page only covers a selection, concentrating on the most useful
gates, counters, decoders and display drivers. For each IC there is a diagram showing the pin arrangement
and brief notes explain the function of the pins where necessary. For simplicity the family letters after the 74
are omitted in the diagrams below because the pin connections apply to all 74 series gates with the same
number. For example 7400 NAND gates are available as 74HC00, 74HCT00 and 74LS00.
If you are using another reference please be aware that there is some variation in the terms used to
describe pin functions, for example reset is also called clear. Some inputs are 'active low' which
means they perform their function when low. If you see a line drawn above a label it means it is
Page 34 of 77
active low, for example: (say 'reset-bar').
Gates
Quad 2-input gates
• 7400 quad 2-input NAND

• 7403 quad 2-input NAND with open
collector outputs
• 7408 quad 2-input AND
• 7409 quad 2-input AND with open
collector outputs
• 7432 quad 2-input OR
• 7486 quad 2-input EX-OR
• 74132 quad 2-input NAND with Schmitt
trigger inputs
The 74132 has Schmitt trigger inputs to provide good

noise immunity. They are ideal for slowly changing or
noisy signals.
• 7402 quad 2-input NOR

Note the unusual gate layout.
Triple 3-input gates
• 7410 triple 3-input NAND

• 7411 triple 3-input AND
• 7412 triple 3-input NAND with open
collector outputs
• 7427 triple 3-input NOR
Notice how gate 1 is spread across the two sides of

the package.
Dual 4-input gates
• 7420 dual 4-input NAND

• 7421 dual 4-input AND
Page 35 of 77
7430 8-input NAND gate
Hex NOT gates
• 7404 hex NOT

• 7405 hex NOT with open collector outputs
• 7414 hex NOT with Schmitt trigger inputs
The 7414 has Schmitt trigger inputs to provide good noise

immunity. They are ideal for slowly changing or noisy signals.
Counters
7490 decade (0-9) ripple counter

7493 4-bit (0-15) ripple counter
These are ripple counters so beware that glitches may occur in
any logic gate systems connected to their outputs due to the
slight delay before the later counter outputs respond to a clock NC = No Connection (a pin that is not used).
pulse. # on the 7490 pins 6 and 7 connect to an
internal AND gate for resetting to 9.
the falling-edge), this is indicated by the bar over the clock For normal use connect QA to clockB and
label. This is the usual clock behaviour of ripple counters connect the external clock signal to clockA.
input of the next counter in a chain.
The counter is in two sections: clockA-QA and clockB-

QB-QC-QD. For normal use connect QA to clockB to link
the two sections, and connect the external clock signal to
clockA.
For normal operation at least one reset0 input should be

low, making both high resets the counter to zero (0000,
QA-QD low). Note that the 7490 has a pair of reset9 inputs
Page 36 of 77
on pins 6 and 7, these reset the counter to nine (1001) so at least one of them must be low for counting to
occur.
Counting to less than the maximum (9 or 15) can be achieved by connecting the appropriate output(s) to
the two reset0 inputs. If only one reset input is required the two inputs can be connected together. For
example: to count 0 to 8 connect QA (1) and QD (8) to the reset inputs.
Connecting ripple counters in a chain: please see 74393 below.
74390 dual decade (0-9) ripple counter

The 74390 contains two separate decade (0 to 9)
counters, one on each side of the chip. They are ripple
counters so beware that glitches may occur in any logic
gate systems connected to their outputs due to the slight
delay before the later counter outputs respond to a clock
pulse.

input of the next counter in a chain.
Each counter is in two sections: clockA-QA and clockB-

QB-QC-QD. For normal use connect QA to clockB to link
the two sections, and connect the external clock signal to
clockA. For normal use connect QA to clockB and
connect the external clock signal to clockA.
For normal operation the reset input should be low, making it high resets the counter to zero (0000, QA-QD
low).
Counting to less than 9 can be achieved by connecting the appropriate output(s) to the reset input, using an
AND gate if necessary. For example: to count 0 to 7 connect QD (8) to reset, to count 0 to 8 connect QA (1)
and QD (8) to reset using an AND gate.
Connecting ripple counters in a chain: please see 74393 below.
74393 dual 4-bit (0-15) ripple counter

The 74393 contains two separate 4-bit (0 to 15) counters,
one on each side of the chip. They are ripple counters so
beware that glitches may occur in logic systems connected
to their outputs due to the slight delay before the later
outputs respond to a clock pulse.

and it means means a counter output can directly drive the
clock input of the next counter in a chain.
For normal operation the reset input should be low, making

it high resets the counter to zero (0000, QA-QD low).
Page 37 of 77
Counting to less than 15 can be achieved by connecting the appropriate output(s) to the reset input, using
an AND gate if necessary. For example to count 0 to 8 connect QA (1) and QD (8) to reset using an AND
gate.
Connecting ripple counters in a chain

The diagram below shows how to link ripple counters in a chain, notice how the highest output QD of each
counter drives the clock input of the next counter.
74160-3 synchronous counters
• 74160 synchronous decade counter

(standard reset)
• 74161 synchronous 4-bit counter (standard
reset)
• 74162 synchronous decade counter
(synchronous reset)
• 74163 synchronous 4-bit counter
(synchronous reset)

precisely together on each clock pulse. This is helpful if
you need to connect their outputs to logic gates because it
avoids the glitches which occur with ripple counters.
The count advances as the clock input becomes high (on

the rising-edge). The decade counters count from 0 to 9
(0000 to 1001 in binary). The 4-bit counters count from 0
* reset and preset are both active-low
to 15 (0000 to 1111 in binary).
preset is also known as parallel enable (PE)
For normal operation (counting) the reset, preset,
count enable and carry in inputs should all be high. When count enable is low the clock input is ignored
and counting stops.
Page 38 of 77
The counter may be preset by placing the desired binary number on the inputs A-D, making the preset input
low, and applying a positive pulse to the clock input. The inputs A-D may be left unconnected if not required.
The reset input is active-low so it should be high (+Vs) for normal operation (counting). When low it resets the
count to zero (0000, QA-QD low), this happens immediately with the 74160 and 74161 (standard reset), but
with the 74162 and 74163 (synchronous reset) the reset occurs on the rising-edge of the clock input.
Counting to less than the maximum (15 or 9) can be achieved by connecting the appropriate output(s)
through a NOT or NAND gate to the reset input. For the 74162 and 74163 (synchronous reset) you must
use the output(s) representing one less than the reset count you require, e.g. to reset on 7 (counting 0 to 6)
use QB (2) and QC (4).
Connecting synchronous counters in a chain

The diagram below shows how to link synchronous counters such as 74160-3, notice how all the clock (CK)
inputs are linked. Carry out (CO) is used to feed the carry in (CI) of the next counter. Carry in (CI) of the first
74160-3 counter should be high.
74192 up/down decade (0-9) counter

74193 up/down 4-bit (0-15) counter
precisely together on each clock pulse. This is helpful if
you need to connect their outputs to logic gates because it
avoids the glitches which occur with ripple counters.
These counters have separate clock inputs for counting up

and down. The count increases as the up clock input
becomes high (on the rising-edge). The count decreases
as the down clock input becomes high (on the rising-
edge). In both cases the other clock input should be high.
For normal operation (counting) the preset input should be

high and the reset input low. When the reset input is high
it resets the count to zero (0000, QA-QD low)
The counter may be preset by placing the desired binary

number on the inputs A-D and briefly making the preset
input low. Note that a clock pulse is not required to preset, * preset is active-low
unlike the 74160-3 counters. The inputs A-D may be left
unconnected if not required.
Connecting counters with separate up and down clock inputs in a chain

Page 39 of 77
The diagram below shows how to link 74192-3 up/down counters with separate up and down clock inputs,
notice how carry and borrow are connected to the up clock and down clock inputs respectively of the next
counter.
74HC4017 decade counter (1-of-10)

74HC4020 14-bit ripple counter
74HC4040 12-bit ripple counter
74HC4060 14-bit ripple counter with internal oscillator
These are the 74HC equivalents of 4000 series CMOS counters. Like all 74HC ICs they
need a power supply of 2 to 6V. For pin connections and functions please see: 4017 | 4020
| 4040 | 4060
Decoders
7442 BCD to decimal (1 of 10) decoder

The 7442 outputs are active-low which means they become
low when selected but are high at other times. They can sink
up to about 20mA.
The appropriate output becomes low in response to the BCD

(binary coded decimal) input. For example an input of binary
0101 (=5) will make output Q5 low and all other outputs high.
The 7442 is a BCD (binary coded decimal) decoder intended

for input values 0 to 9 (0000 to 1001 in binary). With inputs
from 10 to 15 (1010 to 1111 in binary) all outputs are high.
Note that the 7442 can be used as a 1-of-8 decoder if input

D is held low.
Also see: 74HC4017 and 4017 both are a decade counter and 1-of-10 decoder in a single IC.
Page 40 of 77
7-segment Display Drivers
7447 BCD to 7-segment display driver

The appropriate outputs a-g become low to display the
BCD (binary coded decimal) number supplied on
inputs A-D. The 7447 has open collector outputs a-g
which can sink up to 40mA. The 7-segment display
segments must be connected between +Vs and the
outputs with a resistor in series (330 with a 5V supply).
A common anode display is required.
Display test and blank input are active-low so they

should be high for normal operation. When display test
is low all the display segments should light (showing
number 8).
If the blank input is low the display will be blank when

the count input is zero (0000). This can be used to blank leading zeros when there are several display digits
driven by a chain of counters. To achieve this blank output should be connected to blank input of the next
display down the chain (the next most significant digit).
The 7447 is intended for BCD (binary coded decimal) which is input values 0 to 9 (0000 to 1001 in binary).
Inputs from 10 to 15 (1010 to 1111 in binary) will light odd display segments but will do no harm.
74HC4511 BCD to 7-segment display driver
This is the 74HC equivalent of the CMOS 4511 display driver. Like all 74HC ICs it needs a
power supply of 2 to 6V. For pin connections and functions please see 4511.
Lamps
Function and Construction
Lamps emit light when an electric current passes through them. All of the lamps
shown on this page have a thin wire filament which becomes very hot and glows
brightly when a current passes through it. The filament is made from a metal with a
high melting point such as tungsten and it is usually wound into a small coil.
Filament lamps have a shorter lifetime than most electronic components because
eventually the filament 'blows' (melts) at a weak point.
Circuit symbols
Page 41 of 77
There are two circuit symbols for a lamp, one for a lamp used to provide illumination and
another for a lamp used as an indicator. Small lamps such as torch bulbs can be used for
both purposes so either circuit symbol may used in simple educational circuits.
Lamp used for lighting Lamp used as an indicator

(for example a car headlamp or torch bulb) (for example a warning light on a car dashboard)
Selecting a Lamp
There are three important features to consider when selecting a lamp:
• Voltage rating - the supply voltage for normal brightness.

• Power or current rating - small lamps are usually rated by current.
• Lamp type - please see the table below.
The voltage and power (or current) ratings are usually printed or embossed on the body of
a lamp.
Voltage rating
This is the supply voltage required for normal brightness. If a slightly higher
voltage is used the lamp will be brighter but its lifetime will be shorter. With a
lower supply voltage the lamp will be dimmer and its lifetime will be longer. The
light from dim lamps has a yellow-orange colour.
Torch lamps pass a relatively large current and this significantly reduces the
output voltage of the battery. Some voltage is used up inside the battery driving the large
current through the small resistance of the battery itself (its 'internal resistance'). As a result
the correct voltage rating for a torch lamp is lower than the normal voltage of the battery
which lights it!
For example: a lamp rated 3.5V 0.3A is correct for a 4.5V battery (three 1.5V cells)
because when the lamp is connected the voltage across the battery falls to about 3.5V.
Power or current rating
This is the power or current for the lamp when connected to its rated voltage. Low power
lamps are usually rated by their current and high power lamps by their power. It is easy to
convert between the two ratings:
P = I × V where: P = power in watts (W)
or I = current in amps (A)
I=P/V V = voltage in volts (V)
Page 42 of 77
Examples:
• A lamp rated 3.5V 0.3A has a power rating P = I × V = 0.3 × 3.5 = 1.05W
• A lamp rated 6V 0.06A has a power rating P = I × V = 0.06 × 6 = 0.36W
• A lamp rated 12W 2.4W has a current rating I = P / V = 2.4 / 12 = 0.2A
Lamp Type
Type of Lamp Example

MES Miniature Edison Screw
These are the standard small lamps. The bulb
diameter is usually about 10mm, but tubular bulbs
are also available. MES lamps have one contact on
the base and the body forms the other contact.
They are available with a good range of voltage and
power (or current) ratings. Lens ended versions are
available to produce a focused beam of light.
LES Lilliput Edison Screw

Smaller than MES, these have a bulb diameter of
about 5mm.

MCC Miniature Centre Contact
These have a bayonet style fitting, like a standard
mains lamp in the UK. They have one contact on
the base and the body forms the other contact. The
bulb diameter is about 10mm.

SBC Small Bayonet Cap
These have a bayonet style fitting, like a standard
mains lamp in the UK. They have two contacts on
the base so the metal body is not connected in the
circuit. SBC lamps have high power ratings (24W
for example) and their bulbs are large with a
diameter of up to about 40mm. Note the two
filament arrangements in the lamps shown,
horizontal on the left, vertical on the right.
Pre-focus
This type of lamp is used in torches and lanterns.
The flange at the top of the metal body is used to
hold the lamp in place. Lampholders are not readily
available so this type is unsuitable for most projects.
Page 43 of 77
Wire ended
These are very small lamps with a bulb about 3mm
diameter and 6mm long. Take care to avoid
snapping the wires where they enter the glass bulb.

Grain of Wheat
These are similar to the wire ended lamps above
but they have stranded wire leads usually about
150mm long. The bulb is about 3mm diameter and
6mm long - the size of a grain of wheat!

Rapid Electronics have kindly allowed me to use their photographs on this page. We buy most of our
components and tools for the Electronics Club from Rapid Electronics. The photographs are from their Image
Gallery CD-ROM.
Lamps may be connected either way round in a circuit

and the supply may be AC or DC.
Most lamps are designed to be used in a lampholder but

the small 'wire ended' and 'grain of wheat' lamps have
wires which may be soldered directly onto a circuit board.
Lampholders usually have screw terminals or solder tags screw terminals solder tags
to attach wires. Some small holders have contacts which
Lampholders
may be soldered directly to a circuit board.
Lamps in Series
Several lamps can be successfully connected in

series provided they all have identical voltage and
power (or current) ratings. The supply voltage is
divided equally between identical lamps so their
voltage rating must be suitable for this. For example
Christmas tree lights may have 20 lamps connected in
series to a 240V supply, so each lamp will have 240V ÷ 20 = 12V across it.
Page 44 of 77
A disadvantage of connecting lamps in series is that if one lamp blows all of them will go
out because the circuit is broken. Christmas tree lamps have a special feature to overcome
this problem; they are designed to short circuit (conduct like a wire link) when they blow, so
the circuit is not broken and the other lamps remain lit, making it easier to locate the faulty
lamp. Sets also include one 'fuse' lamp which blows normally.
WARNING! The Christmas tree lamps may seem safe because they use only 12V but they are connected to
the mains supply which can be lethal. Always unplug from the mains before changing lamps. The voltage
across the holder of a missing lamp is the full 240V of the mains supply! (Yes, it really is!)
Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
Function
LEDs emit light when an electric current passes through them.
LEDs must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be
labelled a or + for anode and k or - for cathode (yes, it really is k, not c, for
cathode!). The cathode is the short lead and there may be a slight flat on
the body of round LEDs. If you can see inside the LED the cathode is the
larger electrode (but this is not an official identification method).
LEDs can be damaged by heat when soldering, but the risk is small unless you are very
slow. No special precautions are needed for soldering most LEDs.
Page 45 of 77
Testing an LED
Never connect an LED directly to a battery or power supply!

It will be destroyed almost instantly because too much current will
pass through and burn it out.
LEDs must have a resistor in series to limit the current to a safe

value, for quick testing purposes a 1k resistor is suitable for most
LEDs if your supply voltage is 12V or less. Remember to connect
the LED the correct way round!
For an accurate value please see Calculating an LED resistor value below.
Colours of LEDs
LEDs are available in red, orange, amber,

yellow, green, blue and white. Blue and white
LEDs are much more expensive than the other
colours.
The colour of an LED is determined by the

semiconductor material, not by the colouring of
the 'package' (the plastic body). LEDs of all
colours are available in uncoloured packages
which may be diffused (milky) or clear (often described as 'water clear'). The coloured
packages are also available as diffused (the standard type) or transparent.
Tri-colour LEDs
The most popular type of tri-colour LED has a red and a green LED combined in
one package with three leads. They are called tri-colour because mixed red and
green light appears to be yellow and this is produced when both the red and
green LEDs are on.
The diagram shows the construction of a tri-colour LED. Note the different
lengths of the three leads. The centre lead (k) is the common cathode for both
LEDs, the outer leads (a1 and a2) are the anodes to the LEDs allowing each one
to be lit separately, or both together to give the third colour.
Bi-colour LEDs
A bi-colour LED has two LEDs wired in 'inverse parallel' (one forwards, one backwards)
combined in one package with two leads. Only one of the LEDs can be lit at one time and
they are less useful than the tri-colour LEDs described above.
Sizes, Shapes and Viewing angles of LEDs

Page 46 of 77
LEDs are available in a wide variety of sizes and shapes. The
'standard' LED has a round cross-section of 5mm diameter and
this is probably the best type for general use, but 3mm round
LEDs are also popular.
Round cross-section LEDs are frequently used and they are

LED Clip
very easy to install on boxes by drilling a hole of the LED
diameter, adding a spot of glue will help to hold the LED if Photograph © Rapid Electronics
necessary. LED clips are also available to secure LEDs in
holes. Other cross-section shapes include square, rectangular and triangular.
As well as a variety of colours, sizes and shapes, LEDs also vary in their viewing angle.
This tells you how much the beam of light spreads out. Standard LEDs have a viewing
angle of 60° but others have a narrow beam of 30° o r less.
Rapid Electronics stock a wide selection of LEDs and their catalogue is a good guide to the
range available.
Calculating an LED resistor value
An LED must have a resistor connected in series to limit the

current through the LED, otherwise it will burn out almost instantly.
The resistor value, R is given by:
R = (VS - VL) / I
VS = supply voltage
VL = LED voltage (usually 2V, but 4V for blue and white LEDs)
I = LED current (e.g. 20mA), this must be less than the maximum permitted
If the calculated value is not available choose the nearest standard resistor value which is
greater, so that the current will be a little less than you chose. In fact you may wish to
choose a greater resistor value to reduce the current (to increase battery life for example)
but this will make the LED less bright.
For example
If the supply voltage VS = 9V, and you have a red LED (VL = 2V), requiring a current I =
20mA = 0.020A,
R = (9V - 2V) / 0.02A = 350 , so choose 390 (the nearest standard value which is
greater).
Page 47 of 77
Working out the LED resistor formula using Ohm's law
Ohm's law says that the resistance of the resistor, R = V/I, where:
V = voltage across the resistor (= VS - VL in this case)
I = the current through the resistor
So R = (VS - VL) / I
For more information on the calculations please see the Ohm's Law page.
Connecting LEDs in series
If you wish to have several LEDs on at the same time it may

be possible to connect them in series. This prolongs battery
life by lighting several LEDs with the same current as just one
LED.
All the LEDs connected in series pass the same current so it

is best if they are all the same type. The power supply must
have sufficient voltage to provide about 2V for each LED (4V
for blue and white) plus at least another 2V for the resistor. To
work out a value for the resistor you must add up all the LED
voltages and use this for VL.
Example calculations:
A red, a yellow and a green LED in series need a supply voltage of at least
3 × 2V + 2V = 8V, so a 9V battery would be ideal.
VL = 2V + 2V + 2V = 6V (the three LED voltages added up).
If the supply voltage VS is 9V and the current I must be 15mA = 0.015A,
Resistor R = (VS - VL) / I = (9 - 6) / 0.015 = 3 / 0.015 = 200 ,
so choose R = 220 (the nearest standard value which is greater).
Avoid connecting LEDs in parallel!
Connecting several LEDs in parallel with just one resistor shared between
them is generally not a good idea.
If the LEDs require slightly different voltages only the lowest voltage LED
will light and it may be destroyed by the larger current flowing through it.
Although identical LEDs can be successfully connected in parallel with one
resistor this rarely offers any useful benefit because resistors are very
cheap and the current used is the same as connecting the LEDs
individually. If LEDs are in parallel each one should have its own resistor.
Reading a table of technical data for LEDs
Page 48 of 77
Suppliers' catalogues usually include tables of technical data for components such as
LEDs. These tables contain a good deal of useful information in a compact form but they
can be difficult to understand if you are not familiar with the abbreviations used.
The table below shows typical technical data for some 5mm diameter round LEDs with
diffused packages (plastic bodies). Only three columns are important and these are shown
in bold. Please see below for explanations of the quantities.
IF VF VF VR Luminous Viewing
Type Colour Wavelength
max. typ. max. max. intensity angle
Standard Red 30mA 1.7V 2.1V 5V 5mcd @ 10mA 60° 660nm
Bright
Standard 30mA 2.0V 2.5V 5V 80mcd @ 10mA 60° 625nm
red
Standard Yellow 30mA 2.1V 2.5V 5V 32mcd @ 10mA 60° 590nm
Standard Green 25mA 2.2V 2.5V 5V 32mcd @ 10mA 60° 565nm
High
Blue 30mA 4.5V 5.5V 5V 60mcd @ 20mA 50° 430nm
intensity
500mcd @
Super bright Red 30mA 1.85V 2.5V 5V 60° 660nm
20mA
Low current Red 30mA 1.7V 2.0V 5V 5mcd @ 2mA 60° 625nm
IF max. Maximum forward current, forward just means with the LED connected
correctly.
VF typ. Typical forward voltage, VL in the LED resistor calculation.
This is about 2V, except for blue and white LEDs for which it is about
4V.
VF max. Maximum forward voltage.
VR max. Maximum reverse voltage
You can ignore this for LEDs connected the correct way round.
Luminous Brightness of the LED at the given current, mcd = millicandela.
intensity
Viewing angle Standard LEDs have a viewing angle of 60°, others e mit a narrower
beam of about 30°.
Wavelength The peak wavelength of the light emitted, this determines the colour of
the LED.
nm = nanometre.
Flashing LEDs
Flashing LEDs look like ordinary LEDs but they contain an integrated circuit (IC) as well as
the LED itself. The IC flashes the LED at a low frequency, typically 3Hz (3 flashes per
second). They are designed to be connected directly to a supply, usually 9 - 12V, and no
series resistor is required. Their flash frequency is fixed so their use is limited and you may
prefer to build your own circuit to flash an ordinary LED, for example our Flashing LED
project which uses a 555 astable circuit.
Page 49 of 77
LED Displays
LED displays are packages of many LEDs arranged in a pattern, the most familiar pattern
being the 7-segment displays for showing numbers (digits 0-9). The pictures below
illustrate some of the popular designs:
Bargraph 7-segment Starburst Dot matrix

Pin connections of LED displays
There are many types of LED display and a supplier's

catalogue should be consulted for the pin connections.
The diagram on the right shows an example from the
Rapid Electronics catalogue. Like many 7-segment
displays, this example is available in two versions:
Common Anode (SA) with all the LED anodes connected
together and Common Cathode (SC) with all the
cathodes connected together. Letters a-g refer to the 7
segments, A/C is the common anode or cathode as
appropriate (on 2 pins). Note that some pins are not Pin connections diagram
present (NP) but their position is still numbered. © Rapid Electronics
Relays
Circuit symbol for a relay
Relays
Page 50 of 77
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current
flowing through the coil of the relay creates a magnetic
field which attracts a lever and changes the switch
contacts. The coil current can be on or off so relays have
two switch positions and they are double throw
(changeover) switches.
Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit which

can be completely separate from the first. For example a
low voltage battery circuit can use a relay to switch a
230V AC mains circuit. There is no electrical connection
inside the relay between the two circuits, the link is
magnetic and mechanical.
Relay showing coil and switch contacts
The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current,
typically 30mA for a 12V relay, but it can be as much as 100mA for relays designed to
operate from lower voltages. Most ICs (chips) cannot provide this current and a transistor is
usually used to amplify the small IC current to the larger value required for the relay coil.
The maximum output current for the popular 555 timer IC is 200mA so these devices can
supply relay coils directly without amplification.
Relays are usuallly SPDT or DPDT but they can have many more sets of switch contacts,
for example relays with 4 sets of changeover contacts are readily available. For further
information about switch contacts and the terms used to describe them please see the
page on switches.
Most relays are designed for PCB mounting but you can solder wires directly to the pins
providing you take care to avoid melting the plastic case of the relay.
The supplier's catalogue should show you the relay's connections. The coil will be obvious
and it may be connected either way round. Relay coils produce brief high voltage 'spikes'
when they are switched off and this can destroy transistors and ICs in the circuit. To
prevent damage you must connect a protection diode across the relay coil.
The animated picture shows a working relay with its coil and switch contacts. You can see
a lever on the left being attracted by magnetism when the coil is switched on. This lever
moves the switch contacts. There is one set of contacts (SPDT) in the foreground and
another behind them, making the relay DPDT.
The relay's switch connections are usually labelled COM, NC and NO:
• COM = Common, always connect to this, it is the moving part of the switch.
• NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is off.
• NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is on.
• Connect to COM and NO if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay coil is on.
• Connect to COM and NC if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay coil is off.
Choosing a relay
You need to consider several features when choosing a relay:

Page 51 of 77
1. Physical size and pin arrangement
If you are choosing a relay for an existing PCB you will need to ensure that its
dimensions and pin arrangement are suitable. You should find this information in the
supplier's catalogue.
2. Coil voltage
The relay's coil voltage rating and resistance must suit the circuit powering the relay
coil. Many relays have a coil rated for a 12V supply but 5V and 24V relays are also
readily available. Some relays operate perfectly well with a supply voltage which is a
little lower than their rated value.
3. Coil resistance
The circuit must be able to supply the current required by the relay coil. You can use
Ohm's law to calculate the current:
supply voltage
Relay coil current =
coil resistance
4. For example: A 12V supply relay with a coil resistance of 400 passes a current of
30mA. This is OK for a 555 timer IC (maximum output current 200mA), but it is too
much for most ICs and they will require a transistor to amplify the current.
5. Switch ratings (voltage and current)
The relay's switch contacts must be suitable for the circuit they are to control. You
will need to check the voltage and current ratings. Note that the voltage rating is
usually higher for AC, for example: "5A at 24V DC or 125V AC".
6. Switch contact arrangement (SPDT, DPDT etc)
Most relays are SPDT or DPDT which are often described as "single pole
changeover" (SPCO) or "double pole changeover" (DPCO). For further information
please see the page on switches.
Protection diodes for relays
Transistors and ICs (chips) must be protected from the

brief high voltage 'spike' produced when the relay coil is
switched off. The diagram shows how a signal diode (eg
1N4148) is connected across the relay coil to provide
this protection. Note that the diode is connected
'backwards' so that it will normally not conduct.
Conduction only occurs when the relay coil is switched
off, at this moment current tries to continue flowing
through the coil and it is harmlessly diverted through the
diode. Without the diode no current could flow and the
coil would produce a damaging high voltage 'spike' in its attempt to keep the current
flowing.
Reed relays
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Reed relays consist of a coil surrounding a reed switch. Reed
switches are normally operated with a magnet, but in a reed
relay current flows through the coil to create a magnetic field
and close the reed switch.
Reed relays generally have higher coil resistances than

standard relays (1000 for example) and a wide range of
supply voltages (9-20V for example). They are capable of Reed Relay
switching much more rapidly than standard relays, up to
several hundred times per second; but they can only switch low Photograph © Rapid Electronics
currents (500mA maximum for example).
The reed relay shown in the photograph will plug into a standard 14-pin DIL socket ('chip
holder').
For further information about reed switches please see the page on switches.
Relays and transistors compared
Like relays, transistors can be used as an electrically operated switch. For switching small
DC currents (< 1A) at low voltage they are usually a better choice than a relay. However
transistors cannot switch AC or high voltages (such as mains electricity) and they are not
usually a good choice for switching large currents (> 5A). In these cases a relay will be
needed, but note that a low power transistor may still be needed to switch the current for
the relay's coil! The main advantages and disadvantages of relays are listed below:
Advantages of relays:
• Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC.
• Relays can switch high voltages, transistors cannot.
• Relays are a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A).
• Relays can switch many contacts at once.
Disadvantages of relays:
• Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents.

• Relays cannot switch rapidly (except reed relays), transistors can switch many times per second.
• Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their coil.
• Relays require more current than many chips can provide, so a low power transistor may be
needed to switch the current for the relay's coil.
Resistors
Function
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Resistors restrict the flow of electric current, for example a resistor is placed in series with a
light-emitting diode (LED) to limit the current passing through the LED.
Resistors may be connected either way round. They are not damaged by heat when
soldering.
Resistor values - the resistor colour code The Resistor

Colour Code
Resistance is measured in ohms, the symbol for ohm is an omega .
1 is quite small so resistor values are often given in k and M . Colour Number
1 k = 1000 1 M = 1000000 . Black 0
Brown 1
Resistor values are normally shown using coloured bands.
Each colour represents a number as shown in the table. Red 2
Orange 3
Most resistors have 4 bands:
Yellow 4
• The first band gives the first digit. Green 5
• The second band gives the second digit.
• The third band indicates the number of zeros. Blue 6
• The fourth band is used to shows the tolerance (precision) of the Violet 7
resistor, this may be ignored for almost all circuits but further
Grey 8
details are given below.
White 9
This resistor has red (2), violet (7), yellow (4 zeros) and gold bands.
So its value is 270000 = 270 k .
On circuit diagrams the is usually omitted and the value is written 270K.
Find out how to make your own Resistor Colour Code Calculator
Small value resistors (less than 10 ohm)
The standard colour code cannot show values of less than 10 . To show these small
values two special colours are used for the third band: gold which means × 0.1 and silver
which means × 0.01. The first and second bands represent the digits as normal.
For example:
red, violet, gold bands represent 27 × 0.1 = 2.7
green, blue, silver bands represent 56 × 0.01 = 0.56
Tolerance of resistors (fourth band of colour code)
The tolerance of a resistor is shown by the fourth band of the colour code. Tolerance is
the precision of the resistor and it is given as a percentage. For example a 390 resistor
with a tolerance of ±10% will have a value within 10% of 390 , between 390 - 39 = 351
and 390 + 39 = 429 (39 is 10% of 390).
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A special colour code is used for the fourth band tolerance:
silver ±10%, gold ±5%, red ±2%, brown ±1%.
If no fourth band is shown the tolerance is ±20%.
Tolerance may be ignored for almost all circuits because precise resistor values are rarely
required.
Resistor shorthand
Resistor values are often written on circuit diagrams using a code system which avoids
using a decimal point because it is easy to miss the small dot. Instead the letters R, K and
M are used in place of the decimal point. To read the code: replace the letter with a decimal
point, then multiply the value by 1000 if the letter was K, or 1000000 if the letter was M. The
letter R means multiply by 1.
For example:
560R means 560

2K7 means 2.7 k = 2700
39K means 39 k
1M0 means 1.0 M = 1000 k
Real resistor values (the E6 and E12 series)
You may have noticed that resistors are not available with every possible value, for
example 22k and 47k are readily available, but 25k and 50k are not!
Why is this? Imagine that you decided to make resistors every 10 giving 10, 20, 30, 40,
50 and so on. That seems fine, but what happens when you reach 1000? It would be
pointless to make 1000, 1010, 1020, 1030 and so on because for these values 10 is a very
small difference, too small to be noticeable in most circuits. In fact it would be difficult to
make resistors sufficiently accurate.
To produce a sensible range of resistor values you need to increase the size of the 'step' as
the value increases. The standard resistor values are based on this idea and they form a
series which follows the same pattern for every multiple of ten.
The E6 series (6 values for each multiple of ten, for resistors with 20% tolerance)
10, 15, 22, 33, 47, 68, ... then it continues 100, 150, 220, 330, 470, 680, 1000 etc.
Notice how the step size increases as the value increases. For this series the step (to the
next value) is roughly half the value.
The E12 series (12 values for each multiple of ten, for resistors with 10% tolerance)
10, 12, 15, 18, 22, 27, 33, 39, 47, 56, 68, 82, ... then it continues 100, 120, 150 etc.
Notice how this is the E6 series with an extra value in the gaps.
The E12 series is the one most frequently used for resistors. It allows you to choose a
value within 10% of the precise value you need. This is sufficiently accurate for almost all
projects and it is sensible because most resistors are only accurate to ±10% (called their
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'tolerance'). For example a resistor marked 390 could vary by ±10% × 390 = ±39 , so it
could be any value between 351 and 429 .
Resistors in Series and Parallel
For information on resistors connected in series and parallel please see the Resistance
page,
Power Ratings of Resistors
Electrical energy is converted to heat when current flows

through a resistor. Usually the effect is negligible, but if the
resistance is low (or the voltage across the resistor high) a
large current may pass making the resistor become noticeably
warm. The resistor must be able to withstand the heating
effect and resistors have power ratings to show this.
Power ratings of resistors are rarely quoted in parts lists

because for most circuits the standard power ratings of 0.25W
or 0.5W are suitable. For the rare cases where a higher power
is required it should be clearly specified in the parts list, these
will be circuits using low value resistors (less than about
300 ) or high voltages (more than 15V).
High power resistors
The power, P, developed in a resistor is given by: (5W top, 25W bottom)
P = I² × R where: P = power developed in the resistor in watts (W)

or I = current through the resistor in amps (A)
P = V² / R R = resistance of the resistor in ohms ( )
V = voltage across the resistor in volts (V)
Examples:
• A 470 resistor with 10V across it, needs a power rating P = V²/R = 10²/470 =
0.21W.
In this case a standard 0.25W resistor would be suitable.
• A 27 resistor with 10V across it, needs a power rating P = V²/R = 10²/27 = 3.7W.
A high power resistor with a rating of 5W would be suitable.
Resistor Colour Code Calculator

The Resistor
Colour Code
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Colour Number
Black 0
Brown 1
Red 2
Orange 3
Yellow 4
Green 5
Blue 6
Violet 7
Grey 8
White 9
The Resistor Colour Code Calculator can be used to identify resistors. It consists of three
card discs showing the colours and values, these are fastened together so you can simply
turn the discs to select the value or colour code required. Simple but effective!
There are two versions to download and print on A4 white card (two per sheet):
• Coloured (for a colour printer)

• Black and White (for a black only printer)
This version must be coloured manually, it is easiest to do this before cutting out.
To make the calculator, carefully cut out the three discs and fasten them together with a
small brass paper fastener.
The calculator design is copyright but it may be freely copied for educational purposes.
Switches
Selecting a Switch
Circuit symbol for a
There are three important features to consider when selecting a switch: simple on-off switch
• Contacts (e.g. single pole, double throw)

• Ratings (maximum voltage and current)
• Method of Operation (toggle, slide, key etc.)
Switch Contacts
Several terms are used to describe switch contacts:
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• Pole - number of switch contact sets.
• Throw - number of conducting positions, single or double.
• Way - number of conducting positions, three or more.
• Momentary - switch returns to its normal position when released.
• Open - off position, contacts not conducting.
• Closed - on position, contacts conducting, there may be several on positions.
For example: the simplest on-off switch has one set of contacts (single pole) and one
switching position which conducts (single throw). The switch mechanism has two positions:
open (off) and closed (on), but it is called 'single throw' because only one position conducts.
Switch Contact Ratings
Switch contacts are rated with a maximum voltage and current, and there may be different
ratings for AC and DC. The AC values are higher because the current falls to zero many
times each second and an arc is less likely to form across the switch contacts.
For low voltage electronics projects the voltage rating will not matter, but you may need to
check the current rating. The maximum current is less for inductive loads (coils and motors)
because they cause more sparking at the contacts when switched off.
Standard Switches
Type of Switch Circuit Symbol Example

ON-OFF
Single Pole, Single Throw = SPST
A simple on-off switch. This type can be

used to switch the power supply to a circuit.
When used with mains electricity this type of

switch must be in the live wire, but it is
better to use a DPST switch to isolate both
live and neutral. SPST toggle switch
(ON)-OFF
Push-to-make = SPST Momentary
A push-to-make switch returns to its Push-to-make switch
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normally open (off) position when you
release the button, this is shown by the
brackets around ON. This is the standard
doorbell switch.
ON-(OFF)
Push-to-break = SPST Momentary
A push-to-break switch returns to its

normally closed (on) position when you
release the button. Push-to-break switch
ON-ON
Single Pole, Double Throw = SPDT
This switch can be on in both positions,

switching on a separate device in each
case. It is often called a changeover
switch. For example, a SPDT switch can be
used to switch on a red lamp in one position SPDT toggle switch
and a green lamp in the other position.
A SPDT toggle switch may be used as a simple on-

off switch by connecting to COM and one of the A or
B terminals shown in the diagram. A and B are
interchangeable so switches are usually not labelled.
ON-OFF-ON SPDT slide switch

SPDT Centre Off (PCB mounting)
A special version of the standard SPDT
switch. It has a third switching position in the
centre which is off. Momentary (ON)-OFF-
(ON) versions are also available where the
switch returns to the central off position
when released.
Photographs © Rapid Electronics SPDT rocker switch
Dual ON-OFF
Double Pole, Single Throw = DPST
A pair of on-off switches which operate

together (shown by the dotted line in the
circuit symbol).
A DPST switch is often used to switch mains

electricity because it can isolate both the live
and neutral connections. DPST rocker switch
Page 59 of 77
Dual ON-ON
Double Pole, Double Throw = DPDT
A pair of on-on switches which operate

together (shown by the dotted line in the
circuit symbol).
A DPDT switch can be wired up as a

reversing switch for a motor as shown in
the diagram.
DPDT slide switch
ON-OFF-ON
DPDT Centre Off
A special version of the standard SPDT
switch. It has a third switching position in the
centre which is off. This can be very useful
for motor control because you have forward,
off and reverse positions. Momentary (ON)-
OFF-(ON) versions are also available where Wiring for Reversing Switch
the switch returns to the central off position
when released.

Gallery CD-ROM.
Special Switches
Type of Switch Example

Push-Push Switch (e.g. SPST = ON-OFF)
This looks like a momentary action push switch but it is a

standard on-off switch: push once to switch on, push again to
switch off. This is called a latching action.
Microswitch (usually SPDT = ON-ON)
Microswitches are designed to switch fully open or closed in

response to small movements. They are available with levers
and rollers attached.
Page 60 of 77
Keyswitch
A key operated switch. The example shown is SPST.
Tilt Switch (SPST)
Tilt switches contain a conductive liquid and when tilted this

bridges the contacts inside, closing the switch. They can be
used as a sensor to detect the position of an object. Some tilt
switches contain mercury which is poisonous.
Reed Switch (usually SPST)
The contacts of a reed switch are closed by bringing a small

magnet near the switch. They are used in security circuits, for
example to check that doors are closed. Standard reed
switches are SPST (simple on-off) but SPDT (changeover)
versions are also available.
Warning: reed switches have a glass body which is easily

broken! For advice on handling please see the
Electronics in Meccano website.
DIP Switch (DIP = Dual In-line Parallel)
This is a set of miniature SPST on-off switches, the example

shown has 8 switches. The package is the same size as a
standard DIL (Dual In-Line) integrated circuit.
This type of switch is used to set up circuits, e.g. setting the

code of a remote control.
Multi-pole Switch
The picture shows a 6-pole double throw switch, also known

as a 6-pole changeover switch. It can be set to have
momentary or latching action. Latching action means it
behaves as a push-push switch, push once for the first
position, push again for the second position etc.
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Multi-way Switch
Multi-way switches have 3 or more conducting positions. They

may have several poles (contact sets). A popular type has a
rotary action and it is available with a range of contact
arrangements from 1-pole 12-way to 4-pole 3 way.
Multi-way rotary switch
The number of ways (switch positions) may be reduced by adjusting a stop
under the fixing nut. For example if you need a 2-pole 5-way switch you
can buy the 2-pole 6-way version and adjust the stop.
Contrast this multi-way switch (many switch positions) with the multi-pole
switch (many contact sets) described above.
Photograph © Rapid Electronics 1-pole 4-way switch symbol

Gallery CD-ROM.
Transistors
Function
Transistors amplify current, for example they can be used to amplify the
small output current from a logic chip so that it can operate a lamp, relay or
other high current device. In many circuits a resistor is used to convert the
changing current to a changing voltage, so the transistor is being used to
amplify voltage.
A transistor may be used as a switch (either fully on with maximum current, or fully off with
no current) and as an amplifier (always partly on).
The amount of current amplification is called the current gain, symbol hFE.
For further information please see the Transistor Circuits page.
Types of transistor
There are two types of standard transistors, NPN and PNP, with
different circuit symbols. The letters refer to the layers of
semiconductor material used to make the transistor. Most
transistors used today are NPN because this is the easiest type
to make from silicon. If you are new to electronics it is best to
start by learning how to use NPN transistors.
Transistor circuit symbols
The leads are labelled base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E).
These terms refer to the internal operation of a transistor but they are not much help in understanding how a
transistor is used, so just treat them as labels!
Page 62 of 77
A Darlington pair is two transistors connected together to give a very high current gain.
In addition to standard (bipolar junction) transistors, there are field-effect transistors

which are usually referred to as FETs. They have different circuit symbols and properties
and they are not (yet) covered by this page.
Connecting
Transistors have three leads which must be

connected the correct way round. Please take
care with this because a wrongly connected
transistor may be damaged instantly when you
switch on.
If you are lucky the orientation of the transistor

will be clear from the PCB or stripboard layout
diagram, otherwise you will need to refer to a
supplier's catalogue to identify the leads.
The drawings on the right show the leads for

some of the most common case styles.
Please note that transistor lead diagrams show

the view from below with the leads towards
you. This is the opposite of IC (chip) pin Transistor leads for some common case styles.
diagrams which show the view from above.
Please see below for a table showing the case styles of some common transistors.
Soldering
Transistors can be damaged by heat when soldering so if you

are not an expert it is wise to use a heat sink clipped to the
lead between the joint and the transistor body. A standard
crocodile clip can be used as a heat sink. Crocodile clip
Photograph © Rapid Electronics.
Do not confuse this temporary heat sink with the permanent heat sink
(described below) which may be required for a power transistor to prevent it overheating during operation.
Heat sinks
Waste heat is produced in transistors due to the current flowing

through them. Heat sinks are needed for power transistors
because they pass large currents. If you find that a transistor is
becoming too hot to touch it certainly needs a heat sink! The Heat sink
heat sink helps to dissipate (remove) the heat by transferring it
to the surrounding air. Photograph © Rapid Electronics
For further information please see the Heat sinks page.
Page 63 of 77
Testing a transistor
Transistors can be damaged by heat when soldering or by misuse in a circuit. If you

suspect that a transistor may be damaged there are two
easy ways to test it:
1. Testing with a multimeter
Use a multimeter or a simple tester (battery, resistor and

LED) to check each pair of leads for conduction. Set a
digital multimeter to diode test and an analogue
multimeter to a low resistance range.
Test each pair of leads both ways (six tests in total):
• The base-emitter (BE) junction should behave

like a diode and conduct one way only. Testing an NPN transistor
• The base-collector (BC) junction should behave
like a diode and conduct one way only.
• The collector-emitter (CE) should not conduct either way.
The diagram shows how the junctions behave in an NPN transistor. The diodes are
reversed in a PNP transistor but the same test procedure can be used.
2. Testing in a simple switching circuit
Connect the transistor into the circuit shown on the right

which uses the transistor as a switch. The supply voltage is
not critical, anything between 5 and 12V is suitable. This
circuit can be quickly built on breadboard for example. Take
care to include the 10k resistor in the base connection or
you will destroy the transistor as you test it!
If the transistor is OK the LED should light when the switch

is pressed and not light when the switch is released.
To test a PNP transistor use the same circuit but reverse the
LED and the supply voltage. A simple switching circuit
to test an NPN transistor
Some multimeters have a 'transistor test' function which
provides a known base current and measures the collector current so as to display the
transistor's DC current gain hFE.
Transistor codes
There are three main series of transistor codes used in the UK:
• Codes beginning with B (or A), for example BC108, BC478

The first letter B is for silicon, A is for germanium (rarely used now). The second letter indicates the
Page 64 of 77
type; for example C means low power audio frequency; D means high power audio frequency; F
means low power high frequency. The rest of the code identifies the particular transistor. There is no
obvious logic to the numbering system. Sometimes a letter is added to the end (eg BC108C) to
identify a special version of the main type, for example a higher current gain or a different case style.
If a project specifies a higher gain version (BC108C) it must be used, but if the general code is given
(BC108) any transistor with that code is suitable.
• Codes beginning with TIP, for example TIP31A
TIP refers to the manufacturer: Texas Instruments Power transistor. The letter at the end identifies
versions with different voltage ratings.
• Codes beginning with 2N, for example 2N3053
The initial '2N' identifies the part as a transistor and the rest of the code identifies the particular
transistor. There is no obvious logic to the numbering system.
Choosing a transistor
Most projects will specify a particular transistor, but if necessary you can usually substitute
an equivalent transistor from the wide range available. The most important properties to
look for are the maximum collector current IC and the current gain hFE. To make selection
easier most suppliers group their transistors in categories determined either by their typical
use or maximum power rating.
To make a final choice you will need to consult the tables of technical data which are
normally provided in catalogues. They contain a great deal of useful information but they
can be difficult to understand if you are not familiar with the abbreviations used. The table
below shows the most important technical data for some popular transistors, tables in
catalogues and reference books will usually show additional information but this is unlikely
to be useful unless you are experienced. The quantities shown in the table are explained
below.
NPN transistors
Case IC VCE hFE Ptot Category Possible
Code Structure
style max. max. min. max. (typical use) substitutes
BC107 NPN TO18 100mA 45V 110 300mW Audio, low power BC182 BC547
General
BC108C BC183
BC108 NPN TO18 100mA 20V 110 300mW purpose, low
BC548
power
General
BC108C NPN TO18 100mA 20V 420 600mW purpose, low
power
Audio (low
BC109 NPN TO18 200mA 20V 200 300mW noise), low BC184 BC549
power
General
BC182 NPN TO92C 100mA 50V 100 350mW purpose, low BC107 BC182L
power
General
BC182L NPN TO92A 100mA 50V 100 350mW purpose, low BC107 BC182
power
BC547B NPN TO92C 100mA 45V 200 500mW Audio, low power BC107B
General
BC548B NPN TO92C 100mA 30V 220 500mW purpose, low BC108B
power
Page 65 of 77
Audio (low
BC549B NPN TO92C 100mA 30V 240 625mW noise), low BC109
power
General
2N3053 NPN TO39 700mA 40V 50 500mW purpose, low BFY51
power
General
BFY51 NPN TO39 1A 30V 40 800mW purpose, BC639
medium power
General
BC639 NPN TO92A 1A 80V 40 800mW purpose, BFY51
medium power
General
TIP29A NPN TO220 1A 60V 40 30W purpose, high
power
General
TIP31A NPN TO220 3A 60V 10 40W purpose, high TIP31C TIP41A
power
General
TIP31C NPN TO220 3A 100V 10 40W purpose, high TIP31A TIP41A
power
General
TIP41A NPN TO220 6A 60V 15 65W purpose, high
power
General
2N3055 NPN TO3 15A 60V 20 117W purpose, high
power
Please note: the data in this table was compiled from several sources which are not entirely consistent! Most
of the discrepancies are minor, but please consult information from your supplier if you require precise data.
PNP transistors
Case IC VCE hFE Ptot Category Possible
Code Structure
style max. max. min. max. (typical use) substitutes
BC177 PNP TO18 100mA 45V 125 300mW Audio, low power BC477
General
BC178 PNP TO18 200mA 25V 120 600mW purpose, low BC478
power
Audio (low
BC179 PNP TO18 200mA 20V 180 600mW noise), low
power
BC477 PNP TO18 150mA 80V 125 360mW Audio, low power BC177
General
BC478 PNP TO18 150mA 40V 125 360mW purpose, low BC178
power
General
TIP32A PNP TO220 3A 60V 25 40W purpose, high TIP32C
power
General
TIP32C PNP TO220 3A 100V 10 40W purpose, high TIP32A
power
Please note: the data in this table was compiled from several sources which are not entirely consistent! Most
of the discrepancies are minor, but please consult information from your supplier if you require precise data.
Structure This shows the type of transistor, NPN or PNP. The polarities of the
two types are different, so if you are looking for a substitute it must
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be the same type.
Case style There is a diagram showing the leads for some of the most
common case styles in the Connecting section above. This
information is also available in suppliers' catalogues.
IC max. Maximum collector current.
VCE max. Maximum voltage across the collector-emitter junction.
You can ignore this rating in low voltage circuits.
hFE This is the current gain (strictly the DC current gain). The
guaranteed minimum value is given because the actual value varies
from transistor to transistor - even for those of the same type! Note
that current gain is just a number so it has no units.
The gain is often quoted at a particular collector current IC which is usually in the
middle of the transistor's range, for example '100@20mA' means the gain is at
least 100 at 20mA. Sometimes minimum and maximum values are given. Since
the gain is roughly constant for various currents but it varies from transistor to
transistor this detail is only really of interest to experts.
Why hFE? It is one of a whole series of parameters for transistors, each with their
own symbol. There are too many to explain here.
Ptot max. Maximum total power which can be developed in the transistor,
note that a heat sink will be required to achieve the maximum
rating. This rating is important for transistors operating as
amplifiers, the power is roughly IC × VCE. For transistors operating
as switches the maximum collector current (IC max.) is more
important.
Category This shows the typical use for the transistor, it is a good starting
point when looking for a substitute. Catalogues may have separate
tables for different categories.
Possible substitutes These are transistors with similar electrical properties which will be
suitable substitutes in most circuits. However, they may have a
different case style so you will need to take care when placing them
on the circuit board.
Darlington pair
This is two transistors connected together so that the amplified

current from the first is amplified further by the second transistor.
This gives the Darlington pair a very high current gain such as
10000. Darlington pairs are sold as complete packages containing
the two transistors. They have three leads (B, C and E) which are
equivalent to the leads of a standard individual transistor.
You can make up your own Darlington pair from two transistors.
For example:
Page 67 of 77
• For TR1 use BC548B with hFE1 = 220.
• For TR2 use BC639 with hFE2 = 40.
The overall gain of this pair is hFE1 × hFE2 = 220 × 40 = 8800.

The pair's maximum collector current IC(max) is the same as TR2.
Heat sinks for transistors

Heat sinks are needed for transistors passing large currents.
Why is a heat sink needed?
Waste heat is produced in transistors due to the current

flowing through them. If you find that a transistor is becoming
too hot to touch it certainly needs a heat sink! The heat sink
helps to dissipate (remove) the heat by transferring it to the
surrounding air.
The rate of producing waste heat is called the thermal power, Heat sink
P. The base current IB is too small to contribute much heat, so
the thermal power is determined by the collector current IC and Photograph © Rapid Electronics
the voltage VCE across the transistor:
P = IC × VCE (see diagram below)
Insulation kit
Heat-conducting paste
Page 68 of 77
The heat is not a problem if IC is small or if the
transistor is used as a switch because when 'full on'
VCE is almost zero. However, power transistors used
in circuits such as an audio amplifier or a motor
speed controller will be partly on most of the time
and VCE may be about half the supply voltage.
These power transistors will almost certainly need a Photographs © Rapid Electronics
heat sink to prevent them overheating. Power
transistors usually have bolt holes for attaching heat
sinks, but clip-on heat sinks are also available. Make
sure you use the right type for your transistor.
Many transistors have metal cases which are connected to one of their leads so it may be
necessary to insulate the heat sink from the transistor. Insulating kits are available with a
mica sheet and a plastic sleeve for the bolt. Heat-conducting paste can be used to improve
heat flow from the transistor to the heat sink, this is especially important if an insulation kit
is used.
Heat sink ratings
Heat sinks are rated by their thermal resistance (Rth) in °C/W. For example 2°C/W means
the heat sink (and therefore the component attached to it) will be 2°C hotter than the
surrounding air for every 1W of heat it is dissipating. Note that a lower thermal resistance
means a better heat sink.
This is how you work out the required heat sink rating:
1. Work out thermal power to be dissipated, P = IC × VCE

If in doubt use the largest likely value for IC and assume
that VCE is half the supply voltage.
For example if a power transistor is passing 1A and
connected to a 12V supply, the power P is about
1 × ½ × 12 = 6W.
2. Find the maximum operating temperature (Tmax) for
the transistor if you can, otherwise assume
Tmax = 100°C.
3. Estimate the maximum ambient (surrounding air)
temperature (Tair). If the heat sink is going to be outside the case Tair = 25°C is
reasonable, but inside it will be higher (perhaps 40°C) allowing for everything to
warm up in operation.
4. Work out the maximum thermal resistance (Rth) for the heat sink using:
Rth = (Tmax - Tair) / P
With the example values given above: Rth = (100-25)/6 = 12.5°C/W.
5. Choose a heat sink with a thermal resistance which is less than the value calculated
above (remember lower value means better heat sinking!) for example 5°C/W would
be a sensible choice to allow a safety margin. A 5°C/W heat sink dissipating 6W will
have a temperature difference of 5 × 6 = 30°C so th e transistor temperature will rise
to 25 + 30 = 55°C (safely less than the 100°C maxim um).
6. All the above assumes the transistor is at the same temperature as the heat sink.
This is a reasonable assumption if they are firmly bolted or clipped together.
However, you may have to put a mica sheet or similar between them to provide
electrical insulation, then the transistor will be hotter than the heat sink and the
Page 69 of 77
calculation becomes more difficult. For typical mica sheets you should subtract
2°C/W from the thermal resistance (Rth) value calcu lated in step 4 above.
If this all seems too complex you can try attaching a moderately large heat sink and hope
for the best. Cautiously monitor the transistor temperature with your finger, if it becomes
painfully hot switch off immediately and use a larger heat sink!
Why thermal resistance?
The term 'thermal resistance' is used because it is analagous to electrical resistance:
• The temperature difference across the heat sink (between the transistor and air) is
like voltage (potential difference) across a resistor.
• The thermal power (rate of heat) flowing through the heat sink from transistor to air
is like current flowing through a resistor.
• So R = V/I becomes Rth = (Tmax - Tair)/P
• Just as you need a voltage difference to make current flow, you need a temperature
difference to make heat flow.
Page 70 of 77
Variable Resistors
Construction
Variable resistors consist of a resistance track with

connections at both ends and a wiper which moves along the
track as you turn the spindle. The track may be made from
carbon, cermet (ceramic and metal mixture) or a coil of wire
(for low resistances). The track is usually rotary but straight
track versions, usually called sliders, are also available.
Variable resistors may be used as a rheostat with two

connections (the wiper and just one end of the track) or as a
potentiometer with all three connections in use. Miniature
versions called presets are made for setting up circuits which
will not require further adjustment.
Variable resistors are often called potentiometers in books

and catalogues. They are specified by their maximum
resistance, linear or logarithmic track, and their physical size. Standard Variable Resistor
The standard spindle diameter is 6mm. Photograph © Rapid Electronics
The resistance and type of track are marked on the body:

4K7 LIN means 4.7 k linear track.
1M LOG means 1 M logarithmic track.
Some variable resistors are designed to be mounted directly on the circuit board, but most
are for mounting through a hole drilled in the case containing the circuit with stranded wire
connecting their terminals to the circuit board.
Linear (LIN) and Logarithmic (LOG) tracks
Linear (LIN) track means that the resistance changes at a constant rate as you move the
wiper. This is the standard arrangement and you should assume this type is required if a
project does not specify the type of track. Presets always have linear tracks.
Logarithmic (LOG) track means that the resistance changes slowly at one end of the track
and rapidly at the other end, so halfway along the track is not half the total resistance! This
arrangement is used for volume (loudness) controls because the human ear has a
logarithmic response to loudness so fine control (slow change) is required at low volumes
and coarser control (rapid change) at high volumes. It is important to connect the ends of
the track the correct way round, if you find that turning the spindle increases the volume
rapidly followed by little further change you should swop the connections to the ends of the
track.
Page 71 of 77
Rheostat
This is the simplest way of using a variable resistor. Two

terminals are used: one connected to an end of the track, the
other to the moveable wiper. Turning the spindle changes the
resistance between the two terminals from zero up to the Rheostat Symbol
maximum resistance.
Rheostats are often used to vary current, for example to control

the brightness of a lamp or the rate at which a capacitor charges.
If the rheostat is mounted on a printed circuit board you may find that all three terminals are connected!
However, one of them will be linked to the wiper terminal. This improves the mechanical strength of the
mounting but it serves no function electrically.
Potentiometer
Variable resistors used as potentiometers have all three

terminals connected.
This arrangement is normally used to vary voltage, for example Potentiometer Symbol
to set the switching point of a circuit with a sensor, or control the
volume (loudness) in an amplifier circuit. If the terminals at the ends of the track are
connected across the power supply then the wiper terminal will provide a voltage which can
be varied from zero up to the maximum of the supply.
Presets
These are miniature versions of the standard variable resistor.

They are designed to be mounted directly onto the circuit board
and adjusted only when the circuit is built. For example to set the
frequency of an alarm tone or the sensitivity of a light-sensitive Preset Symbol
circuit. A small screwdriver or similar tool is required to adjust
presets.
Presets are much cheaper than standard variable resistors so they are sometimes used in
projects where a standard variable resistor would normally be used.
Page 72 of 77
Multiturn presets are used where very precise adjustments must be made. The screw
must be turned many times (10+) to move the slider from one end of the track to the other,
giving very fine control.
Preset Presets Multiturn preset

(open style) (closed style)
Other Components
Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
An LDR is an input transducer (sensor) which converts

brightness (light) to resistance. It is made from cadmium
sulphide (CdS) and the resistance decreases as the brightness
of light falling on the LDR increases.
A multimeter can be used to find the resistance in darkness

and bright light, these are the typical results for a standard
LDR:
• Darkness: maximum resistance, about 1M . Photograph © Rapid Electronics

• Very bright light: minimum resistance, about 100 .
For many years the standard LDR has been the ORP12, now
the NORPS12, which is about 13mm diameter. Miniature LDRs
are also available and their diameter is about 5mm.
circuit symbol
An LDR may be connected either way round and no special
precautions are required when soldering.
Thermistor
Page 73 of 77
A thermistor is an input transducer (sensor) which converts
temperature (heat) to resistance. Almost all thermistors have a
negative temperature coefficient (NTC) which means their
resistance decreases as their temperature increases. It is
possible to make thermistors with a positive temperature
coefficient (resistance increases as temperature increases) but
these are rarely used. Always assume NTC if no information is
given.
A multimeter can be used to find the resistance at various

temperatures, these are some typical readings for example:
• Icy water 0°C : high resistance, about 12k .

• Room temperature 25°C : medium resistance, about
5k . Photograph © Rapid Electronics
• Boiling water 100°C : low resistance, about 400 .
Suppliers usually specify thermistors by their resistance at

25°C (room temperature). Thermistors take several s econds to
circuit symbol
respond to a sudden temperature change, small thermistors
respond more rapidly.
A thermistor may be connected either way round and no special precautions are required
when soldering. If it is going to be immersed in water the thermistor and its connections
should be insulated because water is a weak conductor; for example they could be coated
with polyurethane varnish.
Piezo transducer
Piezo transducers are output transducers which convert an

electrical signal to sound. They require a driver circuit (such as
a 555 astable) to provide a signal and if this is near their natural
(resonant) frequency of about 3kHz they will produce a
particularly loud sound.
Piezo transducers require a small current, usually less than Photograph © Rapid Electronics
10mA, so they can be connected directly to the outputs of most
ICs. They are ideal for buzzes and beeps, but are not suitable
for speech or music because they distort the sound. They are
sometimes supplied with red and black leads, but they may be
connected either way round. PCB-mounting versions are also circuit symbol
available.
Piezo transducers can also be used as input transducers for detecting sudden loud
noises or impacts, effectively behaving as a crude microphone.
Page 74 of 77
Loudspeaker
Loudspeakers are output transducers which convert an

electrical signal to sound. Usually they are called
'speakers'. They require a driver circuit, such as a 555
astable or an audio amplifier, to provide a signal. There
is a wide range available, but for many electronics
projects a 300mW miniature loudspeaker is ideal. This
type is about 70mm diameter and it is usually available
with resistances of 8 and 64 . If a project specifies a Photograph © Rapid Electronics
64 speaker you must use this higher resistance to
prevent damage to the driving circuit.
Most circuits used to drive loudspeakers produce an

audio (AC) signal which is combined with a constant DC
signal. The DC will make a large current flow through the
speaker due to its low resistance, possibly damaging
both the speaker and the driving circuit. To prevent this
happening a large value electrolytic capacitor is capacitor in series to block DC
connected in series with the speaker, this blocks DC but
passes audio (AC) signals. See capacitor coupling.
Loudspeakers may be connected either way round

except in stereo circuits when the + and - markings on
their terminals must be observed to ensure the two
speakers are in phase. circuit symbol
Correct polarity must always be observed for large speakers in cabinets because the
cabinet may contain a small circuit (a 'crossover network') which diverts the high frequency
signals to a small speaker (a 'tweeter') because the large main speaker is poor at
reproducing them.
Miniature loudspeakers can also be used as a microphone and they work surprisingly well,
certainly good enough for speech in an intercom system for example.
Buzzer and Bleeper
These devices are output

transducers converting electrical
energy to sound. They contain an
internal oscillator to produce the
sound which is set at about 400Hz
for buzzers and about 3kHz for
bleepers. Buzzer (about 400Hz) Bleeper (about 3kHz)
Buzzers have a voltage rating but it
is only approximate, for example
6V and 12V buzzers can be used
with a 9V supply. Their typical circuit symbol
current is about 25mA.
Page 75 of 77
Bleepers have wide voltage ranges, such as 3-30V, and they pass a low current of about
10mA.
Buzzers and bleepers must be connected the right way round, their red lead is positive (+).
Inductor (coil)
An inductor is a coil of wire which may have a core of air, iron

or ferrite (a brittle material made from iron). Its electrical Inductor (miniature)
property is called inductance and the unit for this is the henry,
symbol H. 1H is very large so mH and µH are used,
1000µH = 1mH and 1000mH = 1H. Iron and ferrite cores
increase the inductance. Inductors are mainly used in tuned
circuits and to block high frequency AC signals (they are
sometimes called chokes). They pass DC easily, but block AC
signals, this is the opposite of capacitors.
Ferrite rod
Inductors are rarely found in simple projects, but one Photographs © Rapid Electronics
exception is the tuning coil of a radio receiver. This is an
inductor which you may have to make yourself by neatly
winding enamelled copper wire around a ferrite rod.
Enamelled copper wire has very thin insulation, allowing the circuit symbol
turns of the coil to be close together, but this makes it
impossible to strip in the usual way - the best method is to gently pull the ends of the wire
through folded emery paper.
Warning: a ferrite rod is brittle so treat it like glass, not iron!
An inductor may be connected either way round and no special precautions are required
when soldering.
Page 76 of 77
The End
This book is compiled by:
Joe KOTRO
InfoSys and Telecommunication Section
Lihir Gold Limited
P.O Box 789
Port Moresby, N.C.D
Papua New Guinea
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Three prefixes (multipliers) are used, µ (micro), n (nano) and p (pico):

• µ means 10-6 (millionth), so 1000000µF = 1F

Polarised capacitors (large values, 1µF +)

Tantalum Bead Capacitors

For example: blue, grey, black spot means 68µF For

Unpolarised capacitors (small values, up to 1µF)

Examples: Circuit symbol:

Sometimes the multiplier is used in place of the decimal point:

Capacitor Number Code

A number code is often used on small capacitors where printing is difficult:

• the 1st number is the 1st digit,

For example: 102 means 1000pF = 1nF (not 102pF!)

For example: 472J means 4700pF = 4.7nF (J means 5% tolerance).

Capacitor Colour Code Colour Code

For example: Yellow 4

wide red, yellow means 220nF = 0.22µF.

Real capacitor values (the E3 and E6 series)

The E3 series (3 values for each multiple of ten)

The E6 series (6 values for each multiple of ten)

Variable capacitors are mostly used in radio tuning circuits and

Many variable capacitors have very short spindles which are

Trimmer capacitors are only available with very small

Connectors and Cables

The standard battery clip fits a 9V PP3 battery and many

Many small electronic projects use a 9V PP3 battery but if

Terminal blocks and PCB terminals

Terminal blocks are usually supplied in 12-way

PCB mounting terminal blocks provide an easy

The 'standard' crocodile clip has no cover and a screw

4mm plugs, sockets and terminals

These are smaller versions of the 4mm plugs and sockets

DC power plugs and sockets

These 2-pole plugs and sockets ensure that the polarity

Jack plugs and sockets

These are intended for audio signals so

Screened plugs have metal bodies

L = left channel signal

Do not use jack plugs for

Phono plugs and sockets

These are used for screened cables carrying

Construction of a screened cable

Coax plugs and sockets

These are similar to the phono plugs and sockets described

These are designed for screened cables carrying

DIN plugs and sockets

Plastic covers of DIN plugs (and line sockets) are removed by

These are multi-pole connectors with provision for screw

Note that covers (middle picture) are usually sold separately

IDC communication connectors

These multi-pole insulation displacement connectors

The 8-way RJ45 is the standard connector for modern

• A cable is an assembly of one or more conductors (wires) with some flexibility.

This is one solid wire with a plastic coating available in a wide

Typical specification: 1/0.6mm (1 strand of 0.6mm diameter), maximum current 1.8A.

Signal cable consists of several colour-coded cores of

Photograph © Rapid Electronics

The diagram shows the construction of screened Screened cable (mono)

Screened cable (stereo)