A PROJECT REPORT ON

“FLEXIBLE AC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM BY

STATIC VARIABLE COMPENSATOR”

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

For the award of the degree
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

IN

____________________________________ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED BY

-------------------- (--------------)

--------------------- (---------------)

--------------------- (---------------)

DEPARTMENT OF _______________________ ENGINEERING

__________COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
AFFILIATED TO ___________ UNIVERSITY

1
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the dissertation work entitled the work done by ‘ .
“FLEXIBLE AC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM BY
STATIC VARIABLE COMPENSATOR”

_______________________________________________ submitted in partial

fulfillment for the award of ‘BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (B.E)’ in
Electronics and Communication Engineering from_______ College of
Engineering affiliated to _________ University , Hyderabad .

________________ ____________
(Head of the department, ECE) (Assistant
Professor)

EXTERNAL EXAMINER

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the successful completion of any task
would be incomplete without the mentioning of the people whose constant guidance and
encouragement made it possible. We take pleasure in presenting before you, our project,
which is result of studied blend of both research and knowledge.

We express our earnest gratitude to our internal guide, Assistant Professor

______________, Department of ECE, our project guide, for his constant support,
encouragement and guidance. We are grateful for his cooperation and his valuable
suggestions.

Finally, we express our gratitude to all other members who are involved either directly or
indirectly for the completion of this project.

3
 DECLARATION

We, the undersigned, declare that the project entitled .

“FLEXIBLE AC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM BY
STATIC VARIABLE COMPENSATOR”

, being submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of Bachelor of Engineering Degree
in Electronics and Communication Engineering, affiliated to _________ University, is
the work carried out by us.

__________ _________ _________

__________ _________ _________

4
 INDEX

CHAPTER 1

1.1INTRODUCTION

1.2PROBLEM STATEMENT

1.3OBJECTIVE

CHAPTER 2

2.1LIETRATURE SURVEY

CHAPTER 3

3.1ABSTRACT

3.2BLOCK DIAGRAM

3.3WORKING

CHAPTER 4

4.1HARDEARE DESCREPTION

4.2SOFTWARE DESCREPTION

CHAPTER 5
5
 5.1ADVANTAGES

5.2DISADVANTAGES

5.3APPLICATION

CHAPTER 6

6.1CONCLUSION

6.2FUTURE SCOPE

CHAPTER 7

7.1 REFERENCE

6
“FLEXIBLE AC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM BY
STATIC VARIABLE COMPENSATOR”

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
PROBLEM STATEMENT

7
1.1INTRODUCTION

The FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission System) is a broad term representing the application of
power electronics based solutions to AC power system. More and more power semiconductor
based devices, called FACTS , with ratings from tens to hundreds of Giga watts, have been
utilized in the power systems to satisfy the function of achieving better power transferability and
enhancing power system controllability with the maturity of manufacturing and development and
application of power electronics technology. FACTS actually is the application of power
electronic equipment, with one or multiple functions, to regulate and control the electrical
parameters that govern the operation of transmission systems including voltage, current,
impedance, phase angle and damping of oscillations .

FACTS controllers can cause rapid changes of the important system parameters mentioned
above. Their presence, therefore, can significantly affect the operation of traditional distance
schemes when either series or shunt connected FACTS devices introduce new dynamic controls
into the power systems. They would inevitably affect the characteristics of a protective relay in a
transmission line to some extent.

Energy efficiency is a topic that has become more and more prominent as demand for electrical
power grows. When inductive loads are introduced to the power system by customers, the
voltage at customers point reduces. This is due to the increased load current caused by an
increase in the amount of reactive power the utility has to supply to the inductive load. This
further increases the systems loss and reduces the efficiency of the power system. To the
customer, this will cause them to pay more for the electricity bill and they may receive penalties
by the utility company if the required reactive power is significant.

This type of problem is typically indicated by the low power factor at the load. A widely used
approach to mitigate this problem is through the use of corrective capacitors. Capacitor is an
electrical component that can supply reactive power, and hence fits well for the reactive power
8
 thirst inductive load. Using a set of capacitance may be sufficient to correct power factor in
predominantly inductively load; however, real world loads vary with time and hence a fixed set
of capacitance can potentially lead to overcompensation.

This in turn will produce an unnecessary boost in voltage which could further damage the loads.
Hence, a better method to improve power factor is needed. In particular, an approach that would
match the reactive power requirement of the load as it changes will be desirable. One known
technique to improve power factor or to compensate for reactive power uses power electronics.
Power electronics deals with the flow control of electricity through switching or power
semiconductors. .

1.3 OBJECTIVE

 In this project to improve power factor of transmission lines using static variable
compensator.
 This proposed system demonstrates power factor compensation using thyristor
switched capacitors
 The time lag between the zero voltage pulse and zero current pulse duly generated by
suitable operational amplifier circuits
 Thereafter program takes over to actuate appropriate number of opto-isolators duly
interfaced to back to back SCRs

9
 CHAPTER 2
LITRATURE SURVEY

10
2.1LITRATURE SURVEY

1) “Voltage Stability Profile Betterment and Reactive Power Quantity Adjustment with the
Assistance of Static VAR” by A Siva Lakshmi, N Aparna, Ch. Pavan kumar in IJARSET Vol. 6,
Special Issue , August 2019. In this paper they discussed about, the impacts of Static VAR
Compensator (SVC) on voltage soundness of a power system. Power systems comprising of
huge number of producing units and interconnected system of transmission lines. The voltage
steadiness is a prime significance in this perplexing force system organizes since the demand for
electric power is expanding enormously. The control of wattles power in the transmission lines
will improve the voltage strength of the power system arrange. This paper shows the structure
and execution of the Static VAR Compensator (SVC) in the transmission lines for receptive
power stream control to better the voltage solidness. The model depends on speaking to the
controller as factor impedance those changes with the terminating edge of the TCR. The
proposed technique distinguishes consequently the suitable number of SVCs required for the
control of receptive power. The point by point recreation study has been done in
MATLAB/Simulink condition.

2) “Comparative Analysis of STATCOM and SVC for Reactive Power Enhancement in A Long
Transmission Line” by Nunna Sushma in IJCSE Vol.- 6, Issue-6, Jun 2018. In this paper they
said that, In recent power system scenario, the main concern is about the maximum power
transfer capability from generating station to the distribution station. But between these, the
transmission system i.e. transmission of power from generating station to distribution grid is the
most vital thing. So in order to have a reliable and quality power transmission FACTS controllers
(Flexible AC Transmission System) are introduced in the transmission system. FACTS are an
emerging technology which motivates towards power quality improvement and increased control
flexibility of power system. Generally FACTS controllers are of series type, shunt type and
combined series-series and combined series-shunt type. In this paper a shunt type controllers i.e.
STATCOM (Static Synchronous Compensator) and a SVC (Static VAR Compensator) have
been considered. Here the variation of voltage and reactive power by the introduction of
11
STATCOM & SCV at middle of long transmission line has been investigated. All these analysis
is carried out by the mat lab simulink models of STATCOM & SVC. This comparison output
revels that STATCOM performs better than SVC in Volt /VAR control.

3) “Mid-Point Siting of FACTS Devices in Transmission Lines” by B.T. Ooi M. Kazerani R.

Marceau. Wolanski F.D. Galiana D. McGillis G. Joos in IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery,
Vol. 12, No. 4, October 1997. In this paper they discussed about, Many controllers of Flexible
AC Transmission Systems (FACTS), such as the STATCOM, the Unified Power Flow
Controller (UPFC), the PWM asynchronous dc link, the Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor
(TCSC) and the PWM Series Static VAR compensator have stabilized ac voltage support. Thus,
they can be sited at the mid-point of the transmission line, which has been proven by the late
E.W. Kimbark, as the optimum location for shunt capacitor compensation. This paper points out
that the ability to double the power transfer of the uncompensated line applies also to the
aforementioned FACTS devices. The mid-point siting also facilitates the independent control of
reactive power at both ends of the transmission line.

4) “Improved Harmony Search Algorithm for Optimal Placement and Sizing of Static Var
Compensators in Power Systems” by Reza Sirjani & Azah Mohamed in 2011 IEEE. In this paper
they said that, Static Var compensator (SVC) is normally used in Power system to improve
voltage profile and reduce system Power losses. In this paper, a relatively new optimization
Technique named as the improved harmony search algorithm (IHS) is applied to determine
optimal location and size of SVC Devices in a transmission network. A multi-criterion objective
Function comprising of both operational objectives and Investment costs is considered. The
results on the 57-bus test System showed that the IHS algorithm give lower power loss And
better voltage improvement compared to the particle Swarm optimization technique in solving
the SVC placement And sizing problem.

5) “Voltage Stability Enhancement by Optimal Placement of UPFC” by M.Kowsalya, K.K.Ray,

Udai Shipurkar and Saranathan in Journal of Electrical Engineering & Technology Vol. 4, No. 3,
pp. 310~314, 2009. In this paper they said that, the improvement of the voltage profiles of power

12
system networks by the inclusion of Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC). The mathematical
model of the UPFC is incorporated in the load flow algorithm and the L-index is calculated for
the different values of the control parameter r and γ. The positioning of the UPFC device is
changed to minimize the sum of the squares of the L-indices at all load buses. The test cases
considered for the improvement of voltage profile with the WSCC 9-bus and IEEE 30 bus
system. With the best position of UPFC along with the control parameters the improvement in
voltage profile of the power system networks are obtained. The results obtained are quite
encouraging compared with other techniques used to identify the best location of UPFC.

13
 CHAPTER 3

SYSTEM DESIGN

14
3.1ABSTRACT
In this project to improve power factor of transmission lines using static variable
compensator. These were inefficient and because of large rotating parts they got
damaged quickly. Static VAR Compensation under FACTS uses TSC (Thyristor
Switched Capacitors) based on shunt compensation duly controlled from a
programmed microcontroller.

This proposed system demonstrates power factor compensation using thyristor

switched capacitors. The time lag between the zero voltage pulse and zero current
pulse duly generated by suitable operational amplifier circuits in comparator mode
are fed to two interrupt pins of the 8 bit microcontroller of 8051 family. Priority to
the implementation of static variable compensator, improved power factor
compensation was done by large rotating machines such as synchronous condenser
or switched capacitor banks.

Shunt capacitive compensation – This method is used to improve the power factor.
Whenever an inductive load is connected to the transmission line, power factor lags
because of lagging load current. To compensate for this, a shunt capacitor is
connected which draws current leading the source voltage. The net result is
improvement in power factor.

Thereafter program takes over to actuate appropriate number of opto-isolators duly

interfaced to back to back SCRs. Further the project can be enhanced to thyristor
controlled triggering for precise PF correction instead of thyristor switching in
steps. This result in bringing shunt capacitors into the load circuit to get the power
factor till it reaches unity.

15
3.2BLOCK DIAGRAM

16
3.3WORKING

This method is used either when charging the transmission line, or, when there is very low load
at the receiving end. Due to very low or no load a very low current flows through the
transmission line. Shunt capacitance in the transmission line cause Ferranti Effect. The receiving
end voltage may become double the sending end voltage (generally in case of very long
transmission lines). To compensate, shunt inductors are connected across the transmission line.
The lead time between the zero voltage pulse and zero current pulse duly generated by suitable
operational amplifier circuits in comparator mode are fed to two interrupt pins of the
microcontroller where the program takes over to actuate appropriate number of opto-isolators
interfaced to back to back SCRs at its output for bring shunt reactors into the load circuit to get
the voltage duly compensated. The microcontroller used in the project is of 8051 family which is
of 8 bit. The power supply consists of a step down transformer 230/12V, which steps down the
voltage to 12V AC. This is improved to DC using a Bridge rectifier. The ripples are removed
using a capacitive filter and it is then regulated to +5V using a voltage regulator 7805 which is
required for the operation of the microcontroller and other components.

HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS

17
  MICROCONTROLLER
 POWER SUPPLY
 TRANSFORMER
 BRIDGE RECTIFIER
 REGULATOR
 LCD DISPLAY
 OPTO-ISOLATOR
 SCR
 INDUCTIVE LOAD
 CAPACITORS
 ZERO CROSSING DETECTOR

SOFTWARE REOUIREMENT
 Keil uVision 4
 Eagle

18
 CHAPTER 4

H/W AND S/W DESCRIPTION

19
4.1HARDWARE DESCRIPTION
TRANSFORMER

Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with a little loss of power.
Step-up transformers increase voltage, step-down transformers reduce voltage. Most power
supplies use a step-down transformer to reduce the dangerously high voltage to a safer low
voltage.

FIG 4.1: A TYPICAL TRANSFORMER

The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called the secondary. There is
no electrical connection between the two coils; instead they are linked by an alternating magnetic
field created in the soft-iron core of the transformer. The two lines in the middle of the circuit
symbol represent the core. Transformers waste very little power so the power out is (almost)
equal to the power in. Note that as voltage is stepped down and current is stepped up.
The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turn’s ratio, determines the ratio
of the voltages. A step-down transformer has a large number of turns on its primary (input) coil
which is connected to the high voltage mains supply, and a small number of turns on its
secondary (output) coil to give a low output voltage.
TURNS RATIO = (Vp / Vs) = ( Np / Ns )
20
Where,
Vp = primary (input) voltage.
Vs = secondary (output) voltage
Np = number of turns on primary coil
Ns = number of turns on secondary coil
Ip = primary (input) current
Is = secondary (output) current.

Ideal power equation

The ideal transformer as a circuit element

If the secondary coil is attached to a load that allows current to flow, electrical power is
transmitted from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit. Ideally, the transformer is perfectly
efficient; all the incoming energy is transformed from the primary circuit to the magnetic field
and into the secondary circuit. If this condition is met, the incoming electric power must equal
the outgoing power:

giving the ideal transformer equation

21
 Transformers normally have high efficiency, so this formula is a reasonable
approximation.

If the voltage is increased, then the current is decreased by the same factor. The
impedance in one circuit is transformed by the square of the turns ratio. For example, if an
impedance Zs is attached across the terminals of the secondary coil, it appears to the primary
circuit to have an impedance of (Np/Ns)2Zs. This relationship is reciprocal, so that the impedance
Zp of the primary circuit appears to the secondary to be (Ns/Np)2Zp.

22
VOLTAGE REGULATOR 7805

Features
• Output Current up to 1A.
• Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V.
• Thermal Overload Protection.
• Short Circuit Protection.
• Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection.

Description
The LM78XX/LM78XXA series of three-terminal positive regulators are available in the
TO-220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output voltages, making them useful in a Wide
range of applications. Each type employs internal current limiting, thermal shutdown and safe
operating area protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is
provided, they can deliver over 1A output Current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage

23
regulators, these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and
currents.

Internal Block Diagram

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF VOLTAGE REGULATOR

Absolute Maximum Ratings

TABLE 4.2(b): RATINGS OF THE VOLTAGE REGULATOR

24
 RECTIFIER
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which
periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), current that flows in only one direction, a
process known as rectification. Rectifiers have many uses including as components of power
supplies and as detectors of radio signals. Rectifiers may be made of solid statediodes, vacuum
tube diodes, mercury arc valves, and other components. The output from the transformer is fed to
the rectifier. It converts A.C. into pulsating D.C. The rectifier may be a half wave or a full wave
rectifier. In this project, a bridge rectifier is used because of its merits like good stability and full
wave rectification. In positive half cycleonly two diodes (1 set of parallel diodes) will conduct, in
negative half cycle remaining two diodes will conduct and they will conduct only in forward bias
only.

25
FILTER

Capacitive filter is used in this project. It removes the ripples from the output of rectifier
and smoothens the D.C. Output received from this filter is constant until the mains voltage and
load is maintained constant. However, if either of the two is varied, D.C. voltage received at this
point changes. Therefore a regulator is applied at the output stage.
The simple capacitor filter is the most basic type of power supply filter. The use of this
filter is very limited. It is sometimes used on extremely high-voltage, low-current power supplies
for cathode-ray and similar electron tubes that require very little load current from the supply.
This filter is also used in circuits where the power-supply ripple frequency is not critical and can
be relatively high. Below figure can show how the capacitor charges and discharges.

26
MICROCONTROLLER IC: (89C51)

27
DISCRIPTION:

The AT89C51 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer with 4 Kbytes

of Flash Programmable and Erasable Read Only Memory (PEROM). The device is
manufactured using Atmel’s high density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible
with the industry standard MCS-51 instruction set and pin out. The on-chip Flash allows the
program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory
program- mer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel
AT89C51 is a powerful microcomputer which provides a highly flexible and cost effective
solution to many embedded control applications.

The AT89C51 provides the following standard features: 4 Kbytes of Flash, 128 bytes of
RAM, 32 I/O lines, two 16-bit timer/counters, five vector two-level interrupt architecture, a
full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator and clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89C51 is
designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports two software
selectable power saving modes. The idle mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM,
timers/counters, serial port and interrupt system to continue functioning. The power down
mode saves the RAM contents but freezes the oscillator disabling all other functions until the
next hardware reset.

28
FEATURES:

 Compatible with MCS-51 Products

 4 Kbytes of In-System Reprogrammable Flash Memory. Endurance 1,000 Write/Erase

Cycles

 Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz

 Three-Level Program Memory Lock

 128 x 8-Bit Internal RAM

 32 Programmable I/O Lines

 Two 16-Bit Timer/Counters

 Six Interrupt Sources

 Programmable Serial Channel

 Low Power Idle and Power down Modes

PIN DAIGRAM:

29
Description of pin diagram:

 VCC: Supply voltage.

 GND: Ground.

 Port 0

Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bidirectional I/O port. As an output port each pin can sink
eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as high-
impedance inputs. Port 0 may also be configured to be the multiplexed low order
address/data bus during accesses to external program and data memory. In this mode P0
has internal pull-ups. Port 0 also receives the code bytes during Flash programming, and

30
 outputs the code bytes during program verification. External pull-ups are required during
program verification.

 Port 1

Port 1 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 1 output buffers
can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins they are pulled high
by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are
externally being pulled low will source
Current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups.Port 1 also receives the low-order address
bytes during Flash programming and program verification.

 Port 2:

Port 2 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 2 output buffers
can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins they are pulled high
by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are
externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. Port
2 emits the high-order address byte during fetches from external program memory and
during accesses to external data memory that uses 16-bit addresses (MOVX @ DPTR). In
this application it uses strong internal pull-ups when emitting 1s. During accesses to
external data memory that uses 8-bit addresses (MOVX @ RI), Port 2 emits the contents
of the P2 Special Function Register. Port 2 also receives the high-order address bits and
some control signals during Flash programming and verification.

 Port 3

Port 3 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 3 output buffers
can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins they are pulled high
by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are
externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the pull-ups. Port 3 also
serves the functions of various special features of the AT89C51 as listed below:
31
 Port 3 also receives some control signals for Flash programming and Programming
verification.

 RST

Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running
resets the device.

 ALE/PROG

Address Latch Enable output pulse for latching the low byte of the address during
accesses to external memory.
This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG) during Flash programming.
In normal operation ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator frequency, and
may be used for external timing or clocking purposes. Note, however, that one ALE pulse
is skipped during each access to external Data
Memory. If desired, ALE operation can be disabled by setting bit 0 of SFR location 8EH.
With the bit set, ALE is active only during a MOVX or MOVC instruction. Otherwise,
the pin is weakly pulled high. Setting the ALE-disable bit has no effect if the
microcontroller is in external execution mode.

32
 PSEN: Program Store Enable is the read strobe to external program memory. When the
AT89C51 is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is activated twice
each machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to
external data memory.

 EA/VPP: External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the
device to fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to
FFFFH. Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched on
reset. EA should be strapped to VCC for internal program executions. This pin also
receives the 12-volt programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming, for
parts that require 12-volt VPP.

 XTAL1: Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating
circuit.

 XTAL2: Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.

 RESET Circuit
 RESET is an active High input When RESET is set to High, microcontroller goes back
to the power on state. The microcontroller is reset by holding the RST high for at least
two machine cycles and then returning it low.

 The reset line of the 8051 operates in an opposite fashion in comparison to many other
microcontrollers, like the PIC, AVR, etc.
 During normal operation, the reset pin is normally held low through the use of a weak
pull down resistor, 8.2KΩ in this case.
 A reset occurs when the capacitor is shorted through the switch which in effect
momentarily pulls the reset pin high, resetting the device.

33
 When the switch is released the capacitor begins to charge, once again pull the reset pin
low for normal operation.
 The capacitor is to cause a proper reset when power is first applied. When power is
applied, the capacitor begins to charge and holds the reset line high (until it is charged)
for long enough to ensure that the 8051 gets a proper start up condition.
 The microcontroller uses the crystal for precisely that: to synchronize it’s operation.
Effectively, the 8051 operates using what are called "machine cycles." A single machine
cycle is the minimum amount of time in which a single microcontroller instruction can
be executed. although many instructions take multiple cycles.
 microcontroller has an on-chip oscillator. It needs an external crystal thats decides the
operating frequency of the microcontroller .
 This can be achieved in two ways,,
 The crystal is connected to pins 18 and 19 with stabilizing capacitors. 12 MHz
(11.059MHz) crystal is often used and the capacitance ranges from 20pF to 40pF.
 The oscillator can also be a TTL clock source connected with a NOT gate as shown

34
LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY

This is the first interfacing example for the Parallel Port. We will start with something
simple. This example doesn't use the Bi-directional feature found on newer ports, thus it should
work with most, if not all Parallel Ports. It however doesn't show the use of the Status Port as an
input for a 16 Character x 2 Line LCD Module to the Parallel Port. These LCD Modules are very
common these days, and are quite simple to work with, as all the logic required running them is
on board.

LCD Background

Frequently, an 8051 program must interact with the outside world using input and output
devices that communicate directly with a human being. One of the most common devices
attached to an 8051 is an LCD display. Some of the most common LCDs connected to the 8051
are 16x2 and 20x2 displays. This means 16 characters per line by 2 lines and 20 characters per
line by 2 lines, respectively.

Fortunately, a very popular standard exists which allows us to communicate with the vast
majority of LCDs regardless of their manufacturer. The standard is referred to as HD44780U,
which refers to the controller chip which receives data from an external source (in this case, the
8051) and communicates directly with the LCD.

FIG 4.8: LCD

35
LCD BACKGROUND

The 44780 standard requires 3 control lines as well as either 4 or 8 I/O lines for the data
bus. The user may select whether the LCD is to operate with a 4-bit data bus or an 8-bit data bus.
If a 4-bit data bus is used the LCD will require a total of 7 data lines (3 control lines plus the 4
lines for the data bus). If an 8-bit data bus is used the LCD will require a total of 11 data lines (3
control lines plus the 8 lines for the data bus

The three control lines are referred to as EN, RS, and RW.

The EN line is called "Enable." This control line is used to tell the LCD that you are sending it
data. To send data to the LCD, your program should make sure this line is low (0) and then set
the other two control lines and/or put data on the data bus. When the other lines are completely
ready, bring EN high (1) and wait for the minimum amount of time required by the LCD
datasheet (this varies from LCD to LCD), and end by bringing it low (0) again.

The RS line is the "Register Select" line. When RS is low (0), the data is to be treated as a
command or special instruction (such as clear screen, position cursor, etc.). When RS is high (1),
the data being sent is text data which should be displayed on the screen. For example, to display
the letter "T" on the screen you would set RS high.

The RW line is the "Read/Write" control line. When RW is low (0), the information on the data
bus is being written to the LCD. When RW is high (1), the program is effectively querying (or
reading) the LCD. Only one instruction ("Get LCD status") is a read command. All others are

36
write commands--so RW will almost always be low .Finally, the data bus consists of 4 or 8 lines
(depending on the mode of operation selected by the user). In the case of an 8-bit data bus, the
lines are referred to as DB0, DB1, DB2, DB3, DB4, DB5, DB6, and DB7.

37
Silicon controlled rectifier

A silicon controlled rectifier or semiconductor-controlled rectifier is a four-layer solid-

state current-controlling device. The principle of four-layer p-n-p-n switching was developed by
Moll, Tanenbaum, Godley and Holon yak of Bell Laboratories in 1956. [1] The practical
demonstration of silicon controlled switching and detailed theoretical behavior of a device in
agreement with the experimental results was presented by Dr. Ian M. Mackintosh of Bell
Laboratories in January 1958.[2][3] The name "silicon controlled rectifier" is General Electric's
trade name for a type of thyristor. The SCR was developed by a team of power engineers led by
Gordon Hall[4] and commercialized by Frank W. "Bill" Gutzwiller in 1957.
Some sources define silicon controlled rectifiers and thyristors as synonymous, [5] other sources
define silicon controlled rectifiers as a proper subset of the set of thyristors, those being devices
with at least four layers of alternating n- and p-type material.[6][7] According to Bill Gutzwiller,
the terms "SCR" and "controlled rectifier" were earlier, and "thyristor" was applied later, as

usage of the device spread internationally.[8]

SCRs are unidirectional devices (i.e. can conduct current only in one direction) as opposed
to TRIACs, which are bidirectional (i.e. current can flow through them in either direction). SCRs
can be triggered normally only by currents going into the gate as opposed to TRIACs, which can
be triggered normally by either a positive or a negative current applied to its gate electrode.

The silicon control rectifier (SCR) consists of four layers of semiconductors, which
form NPNP or PNPN structures, having three P-N junctions labeled J1, J2 and J3, and three
terminals. The anode terminal of an SCR is connected to the p-type material of a PNPN
structure, and the cathode terminal is connected to the n-type layer, while the gate of the SCR is
connected to the p-type material nearest to the cathode.[9]

An SCR consists of four layers of alternating p- and n-type semiconductor materials. Silicon is
used as the intrinsic semiconductor, to which the proper dopants are added. The junctions are
either diffused or alloyed (alloy is a mixed semiconductor or a mixed metal). The planar
construction is used for low-power SCRs (and all the junctions are diffused). The mesa-type
construction is used for high-power SCRs. In this case, junction J2 is obtained by the diffusion
method, and then the outer two layers are alloyed to it, since the PNPN pellet is required to
handle large currents. It is properly braced with tungsten or molybdenum plates to provide
38
greater mechanical strength. One of these plates is hard-soldered to a copper stud, which is
threaded for attachment of a heat sink. The doping of PNPN depends on the application of SCR,
since its characteristics are similar to those of the thyristor. Today, the term "thyristor" applies to
the larger family of multilayer devices that exhibit bistable state-change behaviour, which is,
switching either on or off.

The operation of an SCR and other thyristors can be understood in terms of a pair of tightly
coupled bipolar junction transistors, arranged to cause the self-latching action:

Modes of operation

Characteristic curve of a Silicon Controlled Rectifier

There are three modes of operation for an SCR depending upon the biasing given to it:

1. Forward blocking mode (off state)

2. Forward conduction mode (on state)
3. Reverse blocking mode (off state)
Forward blocking mode
In this mode of operation, the anode (+) is given a positive voltage while the cathode (−) is given
a negative voltage, keeping the gate at zero (0) potential i.e. disconnected. In this case
junction J1 and J3 are forward-biased, while J2 is reverse-biased, due to which only a small
leakage current exists from the anode to the cathode until the applied voltage reaches its
breakover value, at which J2 undergoes avalanche breakdown, and at this breakover voltage it
starts conducting, but below breakover voltage it offers very high resistance to the current and is
said to be in the off state.

39
Forward conduction mode
An SCR can be brought from blocking mode to conduction mode in two ways: Either by
increasing the voltage between anode and cathode beyond the breakover voltage, or by applying
a positive pulse at the gate. Once the SCR starts conducting, no more gate voltage is required to
maintain it in the ON state.
There are two ways to turn it off:

1. Reduce the current through it below a minimum value called the holding current, or
2. With the gate turned off, short-circuit the anode and cathode momentarily with a push-
button switch or transistor across the junction.
Reverse blocking mode
negative voltage is applied to the anode and a positive voltage to the cathode, the SCR is in
reverse blocking mode, making J1 and J3 reverse biased and J2 forward biased. The device
behaves as two reverse-biassed diodes connected in series. A small leakage current flows. This is
the reverse blocking mode. If the reverse voltage is increased, then at critical breakdown level,
called the reverse breakdown voltage (V BR), an avalanche occurs at J1 and J3 and the reverse
current increases rapidly. SCRs are available with reverse blocking capability, which adds to the
forward voltage drop because of the need to have a long, low-doped P1 region. (If one cannot
determine which region is P1, a labeled diagram of layers and junctions can help.) Usually, the
reverse blocking voltage rating and forward blocking voltage rating are the same. The typical
application for a reverse blocking SCR is in current-source inverters.
An SCR incapable of blocking reverse voltage is known as an asymmetrical SCR,
abbreviated ASCR. It typically has a reverse breakdown rating in the tens of volts. ASCRs are
used where either a reverse conducting diode is applied in parallel (for example, in voltage-
source inverters) or where reverse voltage would never occur (for example, in switching power
supplies or DC traction choppers).
Asymmetrical SCRs can be fabricated with a reverse conducting diode in the same package.
These are known as RCTs, for reverse conducting thyristors

40
MOC3021 (Opto-isolators)

Opto-isolators or Opto-couplers, are made up of a light emitting device, and a light sensitive
device, all wrapped up in one package, but with no electrical connection between the two, just a
beam of light. The light emitter is nearly always an LED. The light sensitive device may be a
photodiode, phototransistor, or more esoteric devices such as thrusters, TRIACs etc.

A lot of electronic equipment nowadays is using opt coupler in the circuit. An opt coupler
or sometimes refer to as opt isolator allows two circuits to exchange signals yet remain
electrically isolated. This is usually accomplished by using light to relay the signal. The
standard opt coupler circuits design uses a LED shining on a phototransistor-usually it is a npn
transistor and not pnp. The signal is applied to the LED, which then shines on the transistor in
the IC.

The light is proportional to the signal, so the signal is thus transferred to the photo-
transistor. Opt couplers may also comes in few module such as the SCR, photodiodes, TRIAC of
other semiconductor switch as an output, and incandescent lamps, neon bulbs or other light
source.

Most commonly used is an opto-coupler MOC3021 an LED diac type combination. This
IC is interfaced with a microcontroller and an LED is connected in series to the IC, which glows
to indicate a logic High pulse from the microcontroller so that we can know that current is
flowing in internal LED of the opto-IC. When logic high is given current flows through LED
from pin1 to 2. So in this process LED light falls on DIAC causing 6 & 4 to close. During each
half cycle current flows through gate, series resistor and through opto-diac for the main
thyristor / triac to trigger for the load to operate.

The opto coupler usually found in switch mode power supply circuit in many electronic
equipment. It is connected in between the primary and secondary section of power supplies. The
opto-coupler application or function in the circuit is to:

1. Monitor high voltage

2. Output voltage sampling for regulation
3. System control micro for power ON/OFF
41
4. Ground isolation
This is the principle used in Opto−Diacs, the Opto-Diacs are available in form of ICs and
can be implemented using a simple circuitry.

42
Zero Crossing Detector

A zero crossing detector or ZCD is a one type of voltage comparator, used to detect a sine
waveform transition from positive and negative, that coincides when the i/p crosses the zero
voltage condition. In this article, we discuss about zero crossing detector circuit with two
different circuits, working principle, theory and applications. The applications of Zero Crossing
Detector are phase meter and time marker generator.

Zero Crossing Detector Circuit

Zero crossing detector is a voltage comparator that changes the o/p between +Vsat & –Vsat
when the i/p crosses zero reference voltage. In simple words, the comparator is a
basic operational amplifier used to compare two voltages simultaneously and changes the o/p
according to the comparison. In the same way we can say ZCD is a comparator.

Zero crossing detector circuit is used to produce an o/p stage switch whenever the i/p crosses the

reference i/p and it is connected to GND terminal. The o/p of the comparator can drive various

outputs such as an LED indicator, a relay and a control gate.

43
741 IC based Zero Crossing Detector

The zero crossing detector circuit is a main application of the comparator circuit. It can also be

named as the sine to square wave converter. For this, any one of the inverting/ noninverting

comparators can be used as a zero crossing detector.

The only variation to be brought in is the Vref (reference voltage) with which the i/p voltage is to

be compared, must be made reference voltage zero (Vref = 0V). A i/p sine wave is given as Vin.

These are shown in the following inverting comparator circuitdiagram and also i/p and o/p

waveforms with a 0V reference voltage.

As shown in the below waveform, for a reference voltage (Vref), when the input sine wave

permits through zero voltage and goes in the direction of positive. The o/p voltage is driven into

negative saturation. In the same way, when the Vin permits through zero and goes in the

44
direction of the negative, the Vout is driven to positive saturation. The diodes in the above circuit

are called as clamp diodes. These diodes are used to guard the operational amplifier from

damage due to increase in Vin.

In some particular applications, the Vin may be a low frequency waveform that causes an

interruption in time for the Vin to cross the zero level.Furthermore, this causes delay in the Vout

to switch between the two saturation levels (upper and lower). At the same time, the i/p noises in

the IC may cause the Vout to switch between the saturation levels. Thus zero crossing are

identified for noise voltages in addition to the Vin. These problems can be detached by using a

re-forming feedback circuit with a positive feedback that causes the Vout to switch faster. So,

removing the possibility of any false zero crossing due to noise voltages at the input of the op-

amp.

45
The working of zero crossing detector can be easily assumed if you know the working of a basic

Op-Amp comparator. In this detector, we are setting one of the i/ps as zero that is Vref =OV. The

o/p is determined into –Vsat when the i/p signal passes through 0 to +ve direction.Equally, when

i/p signal passes through zero to –ve direction, the o/p switches to +Vsat.

46
Applications of Zero Crossing Detector

Zero crossing detector circuits can be used to check the condition of an operational amplifier.

And also used as a frequency counter and for switching purposes in power electronics circuits.
ZCD as Phasemeter

A ZCD can be used to measure the phase angle between two voltages. A sequence of pulses in

the +ve and -ve cycles are acquired to measure the voltage between the time interval of the pulse

of sine wave voltage and second sine wave. This interval of time is related to the phase

difference between the two i/p sine wave voltages. The use of phasemeter ranges from 0° to

360°.

47
INDUCTIVE LOAD

A load that is predominantly inductive, so that the alternating load current lags behind the
alternating voltage of the load.Also known as lagging load. Any devices that have coils of wire
in there manufacture can be classed as inductive loads. E.g. motors, solenoids and contactor coils
are a few. Example of resistive loads can be baseboard heaters, filament light bulbs, toasters and
stove top elements.

48
SHUNT CAPACITORS

Shunt capacitor banks are used to improve the quality of the electrical supply and the
efficientoperation of the power system. Studies show that a flat voltage profile on the system
cansignificantly reduce line losses. Shunt capacitor banks are relatively inexpensive and can
beeasily installed anywhere on the network.

49
LED
LEDs are semiconductor devices. Like transistors, and other diodes, LEDs are made out
of silicon. What makes an LED give off light are the small amounts of chemical impurities that
are added to the silicon, such as gallium, arsenide, indium, and nitride.

When current passes through the LED, it emits photons as a byproduct. Normal light
bulbs produce light by heating a metal filament until it is white hot. LEDs produce photons
directly and not via heat, they are far more efficient than incandescent bulbs.

Fig 4.12(a): Typical LED Fig 4.12(b): circuit symbol

Not long ago LEDs were only bright enough to be used as indicators on dashboards or
electronic equipment. But recent advances have made LEDs bright enough to rival traditional
lighting technologies. Modern LEDs can replace incandescent bulbs in almost any application.

Types of LED’S

LEDs are produced in an array of shapes and sizes. The 5 mm cylindrical package is the most
common, estimated at 80% of world production. The color of the plastic lens is often the same as the
actual color of light emitted, but not always. For instance, purple plastic is often used for infrared
LEDs, and most blue devices have clear housings. There are also LEDs in extremely tiny packages,
such as those found on blinkers and on cell phone keypads. The main types of LEDs are miniature,
high power devices and custom designs such as alphanumeric or multi-color.

50
 Different types of LED’S

Colors and materials of LED’S

Conventional LED’S are made from a variety of inorganic semiconductor materials, the
following table shows the available colours with wavelength range, voltage drop and material.

White LED’S

Light Emitting Diodes (LED) have recently become available that are white and bright,
so bright that they seriously compete with incandescent lamps in lighting applications. They are
still pretty expensive as compared to a GOW lamp but draw much less current and project a
fairly well focused beam.

The diode in the photo came with a neat little reflector that tends to sharpen the beam a
little but doesn't seem to add much to the overall intensity.

When run within their ratings, they are more reliable than lamps as well. Red LEDs are
now being used in automotive and truck tail lights and in red traffic signal lights. You will be
able to detect them because they look like an array of point sources and they go on and off
instantly as compared to conventional incandescent lamps.

51
 LEDs are monochromatic (one color) devices. The color is determined by the band gap of
the semiconductor used to make them. Red, green, yellow and blue LEDs are fairly common.
White light contains all colors and cannot be directly created by a single LED. The most
common form of "white" LED really isn't white. It is a Gallium Nitride blue LED coated with a
phosphor that, when excited by the blue LED light, emits a broad range spectrum that in addition
to the blue emission, makes a fairly white light.

There is a claim that these white LED's have a limited life. After 1000 hours or so of
operation, they tend to yellow and dim to some extent. Running the LEDs at more than their
rated current will certainly accelerate this process.

There are two primary ways of producing high intensity white-light using LED’S. One is
to use individual LED’S that emit three primary colours—red, green, and blue—and then mix all
the colours to form white light. The other is to use a phosphor material to convert
monochromatic light from a blue or UV LED to broad-spectrum white light, much in the same
way a fluorescent light bulb works. Due to metamerism, it is possible to have quite different
spectra that appear white

1N4007

52
Diodes are used to convert AC into DC these are used as half wave rectifier or full wave
rectifier. Three points must he kept in mind while using any type of diode.
1. Maximum forward current capacity
2. Maximum reverse voltage capacity
3. Maximum forward voltage capacity

The number and voltage capacity of some of the important diodes available in the market are as
follows:
 Diodes of number IN4001, IN4002, IN4003, IN4004, IN4005, IN4006 and IN4007 have
maximum reverse bias voltage capacity of 50V and maximum forward current capacity
of 1 Amp.
 Diode of same capacities can be used in place of one another. Besides this diode of more
capacity can be used in place of diode of low capacity but diode of low capacity cannot
be used in place of diode of high capacity. For example, in place of IN4002; IN4001 or
IN4007 can be used but IN4001 or IN4002 cannot be used in place of IN4007.The diode

53
 BY125made by company BEL is equivalent of diode from IN4001 to IN4003. BY 126 is
equivalent to diodes IN4004 to 4006 and BY 127 is equivalent to diode IN4007.

PN JUNCTION OPERATION
Now that you are familiar with P- and N-type materials, how these materials are joined
together toform a diode, and the function of the diode, let us continue our discussion with the
operation of the PNjunction. But before we can understand how the PN junction works, we must
first consider current flow inthe materials that make up the junction and what happens initially
within the junction when these twomaterials are joined together.

Current Flow in the N-Type Material

Conduction in the N-type semiconductor, or crystal, is similar to conduction in a copper
wire. Thatis, with voltage applied across the material, electrons will move through the crystal
just as current wouldflow in a copper wire. This is shown in figure 1-15. The positive potential
of the battery will attract thefree electrons in the crystal. These electrons will leave the crystal
and flow into the positive terminal ofthe battery. As an electron leaves the crystal, an electron
from the negative terminal of the battery willenter the crystal, thus completing the current path.
Therefore, the majority current carriers in the N-typematerial (electrons) are repelled by the
negative side of the battery and move through the crystal towardthe positive side of the battery.

Current Flow in the P-Type Material

Current flow through the P-type material is illustrated. Conduction in the P material isby
positive holes, instead of negative electrons. A hole moves from the positive terminal of the P
materialto the negative terminal. Electrons from the external circuit enter the negative terminal of
the material andfill holes in the vicinity of this terminal. At the positive terminal, electrons are
removed from the covalentbonds, thus creating new holes. This process continues as the steady
stream of holes (hole current) movestoward the negative terminal.

54
1N4148

The 1N4148 is a standard small signal silicondiode used in signal processing. Its name
follows the JEDEC nomenclature. The 1N4148 is generally available in a DO-35 glass package
and is very useful at high frequencies with a reverse recovery time of no more than 4ns. This
permits rectification and detection of radio frequency signals very effectively, as long as their
amplitude is above the forward conduction threshold of silicon (around 0.7V) or the diode is
biased.

Fig:1N4148 diode

55
Specifications
 VRRM = 100V (Maximum Repetitive Reverse Voltage)
 IO = 200mA (Average Rectified Forward Current)
 IF = 300mA (DC Forward Current)
 IFSM = 1.0 A (Pulse Width = 1 sec), 4.0 A (Pulse Width = 1 uSec) (Non-Repetitive Peak
Forward Surge Current)
 PD = 500 mW (power Dissipation)
 TRR< 4ns (reverse recovery time)

Applications
 High- speed switching

Features
 Glass seale developer.(GSD)
 Highspeed.
 High Reliability
Construction
 Silicone pitaxia planar

56
RESISTORS

A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component designed to oppose an electric current by

producing a voltage drop between its terminals in proportion to the current, that is, in accordance
with Ohm's law:
V = IR
Resistors are used as part of electrical networks and electronic circuits. They are extremely
commonplace in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various
compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as
nickel/chrome).
The primary characteristics of resistors are their resistance and the power they can
dissipate. Other characteristics include temperature coefficient, noise, and inductance. Less well-
known is critical resistance, the value below which power dissipation limits the maximum
permitted current flow, and above which the limit is applied voltage. Critical resistance depends
upon the materials constituting the resistor as well as its physical dimensions; it's determined by
design.
Resistors can be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits, as well as integrated
circuits. Size, and position of leads (or terminals) are relevant to equipment designers; resistors
must be physically large enough not to overheat when dissipating their power.

57
 A resistor is a two-terminalpassiveelectronic component which implements electrical
resistance as a circuit element. When a voltage V is applied across the terminals of a resistor, a
current I will flow through the resistor in direct proportion to that voltage. The reciprocal of the
constant of proportionality is known as the resistance R, since, with a given voltage V, a larger
value of R further "resists" the flow of current I as given by Ohm's law:

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are
ubiquitous in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds
and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-
chrome). Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits, particularly analog devices,
and can also be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits.
The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common
commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than 9 orders of magnitude. When
specifying that resistance in an electronic design, the required precision of the resistance may
require attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor, according to its specific
application. The temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in some
precision applications. Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum power rating
which must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is
mainly of concern in power electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are

58
physically larger and may require heat sinking. In a high voltage circuit, attention must
sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working voltage of the resistor.
The series inductance of a practical resistor causes its behavior to depart from ohms law;
this specification can be important in some high-frequency applications for smaller values of
resistance. In a low-noise amplifier or pre-amp the noise characteristics of a resistor may be an
issue. The unwanted inductance, excess noise, and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent
on the technology used in manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally specified
individually for a particular family of resistors manufactured using a particular technology. A
family of discrete resistors is also characterized according to its form factor, that is, the size of
the device and position of its leads (or terminals) which is relevant in the practical manufacturing
of circuits using them.

Units
The ohm (symbol: Ω) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon
Ohm. An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured
over a very large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 mΩ = 10 −3 Ω), kilohm (1 kΩ =
103 Ω), and megohm (1 MΩ = 106 Ω) are also in common usage.
The reciprocal of resistance R is called conductance G = 1/R and is measured in Siemens
(SI unit), sometimes referred to as a mho. Thus a Siemens is the reciprocal of an ohm: S = Ω − 1.
Although the concept of conductance is often used in circuit analysis, practical resistors are
always specified in terms of their resistance (ohms) rather than conductance.

Variable resistors
Adjustable resistors
A resistor may have one or more fixed tapping points so that the resistance can be
changed by moving the connecting wires to different terminals. Some wirewound power resistors
have a tapping point that can slide along the resistance element, allowing a larger or smaller part
of the resistance to be used.

59
 Where continuous adjustment of the resistance value during operation of equipment is
required, the sliding resistance tap can be connected to a knob accessible to an operator. Such a
device is called a rheostat and has two terminals.

CAPACITORS

A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of

conductors separated by a dielectric. When a voltage potential difference exists between the
conductors, an electric field is present in the dielectric. This field stores energy and produces a
mechanical force between the plates. The effect is greatest between wide, flat, parallel, narrowly
separated conductors.
An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, which is
measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential
difference between them. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of
leakage current. The conductors and leads introduce an equivalent series resistance and the
dielectric has an electric field strength limit resulting in a breakdown voltage.
The properties of capacitors in a circuit may determine the resonant frequency and
quality factor of a resonant circuit, power dissipation and operating frequency in a digital logic
circuit, energy capacity in a high-power system, and many other important aspects.

60
 A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a device for storing electric charge. The
forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two conductors separated by a
non-conductor. Capacitors used as parts of electrical systems, for example, consist of metal foils
separated by a layer of insulating film.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while
allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power
supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies and for many other
purposes.
A capacitor is a passiveelectronic component consisting of a pair of conductors separated
by a dielectric (insulator). When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a
static electric field develops in the dielectric that stores energy and produces a mechanical force
between the conductors. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value,
capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the
potential difference between them.
The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of
conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates", referring to an early means of
61
construction. In practice the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage
current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the
conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.

Theory of operation
Capacitance

Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal electric field. A dielectric

(orange) reduces the field and increases the capacitance.

A simple demonstration of a parallel-plate capacitor

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region. The non-
conductive region is called the dielectric or sometimes the dielectric medium. In simpler terms,
the dielectric is just an electrical insulator. Examples of dielectric mediums are glass, air, paper,
vacuum, and even a semiconductordepletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A
capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no

62
influence from any external electric field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges
on their facing surfaces, and the dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of
one farad means that one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt
across the device.
The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits. An ideal
capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of charge ±Q
on each conductor to the voltage V between them:

Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to vary. In
this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:

Energy storage
Work must be done by an external influence to "move" charge between the conductors in a
capacitor. When the external influence is removed the charge separation persists in the electric
field and energy is stored to be released when the charge is allowed to return to its equilibrium
position. The work done in establishing the electric field, and hence the amount of energy stored,
is given by:

Current-voltage relation
The current i(t) through any component in an electric circuit is defined as the rate of flow of a
charge q(t) passing through it, but actual charges, electrons, cannot pass through the dielectric
layer of a capacitor, rather an electron accumulates on the negative plate for each one that leaves
the positive plate, resulting in an electron depletion and consequent positive charge on one
electrode that is equal and opposite to the accumulated negative charge on the other. Thus the
charge on the electrodes is equal to the integral of the current as well as proportional to the
voltage as discussed above. As with any antiderivative, a constant of integration is added to
represent the initial voltage v (t0). This is the integral form of the capacitor equation,

63
 .
Taking the derivative of this, and multiplying by C, yields the derivative form,

.
The dual of the capacitor is the inductor, which stores energy in the magnetic field rather than the
electric field. Its current-voltage relation is obtained by exchanging current and voltage in the
capacitor equations and replacing C with the inductance L.

CHAPTER 5

ADAVNTAGES

64
 DISADVANTAGES

APPLICATION

5.1ADVANTAGES
 The flow of power is ordered. It may be as per the contract or as per the requirements of
the utilities
 It increases the loading capability of the lines to the thermal capability
 It improves the stability of the system and thus make the system secure
Provides secure Tie Line connection to the neighboring utilities and regions, thereby
decreasing overall generation reserve requirements on both sides

5.2DISADVANTAGES
 It is effective only during heavy loads
 Whenever an outage occurs on a line, with series compensation, the series compensation
is removed. This may cause overloading of other parallel lines
 If series compensation is added to an existing system, it is generally necessary to have it
on all the lines in parallel.
65
  One major drawback in the series capacitance compensation is that special productive
devices are required to protect the capacitors and bypass the high current produced when
a short circuit occurs

5.3APPLICATIONS
 Power control.
 Reducing generation cost.
 HVDC link application
 Reduces Power Losses and Improving Voltage Profile.
 Improvement in Power Factor.
 Reduces Reactive Power Flow.
 Ensure Optimum Power Flow.
 Improvement in Voltage Regulation

66
CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION

FUTURE SCOPE

67
6.1CONCLUSION

The main aim of this project is to study the AC Transmission system. Our main objective was to
create an enhanced circuit that will improve the power factor. The Flexible AC Transmission
system achieved by improving the power factor reduces the output voltage fluctuations providing
us with a more efficient and stable transmission system. This proposed system increases the
power factor by nearing its value to 1 with the help of the capacitor bank in the circuit.
Microcontroller based thyristor driven static variable compensation gives the better results than
the conventional types of compensation techniques like synchronous condensers. Due to the
usage of thyristors than the conventional relay circuit makes the whole system free from contact
pitting. This will also help to maintain a sustainable future in which we have limited sources of
power and limited AC Transmission lines .
Static var compensators results in higher reactive power compensation in the transmission line
reactance. Higher reactive power compensation in turn improves power quality, correcting power
factor and maintaining constant distribution voltage. Thus the A C transmission network required
dynamic reactive power control to maintain satisfactory profile under varying load conditions
and transients.

68
6.2FUTURE SCOPE

As we know that the demand of power is increasing every day and we only have limited sources

of energy. So, this project proposed improves power factor and increases the efficiency of any

system connected parallel to it. This circuit can be used in industries instead of using the old

traditional techniques such as big synchronous generators which are costlier and damage prone.

In comparison to these techniques our project is more reliable and cheaper. This will help us to

sustain more power for our future needs in a more efficient way. It can be used in industries to

improve the power factor of industrial loads. It might as well be used for domestic purposes

where we need to improve the power factor of the system. It is a very reliable and compact

design used for improvement of power factor and also cheaper than the traditional techniques

used for this purpose.

.=

69
CHAPTER 7

REFERANCES

70
7.1REFERANCES

[1] International journal of innovative in science , engineering and technology (Electrical power
theft detection and wireless meter reading).

[2] International journal of innovative research in electrical , electronics, instrumentation and

control engineering (Tampering detection of domestic load by GSM).

[3] http://www.energyaxis.com/ea-inf- white-papers.asp [4] Mehta VK, Mehta R. Principles of

power system, 4th ed, Chand publication, 2008.

[5] Liveira MAO, Barioni CC. Technical loss calculation by distribution system segment with
corrections from measurements, Proc. 20th.

[6] Hingorani NG, Gyugi L. Understanding FACTS-Concepts and Technology of Flexible AC

Transmission System, Standard Publishers & Distributors, IEEE papers, New York.

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