Forest disease management and Pest managment

Assignment 01

Name:-H.N.M.K.B.Hettinayaka
Admission No:-5193LS2022012

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Write detail account on each of following disease, Armillaria Root Rots & White pine Blister Rust

1. Armillaria Root Rots

Armillaria root rot is a disease of trees and woody plants, although it also affects palms, succulents, ferns and
other herbaceous plants. This disease is caused by fungi in the genus Armillaria, also known
as “oak root fungus,” although the fungus has no specificity for oaks. Several species of Armillaria are known
to occur in California, but Armillaria mellea is the species commonly found in home gardens,
parks, vineyards, tree crops, and natural landscapes. This pathogen has a broad host range, potentially affecting
thousands of ornamental and crop plants. Other species of Armillaria occur in forests, causing heart rot and
acting as saprophytes.
Armillaria root disease should be considered a ―disease of the site‖. That is, established mycelia of this fungus
are essentially
permanent, so the best course to minimize losses is to manage tree
species that will survive on infested sites. In large areas of northern Idaho and western Montana, this includes
most of the potentially best timber-producingsites.

Elsewhere in the northern and central Rockies, Armillaria is often less damaging and more easily tolerated.
Armillaria ostoyae is a native pathogen with a broad host range but is most common and damaging on Douglas-
fir, grand fir and subalpine fir. Mortality rates are highest on warm, moist habitats but large disease patches
develop on dry sites and cold, high-elevation sites as well. Armillaria root rot is commonly recognized by the
presence of light brown mushrooms (known as “honey mushrooms” due to their color; not their taste!), which
typically appear in a cluster of several to dozens of mushrooms at the base of in-fected trees or shrubs
Sometimes the mushroom cluster will arise from a buried root in a turfgrass or groundcover area away from the
infected tree (or where an infected tree once stood) or will form around an old stump. Mushrooms may not
always appear, and some trees will succumb to the disease without ever giving rise to mushrooms.
Therefore, it is better to look for other, more consistent, signs of the fungus. One diagnostic sign of Armillaria
root rot is the white fan-shaped mycelium, thin, flat sheets of fungal tissue (mycelial fans) that grow just below
the bark To find these mycelial fans, select a dead or dying plant to examine. Dig into the soil at the base of the
trunk and down to approximately 12 to 18 inches beneath soil line. From the trunk and any large roots
branching off the trunk, peel or cut away the dead bark with a knife to reveal mycelial fans and rotted wood, a
common symptom of Armillaria rorot. Presence of black strings of fungal tissue (rhizomorphs) is a third sign of
infection. Rhizomorphs may be found under the bark alongside the white mycelium, on infected roots, or in soil
immediately adjacent to the infected tree. Rhizomorphs can be difficult to distinguish from fine roots, but
generally are darker, smoother, and lack the woody inner cortex of plant rootsRhizomorphs of Armillaria mellea
arsmaller than those of other Armillarispecies, ranging in diameterfrom 1/32” to 1/8”.
Since rhizomorphs and mushrooms are sometimes absent,and the mycelial fans are hidden under the bark, the
presence of this fungus is often first revealed by the host symptoms on the trunk or in the canopy.

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The genus Armillaria is in the division Basidiomycota and is part of the family Physalacriaceae. Though
Armillaria mellea was once considered the only species in North America, we now know of more than a dozen
species. However, only 6 Armillaria species are thought to be present in western North America, and only 2
species arewidespread in California: Armillaria
gallica, common in forests of the Coast Ranges and the Sierra Nevada but also found in urban landscapes, and
Armillaria mellea, which is widespread in both natural and ornamental landscapes
throughout California. Armillaria mellea is far more virulent than A. gallica. Thus, once a fungus affecting an
ornamental landscape in California has been identified as Armillaria, especially where dead and dying hosts are
present, it is reasonable to presume that the species is Armillaria mellea. For information on other fungi that
decay trees
Domain: Eukaryota

Kingdom: Fungi

Division: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Agaricales

Family: Physalacriaceae

Genus: Armillaria

 LIFE CYCLE AND BIOLOGY

Armillaria root rot has a complex life history that involves vegetative spread and sexual reproduction via spore
dispersal. Vegetative spread of the fungus below ground, as it grows from root-to-root contact between adjacent
hosts, often results in a large clonal population of the fungus, creating a widening circle of dead trees, especially
noticeable in forests, vineyards, and orchards as a disease center.

The pathogen reproduces by release of basidiospores produced by its mushrooms.These basidiospores are
involved in dispersal but are thought to seldom play an active role in infection of new hosts, instead possibly
colonizing dead stumps, downed trees, and other woody debris near the parent mycelium. Two spores, each of
which have half the genetic equivalent of theirparent, must germinate and fuse together in the same wood to
form a new fertile mycelium, capable of producing its own mushrooms and, thus, spores. There are no other
spore-bearing phases in the Armillaria life history. Infection is thought to proceed primarily by direct
Armillaria-to-host which evolved in the absence of summer water. Remove from the nearby landscape (and do
not establish)any plants that require a lot of water (e.g., annualflowers).

Deeply planted trees or trees with soil covering the root collar area are often more susceptible. Research
indicates that root collar excavations can limit development of existing infections and possibly even prevent
infections. Using hand tools or compressed air excavators, remove the soil from the base of infected trees to
expose the large structural roots and the root flar(Figure 5). Never use construction machinery that may wound
the root collar or roots. The bark needs to be kept undamaged and intact in such excavations.
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Although there is no biological control product registered for use against Armillaria root rot, it is clear from
studies that multiple naturally occurring soilborne fungi attack Armillaria and likely limit its effects in
landscapes and in natural ecosystems worldwideTrichoderma is a common fungus present in mulches and
wherever woody materials occur in landscapes.

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  Cultural and Biological Control
In a landscape with plants known or suspected to be infected, the principal cultural management strategy
involves carefully regulating irrigation. Immediately correct any over-watering and poor soil drainage, and,
during the warm summer months, ensure that the root collar of trees stays dry (i.e., do not set up the sprinkler to
hit the base of the trunk). This is especially important for native California oaks, which evolved in the absence
of summer water. Remove from the nearby landscape (and do not establish) any plants that require a lot of
water (e.g., annual flowers).

Deeply planted trees or trees with soil covering the root collar area are often more susceptible. Research
indicates that root collar excavations can limit development of existing infections and possibly even prevent
infections. Using hand tools or compressed air excavators, remove the soil from the base of infected trees to
expose the large structural roots and the root flare. Never use construction machinery that may wound the root
collar or roots. The bark needs to be kept undamaged and intact in such excavations.

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Although there is no biological control product registered for use against Armillaria root rot, it is clear from
studies that multiple naturally occurring soilborne fungi attack Armillaria and likely limit its effects in
landscapes and in natural ecosystems worldwide. Trichoderma is a common fungus present in mulches and
wherever woody materials occur in landscapes. Trichoderma readily colonizes small pieces of wood (such as
wood chips in mulch), where it can also colonize Armillaria that might be present. This effect, however, is not
reliably observed in large pieces of wood, so removing, grinding, or chipping stumps and large dead roots may
be beneficial in two ways: by reducing the overall Armillaria inoculum in the landscape (removal of large roots
for decay by the fungus) and by facilitating Trichoderma attack on Armillaria (chipping and grinding the wood
increases its surface area for greater attack by Trichoderma).

In addition, because Trichoderma growth is stimulated by higher soil temperatures and dry soil (both of which
inhibit Armillaria), soil solarization could be beneficial, by simultaneously damaging Armillaria present in the
soil and stimulating the growth of Trichoderma. Soil solarization may not affect deep roots, stumps, or large
buried roots at depths below approximately 4 inches, so excavation and removal of residual roots will be the
best method of minimizing disease risk.

There may be some advantage to planting trees in large holes amended with fresh organic matter. The soil
disturbance from making a large hole and the organic matter amendment both facilitate Trichoderma attack of
Armillaria. Be sure to add nitrogen fertilizers if fresh organic matter is added to soil. Also, be careful that
drainage is adequate to allow for decomposition of the organic matter. Although adding organic matter to
planting pits is usually not recommended, the practice may have value in landscapes or gardens where
Armillaria root rot has killed other trees in the past

 Managment
There are no known cultivars or varieties of plants that are completely immune to Armillaria root rot, and some
plant plants are very susceptible to the pathogen. For example, peach (Prunus persica and related Prunus
hybrids) and Peruvian pepper (Schinus molle) are highly susceptible. Susceptible plants should not be planted in
landscapes where trees have died from Armillaria root rot, especially when large dead roots may remain in the
soil.

Reducing tree stress and ensuring good tree condition are the principal beneficial practices in preventing rapid
decline. Although A. mellea is considered highly virulent, most deaths of infected trees in California landscapes
can be attributed to excessive irrigation or other stresses.

Avoid physical damage to roots, soil compaction in the root zone, and addition of soil on top of the existing
grade (especially during construction). Most importantly, prevent the waterlogging of soils around trees from
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excessive or inappropriate irrigation, especially in summer. Do not irrigate trees that are mature, established,
and have never been irrigated. Excessive irrigation can be especially common for drought-adapted trees planted
in lawns. In such cases, it is preferable to maintain a mulched turf-free zone out to the dripline of each tree, if
possible, and allow the soil under the tree to dry out between irrigations.

 Economic impact on disease

Armillaria root rot, also known as oak root fungus or shoestring root rot, is a destructive fungal disease that
affects a wide range of woody plants and trees, including economically important species. The economic impact
of Armillaria root rot can be significant and varied, affecting both agriculture and forestry sectors. Here are
some of the key economic impacts associated with this disease:

Crop and Timber Losses: Armillaria root rot can cause substantial losses in crop and timber production. It
affects fruit trees, grapevines, and various timber species. Infected plants may experience reduced yields,
decreased quality of fruits or timber, and, in severe cases, death of the host plant. This directly impacts the
income of growers and forest owners.

Cost of Disease Management: Controlling Armillaria root rot often requires significant financial investments.
Methods for managing the disease include pruning and removing infected trees, applying fungicides, and
implementing cultural practices like crop rotation and soil fumigation. These measures come with associated
costs, which can be a financial burden for affected industries.

Reduced Land Productivity: Infestations of Armillaria root rot can reduce the overall productivity of
agricultural or forest land. This can result in land devaluation, making it less attractive for potential buyers and
investors.

Loss of Biodiversity: The presence of Armillaria root rot in natural ecosystems can lead to the decline of certain
tree species, which may impact the diversity of plants and animals in the affected areas. This loss of biodiversity
can have indirect economic consequences, especially for industries that rely on ecosystem services, such as
ecotourism and the collection of non-timber forest products.

Trade and Market Access Issues: Armillaria root rot can limit the ability of affected regions to export
agricultural and forest products to markets with phytosanitary regulations. Quarantine measures may be
imposed to prevent the spread of the disease to non-infested areas, which can have a detrimental impact on
international trade.

Research and Development Costs: Governments, research institutions, and industries may invest in research and
development to find more effective methods of controlling Armillaria root rot. These investments can be
substantial, particularly when working on the development of resistant tree varieties or sustainable disease
management practices.

Labor Costs: Managing Armillaria root rot often involves labor-intensive activities such as tree removal, site
preparation, and disease monitoring. These labor costs can add to the economic burden of affected industries.

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Long-term Impact: Armillaria root rot can persist in the soil for many years, making it an enduring problem.
This means that the economic impact of the disease can be felt over an extended period.

2. White pine Blister Rust

White pine blister rust is a serious, tree-killing disease of eastern white pine and its close relatives (pines with
needles in bundles of five). This disease is caused by the exotic (not native) fungus Cronartium ribicola, which
was introduced into North America in the early 1900’s. This pathogen is now found in most regions where
pines grow in the United States, including Wisconsin. White pine blister rust affects trees of all ages, but
perhaps most frequently and severely damages seedlings and saplings. The white pine blister rust fungus
Cronartium ribicola requires two different plant hosts to complete its complex life cycle. Spores of the fungus
produced on white pine are blown to alternate host plants in the genus Ribes (gooseberries and currants). After
infecting gooseberry and currant bushes the fungus multiplies rapidly throughout the summer, repeatedly
producing spores that germinate to result in additional gooseberry and currant infection. Spores produced in
late summer on gooseberries and currants are spread by the wind to white pines, where needles that are moist
from rain, fog, or dew are infected.

Infection of needles by Cronartium ribicola results in development of yellow to brown spots and bands. The
fungus slowly grows through pine needles and bark to eventually form cankers on twigs, branches, and trunks
(main stems) of trees. A canker is a localized diseased area, which may be swollen or sunken, that is
surrounded by healthy tissues. A typical white pine blister rust canker has resinous margins, and may appear
“blistered” before rupturing to expose fruiting bodies (reproductive structures) with yellow to bright orange
spores of Cronartium ribicola. As a canker expands to completely encircle stems, all portions beyond the
canker are killed. Dead white pine branches may temporarily retain orange to red dead needles to form a bright
“flag” that is a common symptom of this disease.

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Cronartium ribicola has two obligate hosts: Pinus spp and Ribes spp.Five-needle pines (Pinus spp.) are infected
in the fall by basidiospores that have spread under cool, moist conditions from the alternate host, currants and
gooseberries (Ribes spp.), and germinated on needles to enter with germ tubes through open stomata.

Young pines are most susceptible and will die at faster rates following infection.A mycelial network then
spreads through the needle and into intercellular space in the inner bark, resulting in the formation of a blister
rust canker. Spermagonia are produced at the margins on the canker and give rise to spermatia in the following
spring. Once spermatia have fertilized receptive hyphae in the Pinus spp. host, aecia are formed within a year,
appearing as white blisters before rupture reveals the orange or yellow aeciospores within. The wind-blown
aeciospores infect Ribes spp. and the fungus quickly develops uredia in less than a few weeks. Uredospores
produced in this stage spread to infect other parts of the same host or other Ribes spp. hosts in the area.Next,
telia are developed on the abaxial (lower) surface of leaves, where teliospores germinate to give rise to
basidiospores that will complete the disease cycle by infecting Pinus spp. hosts.

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  Symptom of the disease
On the aecial host, the first signs of C. ribicola are yellow or red spots on the Pinus needles, but these are small
and can be difficult to see; more visible symptoms on the aecial host includes perennial cankers which appear
on the branches within two years of infection. Looking at the infected plant as a whole, the Pinus will appear
chlorotic, and stunted with dead branches or tops that turn a bright red color.

Leaf spots on the underside of a leaf on a Ribes species (telial host) On the other hand, the telial host, Ribes, can
contract yellowish chlorotic leaf spots, but is otherwise not significantly impacted. The signs of C. ribicola on
Ribes, come in the form of the pathogen itself as orange pustules on the underside of the leaf

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  Cultural and Biological Control
Historically, tactics such as alternate host removal and planting restrictions in hazard zones, as well as
quarantines made legal by the 1912 Plant Quarantine Act. Removal of Ribes used to be practiced in full force,
which heavily affected blackcurrant production in the United States, however through a combination of the
pathogen's hardiness and ability to travel airborne for nine hundred feet, as well as the Ribes ability to regrow
from an extremely small root portion, researchers have focused their efforts on creating new cultural practices
to lower the abundance of C. ribicola. Since then researchers have come up with multiple new methods to curb
the spread of the infection. In some European countries and Canada, the fruits from currants and gooseberry
were more valuable than White pine trees, which did not allow them to do the eradication programs of Ribes.

For example, careful topological selection of plot sites for the white pine would greatly reduce the germination
of spores. These plots would include land with characteristics such as well-drained soil such as that on a high-
sloped area, spots that are well aerated, and face the south for dryness and warmth. This would remove the wet,
damp environment that is crucial for the germination of the spores on the Pinus.

Once plantation spots have been chosen, pruning and inspection practices have been adapted as a monitored
cultural practice. Inspections for blister rusts begin in May about six years after the trees are planted. This time
period is when obvious symptoms of C. ribicola begin to appear, such as red needles. Infected branches will be
pruned to a certain height that is dependent on a rate of infection determined by researchers; generally pruning
is required for Pinus trees up to anywhere between nine and eighteen feet.Pathological pruning, in which all
lower branches are pruned regardless of signs or symptoms of infection, may reduce disease instance in white
pine tree stands.

Furthermore, genetic hybridization testing has been conducted for more than half a century in order to find
resistance among strains of the species, and have since successfully introduced resistance into the eastern white
pine

Silvicultural practices and genetic approaches have both been used to manage white pine blister rust and protect
high-valued white pine species. Common silvicultural practices include site selection, vegetation management,
and pruning.

Site Selection – All white pines are susceptible to WPBR, but specific site conditions (such as aspect, slope, soil
type and the presence of Ribes) can increase the risk of infection. It is best to plant new white pines in areas that
are unlikely to promote WPBR infections. White pines planted on a mid to upper dry slope with an open canopy
and few (if any) Ribes will be the safest. Alternatively, white pines planted on low, moist sites with dense
underbrush, patchy canopy openings, and nearby Ribes are at a much higher risk of becoming infected with
WPBR.

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Vegetation Management – Removing dense local vegetation can be beneficial as it reduces the relative humidity
and improves air circulation. These factors limit spore growth and success, which overall reduces the likelihood
of WPBR infections. Reducing dense underbrush can also limit the competition between plants and young white
pines for access to light and resources, which ultimately increases the trees growth and survival.

Pruning – Early pruning of highly susceptible lower branches can be effective in reducing infections on the
main stem or trunk. Pruning can reduce the formation of lethal cankers that eventually girdle and kill the tree.

Genetic approaches that try to improve resistance in white pines seems promising, though resistance breeding
programs have had limited success with eastern white pine in Ontario. Chemical and biological controls have
not been used for white pine blister rust as they have shown to be ineffective thus far.

Biological Control:

Genetic Resistance: Developing and planting resistant tree varieties through breeding programs is a long-term
solution.

Fungicides: Application of fungicides can help manage the disease, but it's often not practical for large-scale
forest settings and may have environmental implications.

Biological Agents: Introducing or encouraging the growth of antagonistic microorganisms that can combat the
rust fungus. This might include using other fungi or bacteria that are natural enemies of the pathogen.

 Economic impact on disease

Timber and Forestry Industry: White pine is an important tree species in the timber and forestry industry. The
disease can reduce the yield and quality of white pine timber, leading to decreased timber value and economic
losses for forest owners and the forestry sector. Infected trees may have reduced marketability or may need to
be harvested prematurely, resulting in lower revenue for timber companies.

Ecotourism and Recreation: White pine forests are often prized for their beauty and recreational value. Tourism
and recreational activities, such as hiking, camping, and wildlife watching, contribute to the local economy in
regions with white pine forests. The disease can impact the aesthetic and ecological value of these areas,
potentially reducing tourism and recreational opportunities.

Restoration Efforts: Many regions invest in programs and initiatives to restore white pine populations, as they
are important for ecological diversity and forest health. These restoration efforts can be costly, involving the
breeding and planting of disease-resistant white pine varieties. The financial burden of these initiatives can have
an economic impact at local and regional levels.
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Impact on Ecosystem Services: White pines play a crucial role in maintaining ecosystem services, such as water
purification, carbon sequestration, and wildlife habitat. The disease's impact on these services can have
cascading effects on the broader environment and the economic value associated with ecosystem services.

Long-Term Economic Consequences: White pine blister rust can have long-term economic consequences as the
disease spreads and infects more trees over time. The economic impact may continue to worsen as the disease
becomes more established and widespread.

Costs of Disease Management: Efforts to manage and control white pine blister rust can involve the use of
fungicides, tree removal, and other disease control measures. These costs can burden forest owners, government
agencies, and other stakeholders involved in managing white pine forests.

It's important to note that the economic impact of white pine blister rust can vary by region, depending on
factors like the prevalence of white pine forests, the severity of the disease, and the local economy's dependence
on white pine resources. Strategies for mitigating the economic impact may include disease management,
diversifying forest species, and investing in research and breeding programs to develop disease-resistant white
pine varieties.

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  References
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

Baumgartner K, Rizzo DM. 2001. Distribution of Armillaria species in California. Mycologia 821-830.

Baumgartner K. 2004. Root collar excavation for post infection control of Armillaria root disease in grape vine.
Plant Disease 88:1235-1240.

Baumgartner K, Coetzee MP, Hoffmeister D. 2011. Secrets of the subterranean pathosystem of Armillaria.
Molecular Plant Pathology 12(6), 515-534.

Downer AJ, Crohn D, Faber B, Daugovish O, Becker JO, Menge JA, Mochizuki MJ. 2008. Survival of plant
pathogens in static piles of ground green waste. Phytopathology 98: 574-554.

Fox RT. 2001. Armillaria Root Rot: Biology and Control of Honey Fungus. Andover, UK: Intercept Ltd.

Guillaumin JJ, Legrand P. 2013. Armillaria root rots. Gonthier P, Nicolotti G (eds.). Infectious Forest Diseases,
1st ed. Wallingford, UK: CABI.

Shaw CG III, Kile GA. 1991. Armillaria Root Disease. Agricultural Handbook No. 691. Forest Service USDA.

Dreistadt SH, Clark JK, Martin TL, Flint ML. 2016. Pests of Landscape Trees and Shrubs: An Integrated Pest
Management Guide, 3rd Ed. UC ANR Publication 3359. Oakland, CA.

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