LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEETS

Statistics and Probability, Quarter 4, Week 2

Formulating Hypotheses on a Population

and Identifying Appropriate Form of Test-
Statistic

Objectives
Objectives:

After going through this LAS, you are expected to:

1. formulate appropriate null and alternative hypotheses on the population mean;

2. identify the appropriate form of the test statistic on the population mean when the
population variance is assumed to be known;
3. identify the appropriate form of the test statistic on the population mean when the
population variance is assumed to be unknown; and
4. identify the appropriate form of the test statistic on the population mean when the
Central Limit Theorem is used.

Lesson

OVERVIEW

• A statistical hypothesis is a statement about a parameter and deals with evaluating

the value of the parameter. It is either null or alternative.
• The null hypothesis is generally denoted by Ho. It states the exact opposite of what
an investigator or an experimenter predicts or expects. It basically defines the
statement which states that there is no exact or actual relationship between the
variables.
 • The alternative hypothesis is generally denoted as Ha. It makes a statement that
suggests or advises a potential result or an outcome that an investigator or the
researcher may expect. This is a statement that will be true once the null hypothesis
is rejected.
• The null and alternative hypotheses should be complementary and non-overlapping.
• The z-statistic is used in a hypothesis test for the population mean when the
population standard deviation is known and the population is normal or the sample
size is sufficiently large, usually greater than or equal to 30.
• Assuming that the population follows a normal distribution, the appropriate test-
statistic for testing a claim about a population mean when the population is assumed
to be unknown and when the sample size is small, usually 𝑛 < 30 is the t-test for a
single mean.
• The mean of a random sample will approximately follow a normal distribution with
mean 𝜇 and standard error 𝜎 , regardless of the distribution of the population. The
√𝑛
Central Limit Theorem requires a sample size of at least 30 if the population
distribution is unknown.

2.1 Formulating Null and Alternative Hypothesis

Hypothesis testing is a procedure used to determine whether or not to reject a statement
about a population. It involves series of steps which include stating the null and alternative
hypotheses as the initial step.
In the previous lesson, you have learned about null and alternative hypotheses. Null
hypothesis is denoted as Ho which states that there is no exact or actual relationship
between the variables. On the other hand, alternative hypothesis is denoted as Ha which is
true once the null hypothesis is rejected. The table below shows the symbols used in
formulating Ho and Ha:

Ho Ha
equal (=) not equal (≠)
or greater than (>) or less than (<)
greater than or equal to (≥) less than (<)
less than or equal to (≤) more than (>)

Example 2.1.
a. Ho: The mean number of hours that students spend in studying after school is 2.5
hours. (𝐻o: 𝜇 = 2.5)
Ha: The mean number of hours that students spend in studying after school is not 2.5
hours. (𝐻a: 𝜇 ≠ 2.5)
b. Ho: The mean number of hours that students spend in studying after school is at
most 2.5 hours. (𝐻o: 𝜇 ≤ 2.5)
Ha: The mean number of hours students spend studying after school is greater than
2.5 hours. (𝐻a: 𝜇 > 2.5)
c. Ho: The mean number of hours that students spend in studying after school is at
least 2.5 hours. (𝐻o: 𝜇 ≥ 2.5)
Ha: The mean number of hours that students spend in studying after school is less
than to 2.5 hours. (𝐻a: 𝜇 < 2.5)

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In each of the given examples, the null hypothesis is assumed to be true. For instance, in
Example 2.1(a), the null hypothesis is assumed to be true, that the mean number of hours
spent by students in studying after school is 2.5 hours. If the researcher can gather enough
evidence that can result to the rejection of the null hypothesis then he or she can conclude
that the mean number of hours spent by students in studying after school is not equal to 2.5
hours. A rejection of the null hypothesis results in the acceptance of the alternative
hypothesis.

Example 2.2. The father of a senior high school student lists down the expenses he will
incur when he sends his daughter to the university. At the university where he wants his
daughter to study, he hears that the average tuition fee is at least Php 20,000 per semester.
He wants to do a test of hypothesis.
In this problem, the parameter of interest is the average tuition fee or the true population
mean of the tuition fee. In symbol, this parameter is denoted as µ. As applied to the problem,
the appropriate null and alternative hypotheses are:
Ho: The average tuition fee in the targeted university is at least Php 20,000. In symbols,
Ho: µ ≥ Php20,000.
Ha: The average tuition fee in the targeted university is less than Php 20,000. In symbols,
Ha: µ < Php20,000.

Example 2.3. The principal of an elementary school believes that this year, there would be
more students from the school who would pass the National Achievement Test (NAT). To
show that the number of students who will pass the NAT this year is greater than the rate
obtained in previous year which is 0.75, what will be the appropriate null and alternative
hypotheses to test this belief?
In this problem, the parameter of interest is the proportion of students of the school who will
pass the NAT this year. In symbol, this parameter is denoted as p. As applied to the
problem, the appropriate null and alternative hypotheses are:
Ho: The proportion of students of the school who will pass the NAT this year is equal to 0.75.
In symbols, Ho: p = 0.75.
Ha: The proportion of students of the school who will the NAT this year is greater than 0.75.
In symbols, Ha: p > 0.75.

Example 2.4. A medical trial is conducted to test whether or not a new medicine reduces
cholesterol by 25%. State the null and alternative hypotheses.
In this problem, the parameter of interest is whether or not a new medicine reduces
cholesterol by 25%. In symbol, this parameter is denoted as p. As applied to the problem,
the appropriate null and alternative hypotheses are:
Ho : The drug reduces cholesterol by 25%. Ho: p = 0.25
Ha : The drug does not reduce cholesterol by 25%. Ha: p ≠ 0.25

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2.2 Identifying the Appropriate Form of Test-Statistic
Another important step in hypothesis testing is to identify the appropriate form of test-
statistic. The test-statistic is a mathematical formula that allows researchers to determine
the likelihood of obtaining sample outcomes if the null hypothesis is true. It tells us how far,
or how many standard deviations, a sample mean is from the population mean. The larger
the value of the test statistic, the further the distance, or number of standard deviations, a
sample mean is from the population mean stated in the null hypothesis. The value of the
test-statistic is used to make a decision whether or not to reject the null hypothesis.

A. The 𝒛-statistic

The test-statistic used in a 𝑧-test is the 𝑧-statistic. The 𝒛-statistic converts any sampling
distribution into a standard normal distribution. The z-statistic is therefore a z transformation.
The solution of the formula gives the number of standard deviations, or z-scores, that a
sample mean falls above or below the population mean stated in the null hypothesis. This
test-statistic is used in a hypothesis test for the population mean when the population
standard deviation is known and (a) the population is normal or (b) the sample size is
sufficiently large, usually greater than or equal to 30. The z-statistic is given by,
𝑥̅ − 𝜇
𝑧= 𝜎
√𝑛
Where: 𝑥̅ = sample mean 𝜎 = population standard deviation

𝜇 = population mean 𝑛 = sample size

Example 2.2.1. A head teacher claims that the mean IQ of students in their school is above
average. The mean population IQ is 150 with a standard deviation of 13. A random sample
of 30 of their students has an average IQ of 151.
In this case, the 𝑧-statistic should be used since the population standard deviation is known
(𝜎 = 13) and the sample size is 𝑛 = 30 which is sufficiently large.

Application of the Central Limit Theorem

For a large population that is not normally distributed, the Central Limit Theorem applies as
long as the size of the samples is sufficiently large. In some cases, the population is not
normally distributed and the population standard deviation is unknown. In these cases, the
sample standard deviation is a good approximation substitute for the unknown population
standard deviation. If the sample size is equal to or greater than 30, it is considered
sufficiently large.
The mean of a random sample will approximately follow a normal distribution with mean 𝜇
and standard error 𝜎 , regardless of the distribution of the population. The theory requires a
√𝑛
sample size of at least 30 if the population distribution is unknown. Applying the Central Limit
Theorem, we can still use the 𝑧-statistic even when the population distribution is unknown or
not normal.

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Example 2.2.2. Mack asked 42 fellow high school students how much they spend for lunch,
on average. Mack’s sample is 42 students, since 42≥30, he can safely assume that the
distribution of his sample is approximately normal, according to the Central Limit Theorem.

B. The 𝒕-statistic

Assuming the population follows a normal distribution, the appropriate test statistic for testing
a claim about a population mean when the population is assumed to be unknown and when
the sample size is small, usually 𝑛 < 30 is the t-test for a single mean. The 𝑡-statistic is given
by
𝑥̅ − 𝜇
𝑡= 𝑠
√𝑛
Where: 𝑥̅ = sample mean 𝑠 = sample standard deviation
𝜇 = population mean 𝑛 = sample size

Example 2.2.3. A head teacher claims that the mean IQ of students in their school is above
average. The mean population IQ is normally distributed with a mean of 150. A random
sample of 10 of their students has an average IQ of 151.
In this case, the 𝑡-statistic should be used since the population standard deviation is
unknown and the sample size is less than 30.

Example 2.2.4. Identify the appropriate form of test statistic that should be used in each of
the following items.
a. The owner of a car rental agency claims that the mileage of their cars is normally
distributed with a mean of 8 000. A sample of seven of their cars has an average
mileage of 6 490. What test statistic should be used in this case?

Solution: Since the sample size 𝑛 = 7 is less than 30 and the population standard deviation
is unknown, the appropriate form of test statistic is the 𝒕-statistic.

b. A car manufacturer claims that the gas consumption of their new model is 25 km/L with a
standard deviation of 5 km/L. A simple random sample of 64 cars of this model is chosen
and found out to have a mean gas consumption of 27.5 km/L. What test statistic should
be used in this case?

Solution: The sample size 𝑛 = 64 is greater than 30 and the population standard deviation
is known. Thus, the appropriate form of test statistic is the 𝒛-statistic.

Example 2.2.5. A machine is designed to fill cans with 12 ounces of coffee, but a consumer
doubts that the machine is filling the cans completely. A sample of 10 cans has a mean of

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11.5 ounces and a standard deviation of 0.3 ounces. What are the hypotheses and test
statistic to be used in this case? Assume that the amount of coffee in each can is normally
distributed.
Solution:
1. Identify the hypotheses.
The consumer implies that the machine is not filling the cans with enough coffee.
Thus, the alternative hypothesis should state that the mean amount of coffee in each can is
below 12 ounces. Then, we have the following hypotheses:
𝐻𝑜: 𝜇 ≥ 12
𝐻𝑎: 𝜇 < 12
2. Identify the appropriate form of test statistic.
Since the sample size 𝑛 = 10 is less than 30 and the population standard deviation
is unknown, the appropriate form of test statistic to be used is the 𝒕-statistic.

General Directions: Work on Activities 1-3 that follow. Do them on separate sheets of

paper.

Activity 1: Match Maker

Directions: From the choices below, write in the appropriate columns the logical symbols
used in stating null and alternative hypotheses.

= ≠ > ≥ < ≤

Null Alternative

Activity 2: Transform Me!

Directions: Based on the following scenarios, state the null hypothesis Ho and the
alternative hypothesis Ha in notation forms.
1. A city have an unemployment rate of 7% percent. The mayor pledged to lower this
figure and supported programs to decrease unemployment. A group of citizens

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 wanted to test if the unemployment rate have actually decreased, so they obtained a
random sample of citizens to see the proportion of the sample who are unemployed.

2. The Head of the Physical Education (PE) Department of a certain high school claims
that the mean height of Grade 11 students is 163 cm. The mean height of 45
randomly selected Grade 11 students is 161 cm. Using 0.01 level of significance can
it be concluded that the mean height of Grade 11 students is different from 163 cm
as claimed by the Head of the PE Department?

3. An airline company regularly does quality control checks on airplanes. Tire inspection
is included since tires are sensitive to the heat produced when the airplane passes
through the airport’s runway. Since its operation, the company uses a particular type
of tire which is guaranteed to perform even at a maximum surface temperature of
107oC. However, the tires cannot be used and need to be replaced when surface
temperature exceeds 107oC. Help the company decide whether or not to do a
complete tire replacement.

4. A fair coin should land showing tails with a relative frequency of 50% in a long series
of flips. Felicia read that spinning—rather than flipping—a 1 peso coin on a flat
surface is not fair, and that spinning a coin makes it more likely to land showing tails.
She spun her own coin 100 times to test this, and the penny landed showing tails
in 60% of the spins. Let 𝑝 represent the proportion of spins that this penny would
land showing tails.

5. A quality control engineer is testing the battery life of a new smartphone. The
company is advertising that the battery lasts 24 hours on a full-charge, but the
engineer suspects that the battery life is actually less than that. They take a random
sample of 50 of these phones to see if their average battery life is significantly less
than 24 hours. Let μ represent the mean battery life for this population of phones.

Activity 3: Identify It!

Directions: For each given situation below, determine the (a) hypotheses and (b)
appropriate test-statistic to be used. Justify your answers.
1. A paint manufacturing company claims that the mean drying time of their product is 45
minutes. A random sample of 35 gallons of paint selected from the production line of the
company showed a mean drying time of 50 minutes with a standard deviation of 3
minutes.

2. A researcher wishes to determine whether the average age of people in a province is

really 58.3 years. A sample of 28 residents has an average age of 56.7 years with a
standard deviation of 2.1 years. Assume that the ages are normally distributed.

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3. A company claims that the mean weight of bananas they ship is 150 grams with a
standard deviation of 18 grams. Data generated from a sample of 49 bananas randomly
selected from a shipment indicated a mean weight of 153.5 grams.

4. The manufacturer of a brand of battery claims that the mean life of their batteries is at
least 5 months. A consumer protection agency that wants to check this claim took a
random sample of 27 such batteries and found out that the mean life for this sample was
4.75 months with a standard deviation of 2 months. Assume that the life of the batteries
is normally distributed.

5. An article stated that students in a university in Manila take 6 years, on average, to

finish their undergraduate degrees. Suppose you believe that the mean time is shorter,
you conduct a survey of 25 students and obtain a sample mean of 4.8 years with a
sample standard deviation of 1.1 years. Now, assume that the time it takes to finish an
undergraduate degree in the university is normally distributed.

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Directions: Complete the 3-2-1 Chart about your discoveries in Formulating Hypotheses on
a Population and Identifying Appropriate Form of Test-statistic. Write your
answers on a separate sheet of paper.

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Book
Albert, Albacea, David. Statistics and Probability. Quezon City: Commission on Higher
Education

Online

Barbara Illowsky & OpenStax et al. “Introduction to Statistics.” Lumen. Accessed May 20,
2021. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introstats1/chapter/null-and-alternative-
hypotheses/.

CK-12. “Central Limit Theorem.” CK. CK-12 Foundation, November 20, 2019.
https://www.ck12.org/statistics/central-limit-theorem/lesson/central-limit-theorem-pst/.

Mercado, Jesus P. and Fernando B. Orines. Next Century Mathematics Grade 11/ Grade 12
Statistics and Probability. Quezon City, Philippines: Phoenix Publishing House, Inc.,
2016. Pages 40-67.

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