6492
5, MAY 2024
Research on Mutual Inductance Identification and
Efficiency Optimization of the Three-Coil Wireless
Power Transfer Systems With Switchable Relay Coil
Xu Liu , Daliang Jin , Hongxin Ji , Liqing Liu , and Chenyang Xia
Abstract—One of the most difficult problems of the three-coil
wireless power transfer (WPT) systems is that the receiving coil is
hardly fully aligned with the transmitting and relay coils, which af-
fects the efficiency of the practical system seriously as the coupling
exists among the transmitting, relay and receiving coils simulta-
neously. Therefore, this article presents a new mutual inductance
identification and efficiency optimization method for the three-coil
WPT system with a switchable relay coil. First, the mathematical
model of the three-coil WPT system with and without the relay
coil is constructed. Second, the mutual inductance identification
method is proposed to analyze the mutual inductances among
the three coils by the switchable relay coil, which does not need
complicated mathematical calculation strategies and the operating
frequency of the system can be held constant. Then the coil-to-coil
efficiency of the system is compared with and without the relay coil
when the load resistance or position varies. Finally, a coil-to-coil
efficiency improvement method is proposed to ensure that the sys-
tem can always operate under high-efficiency conditions according
to the identified mutual inductances of the three-coil WPT system.
Index Terms—Efficiency optimization, mutual inductance
identification, relay coil, three coils, wireless power transfer (WPT).
I. INTRODUCTION
IRELESS power transfer (WPT) technology can trans-
W mit electric energy from the power supply to the elec-
trical equipment without electrical wires [1], [2], [3], which
effectively solves the problems of traditional wired power trans-
mission way including line loss, wiring aging, etc [4]. Therefore,
this technology can effectively improve the safety, convenience,
and reliability of the charging process [5].
For a common two-coil WPT system, the power transfer
efficiency is inversely proportional to the power transfer distance
between the transmitting and receiving coils. When the receiving
coil is not aligned with the transmitting coil, the power transfer
Manuscript received 6 November 2023; revised 11 January 2024; accepted
30 January 2024. Date of publication 7 February 2024; date of current version
20 March 2024. This work was supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China under Grant 52107012. Recommended for publication by
Associate Editor J. Biela. (Corresponding author: Chenyang Xia.)
Xu Liu, Daliang Jin, Hongxin Ji, and Chenyang Xia are with the School
of Electrical Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology,
Xuzhou 221116, China (e-mail: xu.liu@cumt.edu.cn; daliang.jin@cumt.edu.cn;
jihongx816@163.com; chyxia@cumt.edu.cn).
Liqing Liu is with State Grid Tianjin Electric Power Research Institute, Tianjin
300010, China (e-mail: liulq328@126.com).
Color versions of one or more figures in this article are available at
https://doi.org/10.1109/TPEL.2024.3363138.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPEL.2024.3363138
0885-8993 © 2024 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 39, NO.
efficiency will also be seriously affected [6]. Therefore, the
study on relay coils such as the three-coil WPT system with one
relay coil is proposed with the advantage of greatly improving
the power transfer distance and efficiency of the WPT system
[7], [8], [9].
However, in practical applications, the center of the trans-
mitting, relay, and receiving coils are hard to align exactly in
a straight line, which leads to a non-negligible impact on the
power transfer efficiency and amount of the WPT system [10].
That is because the relative position deviation of the coils causes
the coupling coefficient to change too, resulting in unpredictable
changes in the power transfer amount and a decline in the power
transfer efficiency [11]. For the power transfer efficiency, it is
positively correlated with the coupling coefficient [12]. While
the power transfer amount has a nonlinear relationship with the
coupling coefficient. When the impedance matching relationship
is satisfied, the output power of the system is maximum [13].
Therefore, the coupling relationships among the three coils, i.e.,
the mutual inductances among the three coils, are crucial to
the analysis of power transmission characteristics. While for a
three-coil WPT system, when the relative position of the receiv-
ing coil varies, the mutual inductance between the transmitting
coil and the receiving coil, and the mutual inductance between
the relay and receiving coils both change, even when the relative
position of the transmitting and relay coils are held constant. This
results in more difficulty in the mutual inductance identification
compared to the common two-coil WPT system. Therefore,
the mutual inductance identification method for the three-coil
WPT system has become one of the key problems limiting the
application of the three-coil WPT system [14].
At present, mutual inductance identification and efficiency
optimization methods of the WPT system have been well studied
[15], [16], [17], [18], [19], [20], [21], [22]. An optimized max-
imum efficiency tracking control method for the WPT system
with a T-type impedance matching network is presented in [15].
Meanwhile, by establishing the communication relationship be-
tween the transmitting and receiving coils, the output voltage
of the dc–ac inverter on the primary side is monitored and
the mutual inductance can thereby be calculated in real-time.
However, this method requires additional sensors and topology
on the receiving side, which increases the complexity and cost
of the whole system. Another mutual inductance identification
method for the 2TX-1RX LCC-S WPT system is proposed in
[16]. By measuring the voltage at the transmitting coil and
 LIU et al.: RESEARCH ON MUTUAL INDUCTANCE IDENTIFICATION AND EFFICIENCY OPTIMIZATION OF THE THREE-COIL WPT SYSTEMS
using the auxiliary capacitance to operate at three modes, the
overall model under three operating modes can be derived, and
the system parameters can be obtained by using the nonlinear
state estimator. While the whole topology of the system is much
more complicated and expensive. It can be seen that these com-
mon mutual inductance identification methods require auxiliary
circuits for signal detection and wireless communication, which
reduces the stability of the system and increases the cost and
space of the whole system.
To avoid the use of additional auxiliary circuits, [17] pro-
posed an improved grey wolf optimization algorithm for mutual
inductance identification, which seeks the optimal solution in
a multi-objective optimization environment. Another system
parameter identification method based on pulse width modu-
lation is proposed in [18], which obtains the input impedances
at different frequencies by adjusting the operation frequency
of the dc–ac inverter, and then the mutual inductance can be
calculated. In [19], two transmitting coils and one receiving coil
are used to construct an LCC-S WPT system, and the mutual
inductances among the three coils are calculated by changing
the input impedance of the system with a frequency modulation
control strategy.
It can be found that frequency modulation control methods
[18], [19], [20], [21], [22] are well utilized to realize mutual
inductance identification. However, frequency modulation com-
pels the system untuned, resulting in the frequency splitting
phenomenon (FSP) [23], which increases the instability of the
system. Therefore, Xu et al. [24] proposed a method for mutual
inductance identification and efficiency optimization for the
three-coil WPT system with switchable compensation capaci-
tance. By adjusting the compensation capacitance value of the
relay coil, the input impedance of the system is changed, and
the mutual inductance can thereby be calculated. However, due
to the limitation of the tolerance value of the compensation
capacitance of the relay coil, the system still operates under
unresonant conditions, and the identification accuracy is directly
affected.
In conclusion, there are two main methods for mutual in-
ductance identification of the WPT system at present. First, the
mutual inductance between coils can be calculated by changing
and measuring the input impedance of the system, and only
the output voltage, current, and phase relationship of the dc–ac
inverter need to be measured. Second, wireless communication
must be added to the system to transmit the necessary data infor-
mation between the primary and secondary sides to feedback on
the mutual inductance. However, most of these methods require
complex control strategies, and most of them are only suitable
for two-coil WPT systems. Besides, the operating frequency of
the dc–ac inverter must be tuned, which causes more instabilities
in the whole WPT system. Hence, it is urgent to further study the
mutual inductance identification method for the more complex
three-coil WPT system.
Therefore, this article proposes an effective mutual inductance
identification method for the three-coil WPT system with a
switchable relay coil. This method can realize precise identi-
fication of the three mutual inductances among the three coils
including the cross-coupling mutual inductance under arbitrary
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6493
load deviation position without complex control strategies,
mathematical calculation, or tuning the driving frequency of
the dc–ac inverter. Besides, the coil-to-coil efficiency of the
system can be further optimized according to the identified
mutual inductances with the switchable relay coil proposed
in this article. As a comparison, for different kinds of mutual
inductance identification methods, it can be seen from Table I
that the mutual inductance identification method proposed in this
article can realize high-accuracy identification results including
the cross-coupling of the three-coil WPT system compared with
the existing studies. Meanwhile, the driving frequency of the
whole system can be held constant, which means that the FSP
can be avoided, and the system can avoid the risk of overpower-
ing. In addition, the additional auxiliary circuit and the control
strategy used in this article are both much simpler. Therefore,
the complexity and cost of the system can be greatly reduced,
and the stability can be effectively improved. Besides, with the
proposed switchable relay coil, the coil-to-coil efficiency can be
further improved. That is also one of the main advantages of this
article.
It should also be noted that regarding the efficiency improve-
ment method with active switchers, as given in Table II, active
switching of the relay coil or switchable capacitor for the relay
coil is utilized to optimize system efficiency in [25], [26], and
[27], but these methods cannot be used to identify the mutual
inductance and load resistance of the system, which means
that the parameters that need to be adjusted are difficult to be
determined. In [24], due to the limitation of the tolerance value
of the switchable compensation capacitance of the relay coil,
the system still operates under unresonant conditions like the
systems in [25], [26], and [27], and the identification accuracy
will be directly affected. Therefore, the method proposed in this
article can not only improve the coil-to-coil efficiency but also
improve the accuracy of the mutual inductance identification
among the three coils. Meanwhile, a stable operation condition
can be provided for the system without breaking the resonant
operation condition.
The rest of this article is organized as follows. In Section II,
the mathematical model of the three-coil WPT system with a
switchable relay coil is established, and the input impedance
and coil-to-coil efficiency of the system are analyzed in detail.
In Section III, the method of mutual inductance identification is
presented, and the coil-to-coil efficiencies of the WPT system
with and without the relay coil are compared and analyzed to
propose the coil-to-coil efficiency optimization method. Ex-
periments were carried out on a low-power WPT prototype
system to verify the feasibility and correctness of the mutual
inductance identification and efficiency optimization method,
and the experimental results are given in Section IV. Finally,
Section V concludes this article.
II. MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF THE THREE-COIL WPT
SYSTEM WITH SWITCHABLE RELAY COIL
The proposed three-coil WPT system with a switchable relay
coil is shown in Fig. 1. The system consists of the dc voltage
source VDC , the high-frequency dc–ac inverter, the coil system,
 6494
TABLE I
COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT MUTUAL INDUCTANCE IDENTIFICATION METHODS
TABLE II
COMPARISON OF EFFICIENCY OPTIMIZATION METHODS OF THREE-COIL
WPT SYSTEM
Fig. 1. Structure of the proposed three-coil WPT system.
the passive ac–dc rectifier with a filter capacitor, and the load.
Besides, switches S5 and S6 are used to control the relay coil
cutting in or out of the system.
For the common compensation topologies used in the WPT
systems, there are four basic topologies, i.e., SS, SP, PS, and
PP [28], and some high-order compensation topologies, such
as LCC and LLC, etc [29]. Among them, the SS compensa-
tion topology is most widely used in the studies on the WPT
systems, because of its simple structure, low cost, and ease
of theoretical calculations [30], [31], [32]. Therefore, the basic
series compensation topology is also selected in this article. For
the coil system, it consists of three coils, transmitting coil L1
with its resonant compensation capacitor C1 , relay coil Lr with
its resonant compensation capacitor Cr , and receiving coil L2
with its resonant compensation capacitor C2 , respectively. In
addition, the transmitting coil is connected to the dc–ac inverter,
the relay coil is connected to S5 and S6 , and the receiving coil
is connected to the ac–dc rectifier. The voltage and current
samplers are used to input the signal into the FPGA, and the
ac switches S5 and S6 are controlled together by the FPGA.
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 39, NO. 5, MAY 2024
Fig. 2. Equivalent circuit of the WPT system.
The equivalent simplified circuit model of the system is shown
in Fig. 2, where the dc voltage source VDC and the dc–ac inverter
are equivalent to an ac voltage source VS with a source resistance
RS , and the rectifier, filter capacitor Cfilter , and load RLa are
equivalent to a single resistance load RL [33].
Because the series resonance structure of the load side coil
system will force the sinusoidal current through the ac–dc rec-
tifier and generate the square wave voltage on the input side
of the rectifier, the fundamental frequency RMS value of the
square wave signal is 22 times the peak value of the square
wave signal. Therefore, the relationship between U1 and VDC ,
U2 and UL can be expressed as
 √  
U1 = 2 2 π VDC (1)
 √  
UL = 2 2 π U2 . (2)
For the output side of the ac–dc rectifier, the voltage on the
filter capacitor Cfilter and the actual load RLa will produce a small
ripple, but it is almost constant and equal to the input square
wave voltage amplitude minus the filter capacitor voltage drop.
If the system ac–dc rectifier loss is assumed to be ignored, the
equivalent relationship between RLa and RL can be expressed
as (3) [34].
 √  2
RL = 2 2 π RLa . (3)
It should be noted that because of the assumption in the deriva-
tion process, there must be errors in the theoretical analysis, as
the efficiency of the rectifier cannot reach 100%. But, this error
nearly has no impact on the subsequent theoretical analysis,
because the desired value is the equivalent load resistance RL in
this article, which can be obtained by collecting the secondary
side’s voltage and current waveforms before the rectifier.
 LIU et al.: RESEARCH ON MUTUAL INDUCTANCE IDENTIFICATION AND EFFICIENCY OPTIMIZATION OF THE THREE-COIL WPT SYSTEMS 6495

In addition, RS is the internal resistance of VS , which stands

for the equivalent resistance of the dc power supply and the
dc–ac inverter. In the theoretical analysis, RS can be simplified
as equal to the on-state resistance of the inverter, because the
whole system always operates at resonant conditions, and ZPA
can be approximately achieved for the dc–ac inverter.
According to Fig. 2, Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) can be
used to obtain the equation of the voltage and current relationship
matrix (4) of the WPT system without the relay coil (two-coil
WPT system) when S5 and S6 are turned OFF
    
U1 Z1 jω d M12 I 1
= (4)
0 jω d M12 Z2 I2 Fig. 3. System performance of the two-coil and three-coil WPT systems at
variable driving frequencies.
Z1 = R1 + jωd L1 − j/(ωd C1 ) (5)
Z2 = RL + R2 + jωd L2 − j/(ωd C2 ) (6)
where Z1 and Z2 are the impedance of the transmitting and re- where
2
ceiving circuits, respectively, ω d is the driving angular frequency (Z1 + RS ) (ωd2 Mr2
2
+ Zr Z2 )
of the system, and the self-inductance of each coil is resonant A1 = 4 2 2 2 2 Z2 (16)
ωd M1r Mr2 + ωd M12 r
with its compensation capacitance.
When the input voltage, driving frequency, coil parameters, Zr ωd2 M12
2 2
Mr2 2
+ M1r Z22
A2 = . (17)
and the equivalent load resistance RL are known, the expression ωd2 M1r
2 M 2 + M 2 Z2
r2 12 r
of the coil-to-coil efficiency and input impedance of the two-coil
WPT system can be derived as (7) and (8) by solving (4) III. MUTUAL INDUCTANCE IDENTIFICATION AND EFFICIENCY
RL OPTIMIZATION OF WPT SYSTEM
η=  (7)
Z2 + ((Z1 + RS ) Z22 ) ωd2 M12
2 A. Mutual Inductance Identification of the WPT System
ωd2 M12
2 For the three-coil WPT system, the mutual inductance exists
Zin = Z1 + . (8) between the transmitting and relay coils, the transmitting and
Z2
receiving coils, and the relay and receiving coils. All these three
When S5 and S6 are turned ON, the system changes to a three-
mutual inductances have a nonnegligible impact on the system
coil structure, and the voltage and current matrix equation of the
performance (9) [35]. Therefore, these three mutual inductances
system can also be obtained by KVL, expressed as
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡  ⎤ all need to be exactly recognized. As stated in the introduction,
U1 Z1 jωd M1r jωd M12 I1 tuning the driving frequency of the system to achieve mutual
⎣ 0 ⎦ = ⎣ jωd M1r Zr jωd Mr2 ⎦ ⎣I r ⎦ (9) inductance identification can cause FSP of the system. That is
0 jωd M12 jωd Mr2 Z2 I 2 because when the driving frequency is not equal to the resonant
frequency, the FSP may occur under certain conditions, such as
Zr = Rr + jωd Lr − j/(ωd Cr ) (10) strong coupling, large load resistance, etc. [23]. For the coils
where, Z1 , Zr , and Z2 are the impedance of each coil loop used in this article, it can be seen from Fig. 3 that when the
respectively, shown as (5), (10), and (6), accordingly. driving frequency varies from the resonant frequency and the
Therefore, the coil-to-coil efficiency and input impedance of FSP occurs, the load power may be several tens times the
the three-coil WPT system can be obtained by solving (9), which power obtained at the resonant frequency, and the coil-to-coil
can be expressed as efficiency also reduces compared to the efficiency at the resonant
frequency. In this case, when the driving frequency needs to be
I2 2 RL
η = (11) tuned to achieve mutual inductance identification, the system
I1 2 (R1 + RS ) + Ir 2 Rr + I2 2 (R2 + RL ) may be at risk of overpowering, and the coil-to-coil efficiency
T0 − jT1 will also be affected. Therefore, more works have to be done to
Zin  = (12)
ωd2 Mr2
2 +Z Z
r 2
develop other methods to achieve mutual inductance and load
resistance identification without tuning the driving frequency.
T0 = ωd2 M1r
2
Z2 + ωd2 M12
2
Zr + ωd2 Mr2
2
Z1 + Z1 Zr Z2 (13) However, it can be seen from (12)–(14) that there are too many
T1 = 2ωd3 M1r M12 Mr2 . (14) unknown parameters to solve these mutual inductances only
by solving the input impedance of the three-coil WPT system
By substituting the currents of each loop obtained by (9) into without tuning the driving frequency. Therefore, it is necessary
(11), the coil-to-coil efficiency of the three-coil WPT system can to reduce the system’s unknown parameters. When the three-coil
be rewritten as WPT system cuts out the relay coil, the operating mode of
RL the WPT system changes to a common two-coil WPT system.
η = (15)
A1 + A2 + Z2 At this time, the mutual inductance between the transmitting

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 6496 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 39, NO. 5, MAY 2024

and receiving coils is as same as the mutual inductance M12 on the accuracy of the proposed mutual identification method.
in the three-coil WPT system. By measuring the instantaneous Besides, as shown in Fig. 1, S5 and S6 are a pair of anti-series
output voltage U1 and current I1 of the dc–ac inverter, the input MOSFETs, therefore, when S5 and S6 are turned OFF together at
impedance of the system can be expressed as (18). Moreover, the the same time, the body diodes of S5 and S6 can make sure
amplitude and phase of the instantaneous voltage U2 and current the relay circuit is in an open circuit condition, and no current
I2 of the rectifier can also be collected to obtain the impedance and electromagnetic field will be generated in the relay coils.
Z2 of the load circuit, expressed as (19). Therefore, the mutual Therefore, the existence of the relay coil will not affect the
inductance M12 between the transmitting and receiving coils mutual inductance identification between the transmitting coil
can be easily derived according to (20). It should be noted that and the receiving coil in the two-coil WPT system.
wireless communication or simultaneous wireless power and
information transmission technology can be utilized to transfer
B. Efficiency Optimization of the WPT Coil System
necessary information [36]
It can be found from (5) and (9) that the efficiency of the
Zin = U 1 /I 1 (18) two-coil and three-coil WPT systems are both affected by the
Z2 = U 2 /I 2 (19) equivalent load resistance RL and position of the receiving
 coil. Therefore, when the mutual inductances and equivalent
(U2 /I2 ) (U1 /I1 − Z1 ) load resistance RL are identified by the method presented in
M12 = . (20)
ωd Section III-A, the coil-to-coil efficiency can be further optimized
So far, the mutual inductance between the transmitting and re- with the switchable relay coil proposed in this article.
ceiving coils M12 has been successfully identified, only another According to (7) and (15), (26) can be obtained when the
two mutual inductances, i.e., the mutual inductance between the coil-to-coil efficiency of the two-coil and three-coil structures
relay and receiving coils Mr2 , and the mutual inductance be- is equal. According to (26), when the left formula is less than
tween the transmitting and relay coils M1r need to be identified. the right formula, the two-coil transmission efficiency is lower
Therefore, the relay coil can be tapped into the WPT system to than the three-coil transmission efficiency; when the left formula
generate different input impendence with M1r and Mr2 . At this is greater than the right formula, the two-coil transmission
time, the instantaneous output voltage U  1 and current I  1 of the efficiency is higher than the three-coil transmission efficiency.
dc–ac inverter can also be measured, and the input impedance Therefore, with the switchable relay coil, not only the mutual
of the system under this condition can be expressed as (21). inductances of the three-coil WPT system can be identified, but
According to (12), for the three-coil WPT system, the voltage also the system operating modes can be changed between a two-
and current are no longer in phase, and the input impedance coil structure and a three-coil structure for higher coil-to-coil
of the three-coil WPT system can be decomposed into real and efficiency according to the identified mutual inductances
imaginary parts, expressed as
Z1 Z22
   A1 + A2 = 2 . (26)
Zin = U 1 /I 1 (21) M12
T0
Re (Zin  ) = (22) Based on the above analysis, the flow chart of the mutual
ωd2 Mr2
2 + Zr Z2
inductance identification of the three-coil WPT system with the
T1 efficiency optimization proposed in this article is shown in Fig. 4.
Im (Zin  ) = − 2 +Z Z . (23)
ωd2 Mr2 r 2 The specific implementation steps are as follows:
1) Step 1: Determining the initial system parameters includ-
Therefore, Mr2 and M1r can be identified by solving (24) ing L1 , Lr , L2 , C1 , Cr , C2 , fd .
and (25), accordingly. As Mr2 exists in quadratic form in (24), 2) Step 2: Turn OFF switches S5 and S6 together, and make
so the solution of this equation contains one negative root and sure the relay coil has been cut out of the WPT system.
one positive root. But for the physics meaning of the mutual 3) Step 3: Measuring the amplitude and phase of U1 , U2 ,
inductance, only the positive root can be retained. Then, M1r and I1 , I2 . Based on (20), obtaining the mutual inductance
can be derived by substituting Mr2 into (25) M12 .
2  
Im(Zin  ) Z2 ωd2 Mr2 2
+ Zr Z2 ω 2 M 2 Zr 4) Step 4: Turn ON switches S5 and S6 together, and make
2 2 2 2 + 2 d2 12 sure the relay coil has been tapped into the WPT system.
4ωd M12 ωd Mr2 (ωd Mr2 + Zr Z2 )
5) Step 5: Measuring the amplitude and phase of U1  and
= Re (Zin  ) − Z1 (24) I1  of the. Based on (24) and (25), obtaining the mutual
inductance M1r and Mr2 .
ωd2 Mr2
2
+ Zr Z2
M1r = 3 Im (Zin  ) . (25) 6) Step 6: Substituting the identified values and initial system
−2ωd M12 Mr2 parameters into (7) and (15) to calculate the power trans-
It should be noted that RS will vary with the operation con- mission efficiency η and η  of the two-coil and three-coil
ditions in a small range. However, the amplitude and phase of WPT systems, respectively.
the output voltage and current of the dc–ac inverter are acquired 7) Step 7: Comparing η and η  to determine the switching
for the theoretical calculation, therefore, Rs has nearly no effect state of switches S5 and S6 .

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 LIU et al.: RESEARCH ON MUTUAL INDUCTANCE IDENTIFICATION AND EFFICIENCY OPTIMIZATION OF THE THREE-COIL WPT SYSTEMS
Fig. 4. Flow chart of the proposed mutual inductance identification and
efficiency optimization method.
Fig. 5. Experimental platform of the WPT system.
IV. EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION
A. Introduction of the Experimental Platform
To verify the correctness and feasibility of the mutual induc-
tance identification method and power transmission efficiency
optimization method of the three-coil WPT system proposed in
this article, a low-power experimental WPT setup is built up as
shown in Fig. 5.
The design parameters of the WPT system are given in
Table III, and the detailed design parameters of the coils are given
in Table IV. It should be noted that the parasitic resistance of each
coil is measured by the impedance analyzer. In the experiments,
the transmitting coil and the receiving coil need to be connected
to the inverter and the rectifier, so the used wire is longer than
the relay coil. Therefore, the parasitic resistance of the relay coil
is lower than the other two coils.
In the experiments, the three coils are placed vertically, the
relative position diagram of the three coils is shown in Fig. 6, and
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6497
TABLE III
PARAMETERS OF THE SYSTEM
TABLE IV
DESIGN PARAMETERS OF THE COIL STRUCTURE
Fig. 6. Relative position of the three coils in the experiments.
the distance between the transmitting coil and the relay coil is set
to be 20 mm to maximize the efficiency of the three-coil WPT
system according to [37]. The initial vertical distance between
the relay coil and the receiving coil is set to be 30 mm according
to common electric equipment, such as mobile phones [35],
AUVs [38], laptops [39], et al The equivalent load resistance RL
is set to vary from 6 to 20 Ω to provide different load conditions
[40]. The load is a self-made load box, which consists of ten
10 Ω pure resistors (MP9100–10.0-1%).
It should also be noted that the resonant frequency of the
WPT system is set to be 200 kHz for low-power equipment [35],
[38], [39], while to make sure each coil operates at resonant
conditions, the driving frequency is set to 196 kHz according
to the experimentally measured inductance of the coils and the
capacitance of the compensation capacitors.
Besides, in the experiments, the dc Power Supply (ITECH,
IT6006D-800-20) is used to power up the whole system, and
the dc voltage is set to 20 V to power up low-power systems
such as mobile phones (5–50 W). The transmitting coil and its
compensation circuit receive the desired high-frequency power
from the full-bridge inverter which consists of four SiC MOSFETs
S1 –S4 (C2M0040120D), then the power is transmitted to the
receiving coil through the relay coil, and finally, the power is
transmitted to the load by four SiC diodes (C4D20120D). The
power analyzer (Yokogawa, WT1800) is used to measure the
output voltage and current of the inverter and the input voltage
 6498 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 39, NO. 5, MAY 2024

TABLE V
COMPARISON OF MUTUAL INDUCTANCE OBTAINED BY DIFFERENT METHODS

and current of the rectifier. The 100 MHz passive probe (Pico,
TAO42) is used to measure the inverter output voltage, and the
100MHz current probe (Keysight, N2783B) is used to measure
the inverter output current. 200 MHz oscilloscope (Keysight,
DSOX3024T) is used to capture voltage and current waveforms.
Besides, the output voltage and current waveforms of the dc–ac
inverter are collected by the oscilloscope in the experiments, and
then the waveforms are imported to MATLAB for analyzing the
amplitude and phase relationships to complete the mathematical
calculations. While in practical applications, the amplitude and
phase of the waveforms can also be measured and processed by
current sensors and analog-to-digital converters [18].
It should be noted that to validate the correctness of the
proposed mutual inductance identification method, comparing
the simulated mutual inductance by finite element simulation
software, such as MAXWELL with the identified values is a
common way in related studies. Besides, the mutual inductances
can also be measured by the impedance analyzer. The compari-
son between the measured mutual inductance by the impedance
analyzer and the simulated mutual inductance by MAXWELL
is given in Table V. It can be seen that the mutual inductances
obtained by these two methods are very close to each other.
Therefore, the reference values of the mutual inductance are
selected as the simulated values in this article.
Fig. 7. Experimental waveforms. (a) Two-coil WPT system. (b) Three-coil
WPT system.
B. Mutual Inductance Identification Experiments
The measured output voltage and current waveforms of the
dc–ac inverter in the two-coil and three-coil WPT systems by systems (see Fig. 8), the two-coil WPT system always has a
the oscilloscope are shown in Fig. 7(a) and (b), respectively. In higher output power than the three-coil WPT system under the
Fig. 7, U1 and I1 are the output voltage and current of the dc–ac same operation conditions in this article. That is because of the
inverter in the two-coil WPT system; U1  and I1  are the output reflected impedance in the three-coil WPT system consisting
voltage and current of the dc–ac inverter in the three-coil WPT of the relay and load coils and the mutual impedance M1r and
system. Φ stands for the phase difference between the output Mr2 , which is much higher than the two-coil WPT system, and
voltage and current of the inverter. In addition, the pulse in the that is the essential disadvantage of the three-coil WPT system
voltage waveforms is caused by the setting of the dead time [25]. But for the system performance, coil-to-coil efficiency is
of the H-bridge inverter [23]. The measured input and output another very important indicator, as the output power can be
voltage and current values of the two-coil and three-coil WPT easily improved by increasing the input voltage [41], but the
systems by the power analyser are shown in Fig. 8(a) and (b), efficiency is hardly improved in the WPT systems. Therefore, the
accordingly. three-coil WPT system usually can achieve a longer transmission
It can be seen from Fig. 7 that when the resonant frequency distance and a higher transmission efficiency than the two-coil
and driving frequency of the WPT systems are equal to each WPT system. So, the two-coil and three-coil WPT systems have
other, the output voltage and current of the dc–ac inverter are their own advantages in terms of power transfer amount and
only in phase in the two-coil WPT system. For the three-coil efficiency in many cases. In this article, the optimization object
WPT system, the voltage and current are no longer in phase, is selected as coil-to-coil efficiency to analyze the performance
which is consistent with the theoretical analysis in Section II. of the systems.
Meanwhile, the phase angle between the voltage and current For the operating conditions of Figs. 7 and 8, the equivalent
waveforms can be measured by the oscilloscope as shown in load resistance RL is 8.2 Ω, taking into account the influence
Fig. 7(b). In addition, for the output power of these two WPT of parasitic resistance R2 in the receiving coil, the receiving

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 LIU et al.: RESEARCH ON MUTUAL INDUCTANCE IDENTIFICATION AND EFFICIENCY OPTIMIZATION OF THE THREE-COIL WPT SYSTEMS
Fig. 8. Experimental datas. (a) Two-coil WPT system. (b) Three-coil WPT
system.
circuit impedance Z2 is about 8.7 Ω, which is consistent with
the measured value in Fig. 8 with a small error. The distance
between the transmitting and relay coils is 20 mm, and the
distance between the relay and receiving coils is 30 mm, which
results in M12 being 9.77 μH, M1r being 26.06 μH, Mr2 being
18.32 μH, theoretically (by MAXWELL software). With the
mutual identification method proposed in this article (see Fig. 4),
the identified M12 , M1r , and Mr2 are 9.75, 26.57, and 18.72 μH,
respectively. It can be seen that the identification error is only
1.44%, on average, which proves the effectiveness of the mutual
identification method proposed in this article.
While for the actual electric equipment, the equivalent resis-
tance of the load usually changes within a certain range. Such as
the equivalent resistance of the battery changes with the charging
process [42]. Therefore, the accuracy of the proposed mutual
inductance identification method under various load resistances
is studied in this article. In the experiments, RL varies from 6
to 20 Ω with a 2 Ω step [37]. The position relationships among
the three coils are the same as in the experiments above (see
Fig. 7). Fig. 9 shows the comparison results of the identified
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6499
Fig. 9. Mutual inductance identification results under various load resistances.
Fig. 10. Mutual inductance identification results under various lateral mis-
alignments of the load.
mutual inductance with the theoretical values under different
load conditions.
As can be seen from Fig. 9, the mutual inductance identi-
fication results always have high accuracy under different load
resistances, the mutual inductance identification values obtained
by experiments are very close to the theoretical values. When the
coil position is fixed, the average error percentage of M1r under
different load resistances is about 2.08%, the corresponding
average error is 0.54 μH, and the maximum error is only about
1.06 μH. The mean error percentage of Mr2 is about 2.23%, the
corresponding mean error is 0.41 μH, and the maximum error
is only 0.75 μH. Considering the theoretical mutual inductances
among the three coils are several tens of microhenries, the
identification error is acceptable. Through the comparison of
theoretical and identification values, it can be found that the
mutual inductance identification method for the three-coil WPT
system proposed in this article can achieve very high accuracy
under different load resistances.
Meanwhile, for verifying the mutual inductance identification
method can also be used when the receiving coil is laterally
moved, more experiments are conducted and the results are
shown in Fig. 10. In these experiments, RL is held constant at
10 Ω, the transmitting and relay coils are still placed vertically
 6500
Fig. 11. Mutual inductance identification results under various distances be-
tween the transmitting and relay coils.
without any misalignment (d1r = 20 mm), and the misalignment
between the receiving and relay coil is set to vary from 0 to
40 mm, resulting M12 varies from 9.77 to 7.44 μH, and Mr2
varies from 18.32 to 13.1 μH, theoretically.
It can be seen from Fig. 10 that when RL is fixed and the
load position varies (dx stands for the misalignment between the
receiving coil and the transmitting /relay coil), the mean error
percentage of M12 is about 1.51%, the corresponding mean error
value is 0.14 μH, and the maximum error is only 0.33 μH. Mr2
has an average error percentage of 1.26%, an average error value
of 0.19 μH, and a maximum error of 0.3 μH. Therefore, the error
is acceptable and the mutual inductance identification method
is feasible.
In addition, when the relative position of the transmitting coil
and relay coil varies, such as when the distance between these
two coils increases, the precision of the mutual inductance iden-
tification method proposed in this article is nearly not affected
as shown in Fig. 11. It can be seen that when RL is fixed and
the position of the relay coil changes (d1r ), the average error
percentage of M1r is about 2.27%, corresponding to an average
error value of 0.42 μH, and the maximum error is only 0.72 μH.
Mr2 has an average error rate of 3.82%, an average error value of
1.29 μH, and a maximum error of 2.11 μH. Therefore, the error
is acceptable and the mutual inductance identification method
is feasible.
As a conclusion, the mutual inductance identification method
of the WPT system proposed in this article is accurate and fea-
sible under various load resistances (see Fig. 9), load positions
(see Fig. 10), and relay coil positions (see Fig. 11). The mean
mutual inductance identification precision can be high to 98%
under various load resistances or misalignments.
C. Efficiency Optimization Experiments
As analyzed previously, the coil-to-coil efficiency of the WPT
system is mainly affected by load impedance and coil position
for a practical system [(7) and (15)]. When the operating con-
ditions vary, the coil-to-coil efficiency of the two-coil and the
three-coil WPT systems each has its suitable operation range
(26). Therefore, when the initial parameters of the WPT system
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 39, NO. 5, MAY 2024
Fig. 12. Efficiencies of the two-coil and three-coil WPT systems under various
misalignments of the receiving coil.
are known and the mutual inductances are identified, the coil-
to-coil efficiency can be further improved with the switchable
relay coil.
According to (26), when the operating frequency ω d and M1r
are fixed, if the receiving coil is laterally misalignment to the
transmitting/relay coil, that is, M12 and Mr2 change at the same
time, the coil-to-coil efficiency of the two-coil and three-coil
WPT systems can be equal under different load resistances.
Meanwhile, the change in load position and equivalent load
resistance RL both cause changes in the coil-to-coil efficiency
of the two-coil and three-coil WPT systems. Therefore, the
application range of the two-coil and three-coil WPT systems
can be obtained according to the operation conditions.
The coil-to-coil efficiencies of the two-coil and three-coil
WPT systems at different misalignments (dx ) are shown in
Fig. 12. When the load resistance RL is 10 Ω, with the increasing
of dx , the coil-to-coil efficiency of the two-coil WPT system
is first higher than the three-coil WPT system and then lower
than the three-coil WPT system. As shown in Fig. 12, when
dx = 0 mm, the two-coil transmission efficiency is 93.12%,
which is 0.19% higher than the three-coil WPT system; when
dx = 5 mm, these two systems nearly have an equal efficiency;
when dx = 40 mm, the three-coil system transmission efficiency
is 93.1%, and is 4.68% higher than the two-coil WPT system
efficiency. Therefore, when the misalignment is small (0–5 mm
in this article), the two-coil WPT system can achieve higher
efficiency, when the misalignment is large (15–40 mm in this
article), the three-coil WPT system is a better choice.
Meanwhile, it can also be found from Fig. 12 that the load
resistance RL also has a nonnegligible impact on the two-coil
and three-coil WPT systems, as when the load resistance RL
varies, the intersection of the equal efficiency also changes.
 LIU et al.: RESEARCH ON MUTUAL INDUCTANCE IDENTIFICATION AND EFFICIENCY OPTIMIZATION OF THE THREE-COIL WPT SYSTEMS
Fig. 13. Efficiencies of the two-coil and three-coil WPT systems under various
load resistances.
Therefore, when the misalignment of the receiving coil is fixed at
0, 20, and 40 mm, the efficiencies of the two-coil and three-coil
WPT systems under various load resistances are studied, and the
results are shown in Fig. 13.
It can be seen from Fig. 13 that when the misalignment of the
receiving coil is fixed, the two-coil structure should be adopted
for higher efficiency when RL is lower than a certain value.
Contrarily, with the increase in RL , the three-coil WPT system
can have a higher efficiency. Specifically, in this case, when
dx is 0, 20, and 40 mm, the critical RL is 10, 9, and 6.2 Ω,
respectively. Meanwhile, the mathematically calculated critical
load resistances RL [by Fig. 4 and (26)] are 10.2, 8.8, and
5.7 Ω, accordingly. It can be seen the average error percentage
between the experimental and theoretical critical RL is around
4.3%, and the average error value is 0.3 Ω. This indicates that
the mathematically calculated RL can be used to compare the
coil-to-coil efficiency between the two-coil and three-coil WPT
systems.
Therefore, it is feasible to optimize the coil-to-coil efficiency
of the WPT system with a switchable relay coil by controlling the
operation condition of the relay coil when mutual inductances
are identified (see Fig. 4) and when the load position (see Fig. 12)
or the equivalent load resistance RL (see Fig. 13) varies. For
example, when RL is small at 6 Ω (dx = 0 mm), the coil-to-
coil efficiency of the two-coil WPT system is 89.5%, and the
three-coil WPT system efficiency is 83.6%. In this condition,
the WPT system can be tuned into the two-coil structure, and
the coil-to-coil efficiency can be increased by 5.9% compared
to the three-coil structure. When RL is 6 Ω with a 40 mm lateral
misalignment, the system should be tuned into the three-coil
structure, as the coil-to-coil efficiency of the three-coil WPT
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6501
system is 0.57% higher than the two-coil WPT system. Similarly,
when RL is high at 20 Ω and the misalignment is 0 mm, the
WPT system should be tuned into the three-coil structure, as the
coil-to-coil efficiency of the two-coil WPT is 90.51%, which
is 5.83% lower than the coil-to-coil efficiency of the three-coil
structure.
In conclusion, with the mutual inductances identification and
efficiency optimization method of the three-coil WPT system
presented in this article (see Fig. 4) by the switchable relay coil,
not only the mutual inductances among the three coils can be
accurately identified, but also the efficiency of the WPT system
can be further improved.
V. CONCLUSION
In this article, a new mutual inductance identification and
efficiency optimization method for the three-coil WPT system
was proposed with a switchable relay coil, which avoid the
frequency splitting problem as the driving frequency of the
system was held constant and can effectively identify the mutual
inductances among the three coils including the cross-coupling
effect. With the switchable relay coil, the input impedance of
the system was measured before and after the switch was turned
ON or OFF, and the mutual inductances among the three coils
can thereby be mathematically calculated. The experimental
results show that the mean mutual inductance identification
precision was high to 98% under various load resistances or
misalignments. According to the identified mutual inductances,
a suitable system operation mode was proposed with the switch-
able relay coil to effectively improve coil-to-coil efficiency. The
experimental results show that the coil-to-coil efficiency was
improved by up to 5.9% under specific conditions.
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Xu Liu received the B.S. degree in electronic science
and technology and the Ph.D. degree in electrical en-
gineering, both from the China University of Mining
and Technology, Xuzhou, China, in 2012 and 2018,
respectively.
He was a joint Ph.D. student with the University
of Bristol, from 2015 to 2017. From 2018 to 2021,
he was a Research Associate with the School of
Electrical Engineering, China University of Mining
and Technology, Xuzhou, China. He is currently an
Associate Professor with the School of Electrical
Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou, China.
His current research interests include wireless power transfer technology and
advanced power semiconductors.
Daliang Jin received the B.S. degree in electrical
engineering from the Foreign Trade and Economic
Cooperation of Wuhan Textile University, Wuhan,
China, in 2022. He is currently working toward the
M.S. degree in electrical engineering with the School
of Electrical Engineering, China University of Mining
and Technology, Xuzhou, China.
His current research interests include wireless
power transfer technology and advanced power semi-
conductors.
 LIU et al.: RESEARCH ON MUTUAL INDUCTANCE IDENTIFICATION AND EFFICIENCY OPTIMIZATION OF THE THREE-COIL WPT SYSTEMS
Hongxin Ji received the Ph.D. degree in electrical
engineering from North China Electric Power Uni-
versity, Beijing, China, in 2017.
He was a Post-Doctoral Research Fellow with the
School of Aerospace Engineering, Tsinghua Univer-
sity, Beijing, China. He is currently an Associate
Professor with the School of Electrical Engineering,
China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou,
China. His current research interests include electri-
cal insulation and materials, condition monitoring of
power apparatus and control of dual-arm robot.
Liqing Liu received the Ph.D. degree in electrical
engineering from North China Electric Power Uni-
versity, Beijing, China, in 2017.
He is currently with the State Grid Tianjin Electric
Power Research Institute, Tianjin, China. His current
research interests include electrical insulation and
materials, condition monitoring of power apparatus.
Authorized licensed use limited to: BEIJING UNIVERSITY OF POST AND TELECOM. Downloaded on April 22,2024 at 11:07:11 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
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Chenyang Xia received the B.S., M.S. and Ph.D.
degrees in control theory and control engineering
from Chongqing University, Chongqing, China, in
2006, 2008, and 2010, respectively.
From 2018 to 2019, he was an Academic Visitor
with the University of Auckland, New Zealand. He
is currently a Professor with the School of Electrical
Engineering, China University of Mining and Tech-
nology, Xuzhou, China. His current research interests
include wireless power transfer technology, power
electronics, intrinsic safety switch power supply, and
intelligent control.