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THE SOLOMON KEY
EARTH UNCOVERED
BOOK 1
NICK THACKER
 CONTENTS

Want free books?

Introduction
1. Brody
2. Brody
3. Brody
4. Brody
5. Brody
6. Brody
7. Landon
8. Brody
9. Brody
10. Brody
11. Brody
12. Dietrich
13. Brody
14. Brody
15. Landon
16. Anna
17. Brody
18. Brody
19. Brody
20. Anna
21. Dietrich
22. Anna
23. Brody
24. Brody
25. Brody
26. Brody
27. Colin
28. Brody
29. Landon
30. Anna
31. Anna
32. Landon
33. Brody
34. Anna
35. Colin
36. Landon
37. Brody
38. Brody
39. Brody
40. Anna
41. Colin
42. Anna
43. Brody
44. Brody
45. Brody
46. Anna
47. Brody
48. Brody
49. Brody
50. Anna
51. Brody
52. Brody
53. Colin
54. Brody
55. Brody
56. Brody
57. Brody
58. Anna
59. Colin
60. Dietrich
61. Brody
62. Colin
63. Colin
64. Anna
65. Colin
66. Brody
67. Anna
68. Brody
69. Anna
70. Brody
71. Colin
72. Brody
73. Brody
74. Brody
75. Anna
76. Anna
77. Anna
78. Anna
79. Landon
Epilogue
Afterword
About the Author
Harvey Bennett Thrillers
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 INTRODUCTION

Earth Uncovered is a brand-new series, and the second book is

already on the way! If you would like to get notified of its release,
just head over here and pre-order a copy.
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ONE
 BRODY

TUESDAY | 8:19 am
Parrish Studios, Los Angeles, California
“…The one call you can’t ignore. The one call you can’t refuse.”
The man behind the microphone paused for effect, then inhaled
a silent breath. “Diarrhea.”
Brody stepped back from the mic, held the headphones tighter
over his ears, and cleared his throat. He waited a few seconds, then
returned to the microphone to repeat the same phrase. “It’s the one
call you can’t —“
“Cut.”
The voice spilled into the earphones and pierced directly into his
brain as if emanating from inside himself. He had asked the engineer
behind the glass to bring down the level of the monitoring output
three times already. Still, it seemed either he had ignored him, or
the director — a real class act himself Brody had butted heads with
in the past— had just turned it back up, once again attempting to
prove that he knew best.
It was the director’s voice that was speaking now. “Let’s try that
again, from the top.”
Brody set his jaw. “I hope we can eventually move on to the
second line of dialogue in this ad spot, Martin.”
He saw Martin waving a dismissive hand in his direction through
the glass separating the vocal booth from the main tracking room in
the studio. He stood over the engineer’s shoulder in order to speak
into the talkback monitor’s microphone from only inches away —
which, Brody knew, could easily pick up sound from anywhere in the
room. Even from here, Brody could see that the engineer’s personal
bubble had been breached.
“Yeah, whatever. Let’s take it from the top, just like I said. And
stow your attitude. Ready?”
Brody gave a slight shake of his head and silently cursed the
director. Regardless of his internal desire to crack a fist through the
glass and strangle Martin with a microphone cable, Brody stepped
back up and gave the next take his best. “It’s the only call you can’t
refuse…” he said, emphasizing the word only and refuse, giving a
half-breath’s worth of space between the two separate beats of the
sentence.
It was hard to believe, but he had actually trained for this sort of
thing. If only my third-grade drama teacher could see me now, he
thought.
“Diarrhea.”
Had he given the second half of that word enough emphasis?
Now that he was thinking of it, was it di-arrhea with the emphasis
on the die? Or was it dia-rrhea, emphasis on the second syllable?
Brody stifled a chuckle when a memory bubbled up into his brain,
listening to the man mispronounce the word diabetes on midday
television. Should he go for something like that? Should he say
diarrhea in a way that would eventually make him a name — or at
least a meme — for later generations? Di-a-rrhea? Diary —
pronouncing the first part like it was a schoolgirl’s journal and then
putting an exaggerated grunt at the end? Maybe he could —
“Brody, are you in a trance? You still with us? I pay for studio
time by the hour, you know.”
Brody flicked his eyebrows up and nodded at the glass. The ad
company is paying for this, actually, he thought. However, he didn’t
say anything.
“I want to run it again, top to bottom; this time, I want you to
really pretend to be there.”
Brody almost laughed out loud. “You mean, you want me to
pretend like I have diarrhea? Or that I am awkwardly narrating a
voiceover while two women are enjoying a cup of tea in the park?”
Whatever brilliant marketing company had decided to hire this
difficult director had also been brilliant enough to create the
absolutely genius commercial for which Brody was now voicing. Two
middle-aged women, both wearing clothes — the kind that were not
quite casual, not quite formal — both smiling ridiculously
exaggerated smiles that made them both seem like new members of
a cult, sipping tea out of actual ceramic mugs while sitting together…
sharing a blanket in a park. The mostly blurred background even
had children giggling and chasing each other in it. One even had a
streamer on a wand and was making S-shapes in the air like a
colorguard in a marching band.
“Yeah, sure,” he said. He stepped back to the microphone for the
fifteenth time that hour and was about to give the engineer a
thumbs-up when he felt his phone vibrate. He tried to ignore it, but
then he realized he had not put it on silent mode. The sound of
Wagner’s Ride of the Valkyries echoed through the signal chain and
back into his monitoring headphones, complete with the slight
reverb the engineer had put on the mic. He looked through the glass
and saw Martin glaring back at him. Martin’s mouth dropped open,
no doubt preparing to launch into some empty threat of never
working again in this town or something, but Brody slipped the
headphones off his head and around his neck before Martin spoke,
pulling the phone up to his face to read the text message. The
director could yell all he wanted.
Brody knew who it was from — there was only one person in his
contact list with a custom ringtone — and he was almost positive the
text would be a waste of time, but there was always a flicker of
hope. Always the optimistic belief that this one, after so many years,
could be the big one.
He read the text from his agent. Need you to come right away.
Opportunity on table. Won’t want to miss it.
Brody smiled. His agent was probably one of the worst in
Hollywood. To the man’s credit, though, Brody had worked
consistently in LA, though it was hardly a living and certainly nothing
to brag about.
 He had once wasted a night Googling himself, and ended up on a
wannabe actors forum, reading about himself. He imagined what
people thought when they saw him. Oh, you’re that guy from those
poop commercials! Or, didn’t you get dumped on live television on
that one reality show?
Every now and then someone was a bit more discerning and
knew his actual name. You’re Brody Flanagan, from Bracket of Love,
that March Madness dating show, right? Or, Whoa, dude — did you
really eat that live tadpole? PETA must have come down hard on the
network for that, right? Are those reality shows real or fake?
The tadpole had been fine, of course, but Brody had had to
shove his finger halfway down his esophagus to generate enough
retching to vomit it back up. He had been surprised to discover that
the network had arranged a so-called ‘professional tadpole liaison,’
who had quickly come to his side, scooped up the tiny pseudo-frog,
and plopped it into a Dixie cup full of water to wash the icky human
juice off of it.
…at which point he had taken his break and vomited for real in
the bathroom. As he did, he had briefly had the thought that Tiny
Pseudo Frog would make a great band name. Probably for a novelty
band, though. Or one that only plays kids’ parties. And If this next
gig from his agent didn’t pan out, he might be forced to seriously
consider it.
TWO
 BRODY

TUESDAY | 8:37 am
Johnson Building, Los Angeles, California
Brody had not had enough time to shower or shave after the
studio, but thankfully his agent’s office was only a few blocks away.
He had opted to walk instead of wait for a rideshare, and the
sweltering LA heat in the dead of summer was doing its best to
make him regret that decision.
He thought he could smell himself by the time he walked through
the front lobby, an auspiciously luxurious space that masked the true
wealth of most of the tenants renting the offices here. The building’s
owner, someone named Johnson, had splurged on the front entrance
and lobby but then kept rent low enough for scores of Hollywood
agents to set up shop inside its three-story space.
Brody’s agent, Gene Rodgers, was one such example, a career
shyster who was constantly skirting the line between likely schmuck
and actual gangster. Still, Brody had chosen the agent — not the
other way around — so he supposed it was his fault for keeping the
man’s business for almost a decade. It wasn’t as if he couldn’t just
walk into one of the other thirty-seven ‘Artist and Talent
Management Services’ offices in this very building, or one of the
other thousand-plus he knew was only a stone’s throw from here.
In some ways, Hollywood was vastly different from the way it
had been during the golden years of film. There was no longer a
true ‘Hollywood’ — at least not as it pertained to showbiz. Most of
the wheeling and dealing happened in downtown Los Angeles,
because some brilliant executives had decided that it was easier to
keep all of their talent and assets inside of a five-block radius at all
times, just in case a last-minute casting call for Superman needed to
happen. In a spectacular ironic twist, many of the affordable
apartments in the area were owned by the same investors who
owned the studios and networks, which meant the actors and
actresses begging and pleading for roles simply turned around and
shoveled their earnings back into the networks’ hands, in the form of
rent.
But one thing that had not changed was the need for an agent.
He wasn’t sure how the agent unions had pulled it off, but they had
created an infrastructure where their jobs were, against all odds, still
necessary. Directors’ assistants and casting professionals posted the
mundane, low-level roles to the boards, while the good stuff — all
the stuff that actually made an actor or actress real money — was
still filtered out through the agencies.
It wasn’t common, but every now and then, one of those roles
fell into Brody’s agent’s hands.
Brody strolled into Gene’s office, surprised to see his agent on
the phone. The man hardly ever seemed to do any actual work, so
the fact that he had sent Brody an email and had a telephone call all
in the same day was nothing short of miraculous.
“Busy?” Brody asked.
The man looked up, then slammed the phone down onto the
receiver. “It’s hell out there, Brody,” Gene answered. “Just straight
hell.”
“And to think — you’re only getting a taste of that hell from
inside your high tower. Imagine us peons down there having to duke
it out for the scraps of morsels that fall down.”
“You do that commercial this morning?”
“Number three in the series,” Brody said. “Only one more after
this, and it’s a wrap.”
Gene nodded, not responding at first. He picked up a dirty napkin
laying on the edge of his desk and dabbed something invisible off his
cheeks. “Right, that IBS thing. How was it?”
 “It was a shitshow.”
They stared at each other for a few seconds, and Brody
wondered if his joke had landed. Finally, Gene gave him a half-smirk.
“You’ve got the wit, boy. Just like your old man. You might even
have the chops, too, if we can just land you a decent role.”
“Isn’t that why you sent me the text? You typed it like a general
about going to battle.”
“Yes, and we are about to go into battle. The role’s yours to lose,
so you need to be ready.”
Brody cocked an eyebrow but strode forward and took a seat in
one of the ratty old chairs that had been in the space since
Nosferatu was at the box office. “Okay, spill it. What is it?”
“It’s a reality piece, one that I think —“
“No,” Brody said quickly, shaking his head. “No, I told you no
more reality —“
“Well, we’re running out of commercials about bowel
movements, Brody,” his agent said in a low tone. “And I don’t exactly
have a stack of opportunities on my desk for you at the moment. I
understand that you want to refresh your image or renew your
brand or whatever-some-shit, but there comes the point when an
actor has to act. Like I said, this one’s yours to lose, so it could be
easy money.”
Brody sat there, staring at the ceiling. He saw the beaten-down
fan pumping effectively zero air, one of its arms limping along and
causing the other three to perform the miserable, sickly dance on
the ceiling. Finally, after what felt like an eternity, he looked back at
his agent, who was wearing that stupid I-know-better-than-you grin
that had long ago persuaded Brody into signing a contract with him.
“Fine,” Brody said. “What is it this time?”
His agent waved his hand in the same dismissive gesture Martin
had given him at the studio, and he pulled out a single sheet of
paper from a file folder to his right. “I printed it out because it has
the address for the audition. They want you to come by whenever
you’re free today or tomorrow. After that, they’ll start looking
elsewhere.”
 This plan felt different to Brody, for two reasons. First, there was
an actual, physical location for the audition. That implied that this
was a real production — one that had already received the proper
checkmarks from the suits, and had already gotten off the ground
with some seed capital. It meant they weren’t messing around, or
that they were messing around and didn’t know how things in
Hollywood typically worked. Either way, Brody was intrigued. The
second reason this was interesting to him was that he seemed to
have been tapped, specifically.
They wanted Brody, and that could only mean…
“I know how it sounds,” his agent said, “and it’s true. They think
that having a tie to your father will be a benefit in this case.”
Brody squeezed his eyes shut. Here we go again, he thought. At
first, having a semi-famous dad made Brody think getting an “in”
and making it in Hollywood would be a shoo-in. Even without his
dad actively pulling strings, he figured the casting directors and
producers would jump at the chance to have his family name on the
bill.
And for the most part, Brody had been sorely mistaken. When his
father had passed away earlier that year, Brody assumed — again,
wrongly — that his career might find a small jolt of life as people
remembered the Flanagan name. Perhaps a few more opportunities
might fall in his lap, in memory of the old man, or something like
that.
Instead, he had been bombarded with “thoughts and prayers,”
but no more work — and certainly no better work — than he’d had
before cancer had gotten the best of his father.
“What is it about my dad they’re trying to invoke by having me
on the set?” Brody asked. “I look nothing like him, I apparently can’t
act as well as him, and I’m not a professional archaeologist like he
was.”
“This is Hollywood, Brody, not Princeton,” Gene said. “No one
gives a shit about credentials out here. It’s who you know. And, to
these guys, there’s no one who knows your dad better than you. As
such, there’s no one better suited for this show than you.”
 Brody frowned. “Did they at least say they wanted me for my
devilishly good looks?”
“They did not.”
“Fine. What’s it called?”
The shit-eating grin returned to his agent’s face as he handed the
paper to Brody. Brody took it, scanned the page, saw the address for
the downtown office where his audition was to take place. Sure
enough, it seemed this was going to be a legit operation. The
building was home to some of the big suits on the street, including
executives at the biggest network around.
His eyes scanned upward and landed on the working title of the
show.
“You’ve got to be kidding me,” he said, sucking in a breath.
“Not this time Brody,” Gene said. Just wait ’til you see the payout.
If everything goes through and all the T’s are dotted and the I’s are
crossed, you and I will be going out for a steak dinner.”
Brody could think of hardly anyone he would be less inclined to
go to a steak dinner with. Martin, perhaps. Maybe that engineer who
kept turning my monitor up.
“They’re remaking it? Just starting over?”
“Not exactly remaking it, but certainly trying to rebuild the brand
with a younger, fresher face. And I have to admit; you seem like a
good fit for the role.”
Brody chuckled. “Thanks for the vote of confidence. Hopefully, I
have a fresh enough face for them.”
He stood up, hoping to get down to the studio before the
afternoon sun would take more of that freshness away. He thanked
Gene and walked out the door.
Maybe getting a little stinky would actually help me with this
audition, he thought. Maybe I should mess up my hair a bit, throw
some dirt on my cheeks. If they’re going for “staged reality,” that
would be the most staged realistic thing I could do.
He wondered why in the hell that now, after his father died, the
studio wanted to remake the old show, the one that had made the
Flanagan name famous in the first place. He also wondered if they
were already sold on the terrible name. Earth Uncovered: Revisited.
It seemed… More than a bit redundant. In fact, the whole thing
seemed weird.
A little suspicious, even.
He took a deep breath as he plunged himself out into the
sweltering summer LA heat.
THREE
 BRODY

TUESDAY | 9:05 am
Los Angeles, California
When Brody was twelve years old, his father, Liam Flanagan, a
career archaeologist and world-renowned lecturer, had been given a
once-in-a-lifetime opportunity: a new format for primetime television
had taken the world by storm, and studios were seemingly relentless
in their search for new content.
One of the major networks had a travel channel that had a slot
for a weekly adventure and expedition-style show. This show was
semi-scripted, meaning some of the content would be preplanned
and some of the jokes would be edited in after the fact.
But the reality — the premise — of the show was kept mostly
intact: a professional archeologist and his team of ragtag specialists
would travel the world, investigating ancient and mysterious myths
and legends. Everything from the legend of Atlantis to the Amber
room and related Nazi conspiracy theories were covered. Finding the
lost wonders of the world became something the average Joe could
participate in, from the comfort of their own home.
The pilot of Earth Uncovered was a massive success, and the
show became a bastion of success for American primetime
television. Earth Uncovered was a perfect blend of adventure,
history, comedy, and thrills, with a healthy dose of sobering real-talk
from the show’s host: Brody’s father. Mr. Flanagan.
 Earth Uncovered was, in essence, Brody’s entire childhood. His
mother, content to maintain the home Brody had grown up in and
afraid to travel, had stayed in Maine while Brody and his father, in
love with his work and his success as a modern-day Indiana Jones,
traveled the world to film episodes.
While the show was a blend of real-world truth and fiction
cooked up in a writer’s room, Brody’s life as a young adventurer was
all real. He had learned to speak three languages by the time he was
fifteen, and knew enough of about a dozen others to get by on just
about any continent. While the crew filmed, Brody spent many of his
days hiking, teaching himself how to rock climb, and learning how to
blend in with local cultures.
As Brody grew up on the road with his father, he found himself
feeling increasingly at home in the world of Earth Uncovered. He
loved the thrill of exploring new cultures, learning new languages,
and immersing himself in the local customs and traditions of the
places he visited. And while his father could be demanding at times,
Brody loved nothing more than spending time with him, sharing in
the adventure and excitement of their travels.
The show's popularity started to soar, Brody and his father found
themselves bonding in new and unexpected ways. They spent long
hours discussing the mysteries and legends they encountered on
their travels, sharing stories and insights that only they could
understand. And while the work was demanding and the risks were
great, Brody knew that he was exactly where he was meant to be —
on the road with his father, exploring the wonders of the world.
For Brody, Earth Uncovered was more than just a television
show. It was a way of life, a passion that had been instilled in him
from an early age. Brody and his father traveled the world,
discovering the hidden treasures that lay just beyond the horizon.
Always active, Brody had worked for his dad’s show as a grip, as an
extra, and — on one accidental occasion — as a stuntman. He was
physically in great shape. As the youngest member of what often felt
like a traveling circus, Brody had developed an early sense of
confidence and swagger to go along with his physicality and good
looks.
 Brody had always been aware of the ephemeral nature of beauty,
but as he approached his mid-thirties, the reality of aging began to
set in. He noticed subtle changes in his once-youthful appearance —
fine lines around his eyes, silver strands that peppered his beard —
and while he knew that he still had much to offer, he couldn't help
but feel a twinge of nostalgia for the days when his looks were his
greatest asset.
Despite these changes, Brody was still an undeniably handsome
man. His light brown hair fell in soft waves around his chiseled
jawline, accentuating the striking features of his face. His eyes, a
piercing green that seemed to change with the light, sparkled with a
youthful energy that belied his years. And when he smiled, which
was often, his face lit up with a perfect dimple that deepened the
crease in his cheek and made his eyes crinkle with mirth.
But as the years passed, Brody knew that he needed to adapt to
the changing landscape of the entertainment industry. He had spent
years honing his craft, building a reputation as a talented and
versatile actor, and he was determined not to let the passage of time
stand in his way. He focused on his health, eating well and
exercising regularly, and he made a conscious effort to stay up-to-
date with the latest trends and technologies in the field of acting.
And as he continued to work, Brody found that his age had
actually become an asset — at least, he hoped. He was no longer
the fresh-faced ingenue, but a seasoned performer with a depth and
maturity that only came with experience. He was able to bring a new
level of nuance and complexity to his roles, drawing on the lessons
he had learned on the road with his father and the countless
adventures he had experienced along the way.
Despite the challenges that lay ahead, Brody was determined to
stay the course. He had forced himself to embrace his age, to see it
not as a hindrance but as an opportunity for growth and evolution.
And as he looked back on the road he had traveled, he knew that he
had much to be proud of — not just his looks, but his talent, his
passion, and his unwavering commitment to his craft.
He reached the doors to the building fifteen minutes after leaving
his agent’s office. They wanted him to audition to essentially take
over his father’s role. Perhaps even to become his father.
Brody wasn’t sure how he felt about that — he had always
believed that he wanted to make his own way. But what was making
one’s own way? No matter what someone did, weren’t they still a
product of their parents? Weren’t they still a product of the lifestyle
they had been born into?
He pushed away the philosophical argument, knowing he could
tackle it later if he did, in fact, get the job. He wasn’t sure what this
audition would entail — Gene had not passed on a script or any
instructions whatsoever, like what Brody expected a real agent
should do. He hoped Gene had been straight with him — that the
gig was his to lose. The checks from the IBS commercials would stop
soon, and if he didn’t have anything lined up, he would be out of
work.
Again.
FOUR
 BRODY

TUESDAY | 9:07 am
Los Angeles, California
As Brody stepped out of the elevator, he took a moment to orient
himself. The space was expansive, with high ceilings and a sleek,
modern design that exuded a sense of sophistication and glamour. A
row of plush leather chairs caught his eye, their rich burgundy hue
inviting him to take a seat and relax. To his right, he could see a
series of glass-walled offices, each one buzzing with activity as
writers, producers, and executives huddled together to discuss the
latest projects.
But it was the reception desk that drew his attention. Situated at
the heart of the space, it was a hub of activity, with a steady stream
of people coming and going, each one hoping to make their mark in
the entertainment industry. And behind the desk, he could see the
silhouette of a young woman, her blonde hair pulled back into a neat
ponytail, her eyes glued to the computer screen in front of her.
As Brody approached, he could see the woman more clearly. She
was young, probably in her early twenties, with bright blue eyes and
a wide, friendly smile. She wore a headset over one ear, no doubt
fielding calls from agents, producers, and hopeful actors eager to
make a name for themselves in the cutthroat world of Hollywood.
Brody strode down the hallway, his clothes rumpled and worn,
the same outfit he had worn earlier that day at the recording studio.
His jeans were faded and frayed at the cuffs, and his loose-fitting
shirt did little to show off the chiseled figure that lay beneath. He
wore a pair of well-worn leather flip-flops, their soles scuffed and
scarred from years of use.
As he walked, he ran a hand through his shaggy hair, trying to
tame the unruly strands that tickled his ears. He knew that he
looked like a bit of a mess, but he also knew that appearances could
be deceiving. He had the talent, the drive, and the experience to
make it in this industry, regardless of how he looked. And yet, as he
approached the casting director's office, he couldn't help but feel a
twinge of nervousness. He knew that the competition would be
fierce, that dozens of other actors would be vying for the same role,
each one hungry for their chance at the big time.
But Brody was determined to make an impression, to show the
casting directors and producers what he was capable of, despite the
less-than-ideal first impression he might be making. If the casting
director and producers could see through his homeless guy vibe and
still give him the part, he was pretty sure they would take care of
getting his hair cut to their standards.
No sense wasting money on it until then.
As he approached the reception desk, he heard a door close to
his right, where the floor plan revealed even more glass-walled
offices and a few larger, closed-off areas he assumed were audition
rooms or conference rooms. Another young woman exited the room,
and Brody caught himself looking her over twice. She was about his
age, but he knew in an instant she wasn’t an actress. The way she
moved — the way she carried herself — spoke volumes about her
character. She had not been trained by professionals to look and act
and assert herself a certain way — this was a learned instinct.
Learned or not, she was beautiful.
He couldn’t help himself; he immediately started puffing himself
up and trying to look more noticeable. It was an ingrained habit —
one he had picked up at some point around the time he’d become
an adult. Or at least some point after hitting puberty.
He pulled his shoulders back, set his jaw, and thrust his chin
outward just a touch. Not too much. He strode through the hall with
a balanced, practiced gait, his feet pointed directly in front of him
and his steps even. He knew how it looked — he had viewed it on
camera many times.
He still had it. Whatever “it” was.
But it seemed the gorgeous woman who had just walked out of
the conference room was far tougher a nut to crack than the
average swooning coed he was familiar with. She made a face at
him as he passed, showing an actual upturned lip and squinting eye,
the outward signs of disgust obvious on her face. As he walked by,
still aiming for the reception desk, she even let out a verbal sound of
annoyance — a sniffing sound combined with a quick release of
breath.
He had wanted to give her the benefit of the doubt, but that
sound was impossible to misinterpret. She was moving the opposite
direction as him, but he stopped fully, right in the middle of the
hallway, and spun around.
“Excuse me?” he asked.
He hadn’t actually thought it possible, but she had actually hurt
his feelings.
He thought he was better than this, but apparently petty
schoolyard confrontations were still part of his repertoire.
“What?” She asked, in the most annoying sounding drawn-out
syllable he possibly had ever heard.
She stopped, turned, then looked him up and down. Twice. Just
like he’d done to her. Brody wasn’t the type to feel weak in the
knees, but he couldn’t stop thinking about the perfection of the lines
of her face. And the way she returned his gaze with disdain.
He had been checked out before, but this felt… different. She
wasn’t just checking him out, or undressing him with her eyes. This
was something more akin to sizing him up. Or at least indicating that
she had long ago sized him up… and had him found him wanting.
What is happening? How does she have this power over me?
“Did you have something you wanted to say?” she asked.
“I…“ he swallowed. “I just…”
She scoffed, then started turning around again, but not before
letting out one more small utterance. It was under her breath, likely
intended for only her. “You are as dumb as you look on TV.”
 Maybe he’d misheard. His mouth fell open, and he felt like every
eye on the planet was now staring at him, waiting for him to
respond. But there were no other eyes in the room besides hers, his,
and the receptionist’s, and those eyes were still staring down at her
computer screen. He watched the stunning woman march away
toward the elevator, trying not to gawk at her lithe figure as it
moved deftly down the hall.
He failed.
Brody turned around to the receptionist again. She was also a
good-looking white woman with her Los Angeles-tanned skin and
expensive outfit. He was far more comfortable with this style, and he
found his voice had returned.
“Hi,” he began. “I’m here to see —“
“Name?” she blurted out without even looking up from her
computer.
He cleared his throat. “Sorry, I… uh, usually people just —“
“Oh!” the woman gasped as she finally looked up and saw who
she was talking to. “I’m so sorry.” She put on a fake smile. “Yes, Mr.
Flanagan. They are expecting you now. That door Dr. Johansson just
came out of.”
“Dr. Johansson?” he asked.
“Dr. Anna Johansson, yes,” the receptionist said. “You must have
seen her in the hall just now — you walked right by her.”
“Yeah,” he said as an involuntary sigh escaped his lips. “I saw
her.”
FIVE
 BRODY

TUESDAY | 9:08 am
Los Angeles, California
Inside the conference room, Brody immediately felt more at
home. Though he didn’t personally know anyone inside, the space
felt just like every other audition room he had been in, and he had
been in plenty. Even though over the last few years he had started
doing more and more of the digital tapings, getting into a room like
this one and interacting with actual humans, face-to-face, felt
refreshing and set his mind at ease.
That ease was short-lived, however, as he overheard the end of a
conversation happening at the end of the table when he walked in.
“…Just because his old man had a Lifetime Achievement Award
doesn’t mean his manchild son deserves the lead role for a show,”
one woman was saying. “And Dr. Johansson agrees. If we lose her
because of it, there’s no way we’ll have the credibility we need.”
Two of the men seated at the table were facing Brody as he
entered, while the woman and the man at the end seemed to not
notice him yet. He cleared his throat.
“I actually just met Dr. Johansson,” Brody said.
The woman seemed to be caught off-guard, but she quickly
gathered herself, folding her hands and placing them on the table in
front of her. “You — you must have just passed her in the hall; she
was just leaving.”
 “Yep,” he said. “But we didn’t get a chance to meet. Not officially,
anyway.”
“Dr. Johansson is our science lead,” the man closest to Brody
said. “We hope.”
Brody didn’t ask any further questions. The man stuck out his
hand, and Brody took it. It felt warm as if it had been cooking in a
pocket for a few minutes. He gripped Brody’s hand with a firmness
that seemed to be forced rather than earned. “I’m Landon Howard,”
the man said. A hint of self-pride emerged when he said his name
aloud. “Network Liaison and Director for Earth Uncovered — the new
iteration, that is. Thanks for coming, and good timing. We were just
finishing up with the last round of auditions.”
Brody cocked an eyebrow.
The woman next to Landon stood slightly, pushing her chair out
from behind her, as she shook Brody’s hand as well. This woman
seemed to be a bit more excited to see Brody, and she pumped his
hand vigorously. “Neva Richardson,” she said. “Assistant Director and
Landon’s right-hand. As he said, we’re glad you came. And don’t
worry — the other auditions were mostly for the lawyers. You know,
to keep things looking like everyone had a fair shot and all.”
Brody nodded. “Hollywood.”
The four seated behind the table nodded exactly like the tiny
little network robots they were.
“So… you guys have a script or something you want me to read?”
There was a slight pause as the others shifted nervously in their
seats and looked at each other, waiting for the next person in the
line to answer. Finally, Landon spoke. “No, no need for that,” he said,
waving his hand dismissively. “This is just a meet and greet, a final
check, if you will.”
“The ‘weirdo test,’” Brody said. “You know, like when you hire
someone, you just want to meet them even though you already
know they’re qualified. Make sure they’re not a weirdo.”
Neva smiled, and from his perspective, it seemed genuine.
Perhaps she was as good an actor as anyone who had come into the
room to audition, he thought.
 “Look, I’ll shoot straight with you,” Neva said. “We want you on
board, and all that’s left is dotting the I’s and crossing the T’s. I think
your agent filled you in on that, right?”
Brody nodded.
“Well, then. That’s that. We’ll email over a treatment for the pilot
episode, as well as any scripting direction. Obviously, with this being
reality television and all, we’re going light on scripted dialogue and
are hoping for more of the off-the-cuff interactions.”
“And I’ll be doing these off-the-cuff interactions with Dr.
Johansson?” Brody asked.
The four around the table nodded in sync with one another, and
Landon answered. “Her and the other cohost, especially.”
This was news to Brody. His agent, God bless him, had failed to
mention that Brody would be sharing screen time with not one but
two cohosts.
Landon spoke up before Brody could pose a question. “Don’t
worry; you’re still top billing. We just needed to round out the, uh,
expertise with some professional credentials. Dr. Johansson is a
professor and a rising star in the anthropological community.”
“I didn’t realize anthropology had a community,” Brody said. He
paused for effect. “I’ll bet there’s a lot of skeletons in their closets.”
He waited, trying to see which of them would laugh at his terrible
joke. One man coughed into his hand, but Brody thought he heard a
slight giggle behind it. Mission accomplished.
“Anyway,” Landon continued, “we’re also bringing on someone
we think will really help sell the show. Do you know Max Sharp?”
Brody couldn’t help it. He rolled his eyes. “Maxwell Jefferson
Beauchamp? That guy from the show Survive and Thrive?”
More heads nodded.
“I don’t know him personally, but everyone knows his name. At
least, his stage name.”
“That’s what we’re hoping,” Landon said.
Maxwell Beauchamp, self-rebranded as Max Sharp, was the host
and star of the latest iteration of pseudo-realistic survival shows,
Survive and Thrive. Like all the shows that had come before it,
Survive and Thrive had attempted to take survival in hostile
environments to the next level.
But rather than simply having its charismatic host strike out into
an inhospitable corner of the planet and stay alive with nothing but a
camera crew and only the contents of one’s own pockets —
notwithstanding the treasure trove of gadgets and foodstuffs sitting
just offscreen in one of the crew’s cars — Survive and Thrive upped
the ante by having Max not only living in nature but building things
that could only be described as modern-day luxuries.
In one such episode Brody had mistakenly subjected himself to,
Max had spent time in the Amazonian jungle not just eating bugs
and vermin but building an in-ground dugout hot tub that he filled
with the water from a nearby stream and heated with a clay cooking
fire.
The scene just before the credits began to roll offered a shirtless,
chiseled Max sitting in his tub with a gigantic grin and a thumbs-up,
just before his Australian accent said to the camera, “And that’s how
you make the best of a heated situation.”
SIX
 BRODY

TUESDAY | 10:41 am
Los Angeles, California
Brody paced back and forth across his tiny apartment living
room. He hadn’t intended to, but he flicked on the TV and started
heating water for tea. He rarely watched TV, and he rarely drank
more than a single cup of tea, but he had long ago come to realize
that this rhythm was his form of processing something. It was
involuntary, too, something he hadn’t realized he was doing.
After returning from the network headquarters, followed by an
early lunch, he had mindlessly walked through the front door and
filled the pot and started it on the stove, then shouted out the
specific sequence of words required to turn his TV on. It didn’t
matter what channel it was — it happened to be local news at the
moment — he had just wanted something in the background
droning on while he thought and processed.
His father had used to do something similar. Brody had seen him
many times in the upstairs office in his childhood home in Maine,
pacing back and forth in front of the great mahogany desk. Brody
loved that office — when he was two or three years old, he had
gotten a small wooden train set for Christmas, and since his mother
was a fanatic about keeping the house clean and uncluttered,
Brody’s train had found a near-permanent home at the foot of his
father’s massive desk. Brody would set the track up in a circle, half
of it under his father’s desk and half of it out in the open. Brody
would spend hours there, listening to his father talk through a
presentation or read out loud the latest chapter of the manuscript he
was working on, and on many occasions, he watched as his father
did the same thing Brody was doing now: pace back and forth over
the carpeted room, wearing a tread into it over decades of
performing the same movement in the same place.
Brody’s faux wood floor would not suffer the same damage, of
course, but that was also because he didn’t plan to be here for
upwards of three decades. It was a nice apartment — far too big for
a single person like him, but he currently had no choice as to where
he lived. His father’s money had purchased it a few years back, as a
gift on his thirty-fifth birthday. No one should be in debt to a
landlord, his father had told him. It’s not much, but I want you to
have it.
Not much, my ass, Brody had thought. It was a luxury apartment
on the top floor of one of the many buildings overlooking a busy
section of downtown LA. The suite came with a top-of-the-line
security system, one that Brody had never even bothered to set up.
The building’s own security was solid enough, in his opinion, and he
didn’t exactly have fans beating down his door trying to get
autographs and selfies with him.
Maybe that will change if this show gets off the ground, he
thought. And, from what he had heard in the network offices, it
seemed like it was going to get off the ground. While he had been at
lunch, Gene had emailed over a brief, and it seemed as though the
cast and crew were scheduled to depart Los Angeles in mere days.
He hadn’t read the entire document yet, and what he had read so
far had not made it clear where they were going.
But if this show was anything like his father’s show had been, it
was going to be someplace quite exotic.
He knew there was really nothing to lose — he was only a few
months away from his commercial contract expiring and from having
to start the same song and dance all over again. He was pretty sure
he could have Gene arrange some studio time tomorrow and the
next day in order to wrap up any remaining recording sessions his
current contract would need from him. Worst case, he could just let
the contract expire without fulfilling his duties and then be out a few
thousand bucks.
But that would be easily replaced by the salary he would get
from this new job…
His phone buzzed in his pocket, and he had it out and pressed
talk before he had even seen who it was. “Hello?” he asked, his
voice quick and breathless.
“Brody? Is that you? Is everything okay? You sound out of
breath.”
He nodded, then spoke. “Yeah, I’m good. Just — just finished a
run.” He wasn’t sure why he lied, but it seemed easier than just
telling the truth.
“Oh, well, if this is a bad time —“
“No, mom. Not at all.” He stopped and took a breath. His mother
was perhaps the kindest person on the planet. He couldn’t even
remember a time when she’d raised her voice at him, though he
knew she must have when he was young. Even as a teenager,
getting into trouble with friends from school, she would just shake
her head and tell him how disappointed she was. Any scolding would
be in the realm of his father, who neither enjoyed it nor was good at
it but knew that Brody needed to learn consequences. Together, his
parents had made a great pairing, and he loved both of them.
“What’s going on, mom? Everything okay?” Since his father’s
death, Brody had hoped to call his mother once a week, though he
didn’t always achieve that goal. She seemed to be doing well, given
the circumstances. She had never been a socialite, and most of her
friends and acquaintances were the spouses of Brody’s father’s
coworkers and friends in the academic community. She had a sister
who spent a lot of time with her in Maine now, so Brody felt slightly
less bad that he didn’t spend more time with his mother after his
father’s passing.
“I’m doing fine, Brody,” came his mother’s reply. “Sandy is over
here today, and we were just looking around at the old house. You
know, it’s so big…”
The way she’d trailed off at the end indicated she had more to
say, but she needed someone to draw it out of her. “Mom? What are
you saying?”
He heard a sigh on the other end, and after a long pause, his
mother came back on. “It’s just that… The university sent me a
letter. They’re very sorry for your father’s death, of course, but the
truth is that this house was part of his employment contract.”
“Wait. What?”
“Yes, Brody. It’s sort of a weird thing, I think they stopped doing
it many years ago. But you know your father’s salary there was
never very high. The reason for that is they took care of the
payments for us. But that’s over now. The house reverts back.”
“That’s ridiculous, mom. Send the documentation over to me. I’ll
have my lawyer look at it.” He didn’t have a lawyer, of course, and in
truth, he had never actually talked to one. At least not on purpose.
But his agent, for better or worse, would know how to find one, and
Brody might even be able to afford an hour of their time. “If there’s
anything we can do, I’m going to —“
“No, Brody. The university has been good to us. We made a
home here, but you know how it goes. It’s just a house, at the end
of the day. I’ll be just as happy in a smaller place. And I should be
able to afford it for a good while.”
Brody filled in the rest of the silent message. Until I die too. Until
your father’s money runs out.
And what then? he thought. What would she do after his father’s
money ran out? What if she got sick, had to pay for treatment for a
chronic, ongoing issue?
He didn’t want to think this way, but he was a realist. He
certainly wasn’t going to be able to support her himself. Not with the
income irregularity of a semi-out-of-work actor for television
commercials.
As if right on cue, the news cut to a commercial — one of his.
Two rock climbers, one acted by Brody himself, working in tandem
as they made their way up the side of a steep cliff, using crampons
to mark their vertical progress. He heard the music of the well-
known jingle, then the narrator’s voice — his own, of course — cut
in.
 “It seems to happen when we least expect it,” Brody’s voice said.
“When we’re high on life, when nothing can bring us down.”
A third actor suddenly entered the shot. This actor flew on-
screen, wearing a dark brown suit with stretchy material on either
side of his body, giving him the look of a flying squirrel. The whole
thing had been keyed: shot to a green screen in a studio, and Brody
had not even had to leave the ground in order to make it seem as
though he were scaling the cliff.
That had been a huge shame, really, because he happened to be
an accomplished rock climber and could have done a climb like this
in his sleep. It was a sport he had taken up as a kid while his father
was busy filming somewhere, and he had fallen in love with the thrill
and adrenaline rush of it. But television wasn’t about reality; it was
about the appearance of reality.
Brody watched himself on TV as the flying diarrhea monster
landed on his back and wrapped his arms tightly around him,
hanging on. Computer effects had made it look as though Brody was
holding on for dear life, and there was even wind blowing his hair
around, for good effect. The sound had been added in post, and it
really did seem like he was hanging from a deadly height with a
brown-suited actor gripping his lower body. The commercial looked
exciting, but Brody recalled that day of filming as being arduous and
boring. One of those perfectionist directors who needed thirty takes
from each angle.
His voiceover returned. “That’s when it hits you. That’s when it
pulls you down to earth. Don’t let diarrhea get you down. Cut it
loose, before it’s too late.”
Brody watched as he kicked the diarrhea monster off him and
wriggled free. The brown suit-wearing man screamed and
disappeared from view. The jingle returned in full force, and a
second voiceover actor with a lower voice read the ridiculously long
list of side effects and legal jargon that flashed on screen just before
the end of the thirty-second ad spot.
In real life, Brody shook his head. “Mom,” he said. “There’s an
opportunity I got today. I think it could be pretty big.”
“That’s wonderful, Brody. Is it another commercial run?”
 If it were possible for anyone to be a fan of a man most famous
for his bowel movement voiceover work, it was his mother. He
smiled. “No, Mom, it’s not that. I think it could be something huge.
I’d be able to help you out, of course, and —”
“Oh, stop it,” she cut in. “Brody, I would never ask for money
from you. That’s just ridiculous.”
His smile widened. “I know you wouldn’t, mom. And nothing’s set
in stone yet, anyway. I might be leaving soon, though. I’ll let you
know about it when things start rolling. I don’t want to let the cat
out of the bag in case it doesn’t make.”
“Well, I’m certainly excited for you, son,” she said. “Please do let
me know, and good luck. I love you.”
Brody returned the sentiment and hung up. The tea kettle
started whistling from the kitchen, but he was no longer feeling the
need. He shouted for the TV to turn off. It took two tries, and he
wondered why he hadn’t used a remote control.
He strode over to the couch, where he had tossed his laptop bag
upon arriving earlier. He dug the computer out of the messenger bag
and opened it. He wanted to read through the PDF in its entirety
now, but he already knew what his next step was. Brody opened the
computer and fired off an email to his agent.
>> Hey, how’s it going. Wanted to let you know I’m in. Send
over the contract.
He closed the laptop and sat in silence for a minute, staring up at
the vaulted ceiling.
This could be the biggest thing of my career, he told himself. It’s
following in Dad’s footsteps, but that doesn’t mean it’s a bad thing.
Doesn’t mean it’s a good thing, though, either.
SEVEN
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Dissemination by deglutition is characteristic of sarcospores, and
distribution by carriage of creatospores.
4. Man, brotochores. Dissemination by man has practically no
connection with mobility. It operates through great distances and
over immense areas as well as near at hand. It may be intentional, as
in the case of cultivated species, or unintentional, as in thousands of
native or exotic species. No other disseminating agent is comparable
with man in respect to universal and obvious migration.
5. Gravity, clitochores. The members of this group are exclusively
colline, montane, and alpine plants, growing on rocks, cliffs, and
gravel slides (talus), etc., in which the seeds reach lower positions
merely by falling, or more frequently by the breaking away and
rolling down of rock or soil masses and particles. Dissemination by
this method is relatively insignificant, though it plays an important
part in the rock fields and gravel slides of mountain regions,
particularly in the case of immobile species.
6. Glaciers, crystallochores. At the present time, transport by
glaciers is of slight importance, because of the restriction of the latter
to alpine and polar regions, where the flora is poorly developed. In
the consideration of migrations during the glacial epoch, however, it
plays an important point.
7. Growth, blastochores. The mobility of species disseminated by
offshoots is extremely slight, and the annual movement relatively
insignificant. The certainty of migration and of ecesis, is, however, so
great, and the presence of offshoots so generally the rule in
terrestrial plants that growth plays an important part in migration,
especially within formations.
8. Propulsion, bolochores. Like growth, dissemination by
mechanical propulsion, though operating through insignificant
distances, exerts an important effect in consequence of its
cumulative action. The number of plants, however, with contrivances
for propulsion is very much smaller than the number of blastochores.
All bolochorous species agree in having modifications by means of
which a tension is established. At maturity, this tension suddenly
overcomes the resistance of sporangium or fruit, and throws the
enclosed spores or seeds to some distance from the parent plant. In
accordance with the manner in which the tension is produced, sling-
fruits may be classified as follows:
 (a) Hygroscopicity, pladoboles. These include the ferns with
annulate sporangia, in which the expansion of the annulus by the
absorption of moisture bursts the sporangium more or less suddenly,
though the actual propulsion of the spores seems to come later as a
result of dessication.
(b) Turgescence, edoboles. Dissemination by turgescence is highly
developed in Pilobolus and in Discomycetes, though in the latter
turgescence results rather in placing the spores in a position to be
readily carried by the wind. Impatiens and Oxalis furnish familiar
examples of fruits which dehisce in consequence of increased
turgidity.
(c) Dessication, xerioboles. The number of fruits which dehisce
upon drying is very large, but only a small portion of these expel
their seeds forcibly. Geranium, Viola, Erysimum, and Lotus
illustrate the different ways in which dessication effects the sudden
splitting of fruits.
(d) Resilience, tonoboles. In some plants, especially composites,
labiates, and borages, the achenes or nutlets are so placed in the
persistent calyx or involucre that the latter serves as a sort of mortar
for projection, when the stem of the plant is bent to one side by any
force, such as the wind or an animal. It will be noticed that two
separate agents are actually concerned in dissemination of this sort.
Frequently, two or more agents will act upon the same
disseminule, usually in succession. The possibility of such
combinations in nature is large, but actual cases seem to be
infrequent, except where the activities of man enter into the
question. Some parts, moreover, such as awned inflorescences, are
carried almost equally well by wind or animals, and may often be
disseminated by the cooperation of these two agents. The wind also
often blows seeds and fruits into streams by which they are carried
away, but here again, parts adapted to wind-dissemination are
injured as a rule by immersion in water, and the number of plants
capable of being scattered by the successive action of wind and water
is small.
In the present state of our knowledge of migration, it is impossible
to establish any definite correspondence between dissemination-
contrivance, agent, and habitat. As a general rule, plants growing in
or near the water, in so far as they are modified for this purpose at
all, are adapted to water-carriage. Species which grow in exposed
grassy or barren habitats are for the most part anemochores, while
those that are found in the shelter of forests and thickets are usually
zoochorous, though the taller trees and shrubs, being exposed to the
upper air currents, are generally wind-distributed. There is then a
fair degree of correspondence, inasmuch as most hydrophytes are
hydrochorous, most hylophytes, zoochorous, and the majority of
poophytes and xerophytes, anemochorous. Definite conclusions can
be reached, however, only by the statistical study of representative
formations.
With respect to their activity, agents may be distinguished as
constant, as in the case of currents, streams, winds, slope, growth,
and propulsion, or intermittent, animals and man. In the former, the
direction is more or less determinate, and migration takes place year
by year, i. e., it is continuous, while in the latter dissemination is
largely an accidental affair, indeterminate in direction, and recurring
only at indefinite intervals. The effective conversion of migration into
invasion is greatest when the movement is continuous, and least
when it is discontinuous, since, in the latter, species are usually
carried not only out of their particular habitat but even far beyond
their geographical area, and the migration, instead of being an
annual one with the possibility of gradual adjustment, may not recur
for several years, or may, indeed, never take place again. The rapidity
of migration is greatest in the case of intermittent agents, while the
distance of migration is variable, being great chiefly in the case of
man, ocean currents, and wind, and slight when the movement is
due to slope, growth, or propulsion. Disregarding the great distances
over which artificial transport may operate, seeds may be carried half
way across the continent in a week by strong-flying birds, while the
possibilities of migration by growth or expulsion are limited to a few
inches, or at most to a few feet per year. This slowness, however, is
more than counterbalanced by the enormously greater number of
disseminules, and their much greater chance of becoming
established.
268. The direction of migration is determinate, except in the
case of those distributive agents which act constantly in the same
direction. The general tendency is, of course, forward, the lines of
movement radiating in all directions from the parent area. This is
well illustrated by the operation of winds which blow from any
quarter. In the case of the constant winds, migration takes a more or
less definite direction, the latter being determined to a large degree
by the fruiting period of any particular species. In this connection, it
must be kept clearly in mind that the position of new areas with
reference to the original home of a species does not necessarily
indicate the direction of migration, as the disseminules may have
been carried to numerous other places in which ecesis was
impossible. The local distribution of zoochorous species is of
necessity indeterminate, though distant migration follows the
pathways of migratory birds and animals. In so far as dissemination
by man takes place along great commercial routes, or along
highways, it is determinate. In ponds, lakes, and other bodies of
standing water, migration may occur in all directions, but in ocean
currents, streams, etc., the movement is determinate, except in the
case of motile species. The dissemination of plants by slopes,
glaciers, etc., is local and definite, while propulsion is in the highest
degree indeterminate. Migration by growth is equally indefinite, with
the exception that hydrotropism and chemotropism result in a
radiate movement away from the mass, while propulsion throws
seeds indifferently into or away from the species-mass. From the
above it will be seen that distant migration may take place by means
of water, wind, animals or man, and, since all these agents act in a
more or less definite direction over great distances, that it will be in
some degree determinate. On the other hand, local migration will as
regularly be indeterminate, except in the case of streams and slopes.
The direction of migration, then, is controlled by these distributive
agents, and the limit of migration is determined by the intensity and
duration of the agent, as well as by the character of the space through
which the latter operates.
 ECESIS

269. Concept. By the term ecesis is designated the series of

phenomena exhibited by an invading disseminule from the time it
enters a new formation until it becomes thoroughly established
there. In a word, ecesis is the adjustment of a plant to a new habitat.
It comprises the whole process covered more or less incompletely by
acclimatization, naturalization, accommodation, etc. It is the decisive
factor in invasion, inasmuch as migration is entirely ineffective
without it, and is of great value in indicating the presence and
direction of migration in a great number of species where the
disseminule is too minute to be detected or too little specialized to be
recognizable.
The relation of migration to ecesis is a most intimate one: the
latter depends in a large measure upon the time, direction, rapidity,
distance, and amount of migration. In addition, there is an essential
alternation between the two, inasmuch as migration is followed by
ecesis, and the latter then establishes a new center from which
further migration is possible, and so on. The time of year in which
fruits mature and distributive agents act has a marked influence
upon the establishment of a species. Disseminules designed to pass
through a resting period are often brought into conditions where
they germinate at once, and in which they perish because of
unfavorable physical factors, or because competing species are too
far advanced. On the other hand, spores and propagules designed for
immediate germination may be scattered abroad at a time when
conditions make growth impossible. The direction of movement is
decisive in that the seed or spore is carried into a habitat sufficiently
like that of the parent to secure establishment, or into one so
dissimilar that germination is impossible, or at least is not followed
by growth and reproduction. The rapidity and distance of migration
have little influence, except upon the less resistant disseminules,
conidia, gemmae, etc. Finally, the amount of migration, i. e., the
number of migrants, is of the very greatest importance, affecting
directly the chances that vigorous disseminules will be carried into
places where ecesis is possible.
 Normally, ecesis consists of three essential processes, germination,
growth, and reproduction. This is the rule among terrestrial plants,
in which migration regularly takes place by means of a resting part.
In free aquatic forms, however, the growing plant or part is usually
disseminated, and ecesis consists merely in being able to continue
growth and to insure reproduction. Here establishment is practically
certain, on account of the slight differences in aquatic habitats,
excepting of course the extremes, fresh water and salt water. The
ease indeed with which migration and ecesis are effected in the water
often makes it impossible to speak properly of invasion in this
connection, since aquatics are to such a large extent cosmopolitan. In
dissemination by offshoots, the conditions are somewhat similar.
Here, also, ecesis comprises the sequence of growth and
reproduction, and invasion, in the sense of passing from one habitat
to another, is of rare occurrence, as the offshoot grows regularly
under the same conditions as the parent plant. The adjustment of
growing plants and parts is so slight, and their establishment so
certain on account of their inability to migrate into very remote or
different habitats, that they may be ignored in the following
discussion.
In accordance with the above, it would be possible to distinguish
three groups of terrestrial plants: (1) those migrants which germinate
and disappear, (2) those which germinate and grow but never
reproduce, (3) those which reproduce, either by propagation or
generation, or both. Such a classification has little value, however,
since the same species may behave in all three fashions, depending
upon the habitat to which it has migrated, and since invasion does
not occur unless the plant actually takes possession, i. e., reproduces.
From the latter statement, it follows that invasion occurs only when a
species migrates to a new place, in which it germinates, matures, and
reproduces. Maintenance by annual invasion simply, in which the
plants of each year disappear completely, can not then be regarded
as invasion proper. On the other hand, though such instances are
rare, it is not necessary that the invaders produce fruit, provided they
are able to maintain themselves, or to increase by propagation.
Furthermore, if a plant germinate, grow, and reproduce, it is
relatively immaterial whether it persist for a few years or for many,
since, as we shall see under Succession, the plants of one invasion are
displaced by those of the next, the interval between invasions
increasing with the stabilization.
270. Germination of the seed. The germination of seed or
spore is determined by its viability and by the nature of the habitat.
Viability depends upon the structural characters of fruit, seed-coat,
and endosperm, and to a degree upon the nature of the protoplasm
or embryo. The first three affect the last directly, by protecting the
embryo against dryness, against injury due to carriage by water, or
by deglutition, and probably in some cases against excessive heat or
cold. Marloth[33] has investigated the structure of seed coats,
establishing the following groups, which are summarized here
somewhat fully because of their bearing upon ecesis: (1) seed coats
without protective elements, endosperm absent or rudimentary,
Epilobium, Impatiens, Parnassia, Sagittaria, etc.; (2) protective
elements lacking or few, endosperm highly developed with thick-
walled cells, Liliaceae, Primulaceae, Rubiaceae, etc.; (3) protective
cells present in the seed coats, endosperm little or none,
Boraginaceae, Crassulaceae, Cruciferae, Labiatae, Papilionaceae,
etc.; (4) protective elements present, Asclepias, Campanula,
Gentiana, Silene, Saxifraga, etc.; (5) protective cells present,
endosperm thick-walled, Euonymus, Helianthemum, Ribes. The
protective cells are of various kinds: (1) epidermal cells strongly
cuticularized, Caryophyllaceae, Crassulaceae, Fumariaceae,
Saxifragaceae; (2) parenchyma thick-walled, several-layered,
Aesculus, Castanea, Fagus; (3) parenchyma cells with the inner or
radial walls thickened, Campanula, Erythraea, Gentiana; (4)
epidermal cells cup-shaped, thick-walled, Cruciferae, Ribes,
Vaccinium; (5) parenchyma with thickened, cellulose walls,
Geranium, Viburnum; (6) a single row of stone-cells, Labiatae; (7)
tissue of stone-cells, Hippuris, Naias, Potamogeton; (8) elongate
stone-cells, Coniferae, Cupuliferae, Euphorbia, Linum, Malva,
Viola; (9) short, columnar, thick-walled branched cells,
Cucurbitaceae, Datura, Hypericum; (10) prosenchyma with
cellulose walls, Clematis; (11) prosenchyma with lignified walls,
Fraxinus, Rhamnus, Ranunculus. The seed coats have a certain
influence in determining germination at the proper time, inasmuch
as they make it difficult for the seed to germinate under the stimulus
of a quantity of warmth and moisture insufficient to support the
seedling. The effect of the endosperm, as well as that of other food
supply in the seed, upon germination and the establishment of the
seedling is obvious.
The behavior of seed or spore with respect to germination depends
in a large degree upon the character of the protoplasm or embryo,
though in just what way is at present a matter of conjecture. It is
evident that many seeds are not viable because fertilization has not
been effected, and in consequence no embryo has developed. This is
the usual explanation of the low germinating power of the seeds of
some species, especially polyspermatous ones. But even in viable
seeds the behavior is always more or less irregular. The seeds of
some species will grow immediately after ripening, while others
germinate only after a resting period of uncertain duration. The same
is true of spores. Even in the case of seeds from the same parent,
under apparently similar conditions, while the majority will
germinate the first year, some will lie dormant for one or more years.
The precise reason why many seeds and spores germinate more
readily after being frozen is equally obscure. The period of time for
which disseminules may remain viable is extremely diverse, though,
as would be expected, it is much longer as a rule for seeds than for
spores. The greater vitality of seeds in the case of ruderal plants
suggests that this diversity may be due simply to variation in the
vigor of the embryos. It would seem that under proper conditions
seeds may retain their viability for an indefinite period.
The influence of habitat upon germination is of primary
importance, though the manner in which its influence is exerted is by
no means as evident as might be supposed. In the case of seeds sown
in the planthouse, it is almost universally the case that germination
is less than in nature, notwithstanding the fact that temperature and
moisture appear to be optimum. In nature, the seeds of the species
may be carried into a number of different formations, any one or all
of which may present conditions unfavorable to germination. With
respect to probability of germination, habitats are of two sorts: those
which are denuded and those which bear vegetation. It is impossible
to lay down general propositions with respect to either group, since
germination will vary with the character of the invading species, the
annual distribution of heat and moisture in the habitat, etc. In a
general way, however, it may be stated that the chances for
germination are greater in vegetation than in denuded areas, chiefly
because the latter are usually xerophytic. On the other hand, the lack
of competition in the denuded area tends to make ultimate
establishment much more certain. Here, as elsewhere when exact
statistical results are desired, the use of the quadrat, and especially of
the permanent quadrat, is necessary to determine the comparative
germination of the invading species in relation to denudation and
vegetation.
271. Adjustment to the habitat. The seedling once established
by germination, the probability of its growing and maturing will
depend upon its habitat form, plasticity, and vegetation form. Even
though it may germinate under opposite conditions, a typical
hylophyte, such as Impatiens for example, will not thrive in an open
meadow, nor will characteristic poophytes, such as most grasses,
grow in deep shade. In the same way, xerophytes do not adapt
themselves to hydrophytic habitats, nor hydrophytes to xerophytic
conditions. Many mesophytes, however, possess to a certain degree
the ability to adjust themselves to somewhat xerophytic or
hydrophytic situations, while woodland plants often invade either
forest or meadow. This capability for adjustment, i. e., plasticity, is
greatest in intermediate species, those that grow in habitats not
characterized by great excess or deficiency of some factor, and it is
least in forms highly specialized in respect to water-content, shade,
etc. It may then be established as a fundamental rule that ecesis is
determined very largely by the essential physical similarity of the old
and the new habitat, except in the case of plastic forms, which admit
of a wider range of accommodation. The plasticity of a plant is not
necessarily indicated by structural modification, though such
adjustment is usually typical of plastic species, but it may sometimes
arise from a functional adaptation, which for some reason does not
produce concomitant structural changes. The former explains such
various habitat forms of the same species as are found in Galium
boreale, Gentiana acuta, etc., and the latter the morphological
constancy of plants like Chamaenerium, which grow in very diverse
habitats.
The vegetation form of the invading species is often of the greatest
importance in determining whether it will become established. The
vegetation form represents those modifications which, produced in
the original home by competition, i. e., the struggle for existence, are
primarily of value in securing and maintaining a foothold. These
comprise all structures by means of which the plant occupies a
definite space in the air, through which the necessary light and heat
reach it, and in the soil, from which it draws its food supply. These
structures are all organs of duration or of perennation, such as root,
rootstalk, bulb, tuber, woody stem, etc., which find their greatest
development among trees and shrubs, and their least among annual
herbs. But while the invaders are aided in securing possession by the
proper vegetation form, the occupation of the plant already in
possession is increased by the same means, and the outcome is then
largely determined by other factors. To avoid repetition, the bearing
of occupation upon invasion will be considered under succession.

BARRIERS

272. Concept. DeCandolle[34] seems to have been the first to use

the term barrier and to distinguish the various kinds, though
Hedenberg[35] clearly saw that stations of one kind were
insurmountable obstacles to plants belonging to a very different type.
De Candolle pointed out that the natural barriers to continuous
invasion (“transport de proche en proche”) are: (1) seas, which
decrease invasion almost in inverse proportion to their extent; (2)
deserts; (3) mountain ranges, which are less absolute on account of
passes, valleys, etc.; (4) vegetation, marshes being barriers to dry
land plants, forests to those that fear the shade, etc. Grisebach[36], in
discussing the effect of barriers upon the constitution of vegetation,
laid down the fundamental rule that: “The supreme law which serves
as the basis of the permanent establishment of natural floras is to be
recognized in the barriers which have hindered or completely
prevented invasion.”
Any feature of the topography, whether physical or biological, that
restricts or prevents invasion, is a barrier. Such features are usually
permanent and produce permanent barriers, though the latter may
often be temporary, existing for a few years only, or even for a single
season. In this last case, however, they are as a rule recurrent.
Barriers may furthermore be distinguished as complete or
incomplete with respect to the thoroughness with which they limit
invasion. Finally, the consideration of this subject gains clearness if it
be recognized that there are barriers to migration as well as to ecesis,
and if we distinguish barriers as physical or biological with reference
to the character of the feature concerned.
273. Physical barriers are those in which limitation is produced
by some marked physiographic feature, such as the ocean or some
other large body of water, large rivers, mountain ranges and deserts
(including ice and snow fields). All of these are effective by virtue of
their dominant physical factors; hence they are barriers to the ecesis
of species coming from very different habitats, but they act as
conductors for species from similar vegetation, especially in the case
of water currents. A body of water, representing maximum water-
content, is a barrier to mesophytic and xerophytic species, but a
conductor for hydrophytic ones; deserts set a limit to the spread of
mesophytic and hydrophytic plants, while they offer conditions
favorable to the invasion of xerophytes; and a high mountain range,
because of the reduction of temperature, restricts the extension of
macrothermal and mesothermal plants. A mountain range, unlike
other physical barriers, is also an obstacle to migration, inasmuch as
natural distributive agents rarely act through it or over it.
274. Biological barriers include vegetation, man and animals,
and plant parasites. The limiting effect of vegetation is exhibited in
two ways. In the first place, a formation acts as a barrier to the ecesis
of species invading it from the formations of another type, on
account of the physical differences of the habitats. Whether such a
barrier be complete or partial will depend upon the degree of
dissimilarity existing between the formations. Hylophytes are unable
to invade a prairie, though open thicket plants may do so to a certain
degree. In the same way, a forest formation on account of its diffuse
light is a barrier to poophytes; and a swamp, because of the amount
and character of the water-content, sets a limit to both hylophytes
and poophytes. Formations, such as forests, thickets, etc., sometimes
act also as direct obstacles to migration, as in the case of
tumbleweeds and other anemochores, clitochores, etc. A marked
effect of vegetation in decreasing invasion arises from the closed
association typical of stable formations and of social exclusive
species. In these, the occupation is so thorough and the struggle for
existence so intense that the invaders, though fitted to grow under
the physical factors present, are unable to compete with the species
in possession for the requisite amount of some necessary factor.
Closed associations usually act as complete barriers, while open ones
restrict invasion in direct proportion to the degree of occupation. To
this fact may be traced a fundamental law of succession, viz., the
number of stages in a succession is determined largely by the
increasing difficulty of invasion as the habitat becomes stabilized.
Man and animals affect migration directly, though not obviously, by
the destruction of disseminules. They operate as a pronounced
barrier to ecesis wherever they alter conditions in such a way as to
make them unfavorable to invading species, or when, by direct action
upon the latter, such as grazing, tramping, parasitism, etc., they turn
the scale in the struggle for existence. The absence of insects adapted
to insure fertilization is sometimes a serious barrier to the
establishment of adventitious or introduced plants. The presence of
parasitic fungi, in so far as they destroy the seeds of plants, acts as an
obstacle to migration, and restricts or prevents ecesis in so far as the
fungi destroy the invaders, or place them at a disadvantage in the
struggle for existence.
275. Influence of barriers. Physical barriers are typically
permanent in character, while biological ones are either permanent
or temporary, depending upon the permanence of the formation and
the constancy of the physical factors which determine it. A stable
formation, such as a forest or meadow, which acts as a decided
barrier to invasion from adjacent vegetation, may disappear
completely, as a result of a landslide, flood, or burn, or through the
activity of man, and may leave an area into which invaders crowd
from every point. Often, without undergoing marked change, a
formation which has presented conditions unfavorable to the ecesis
of species of mesophytic character may, by reason of a temporary
change in climate, become sufficiently modified to permit the
invasion of mesophytes. On the other hand, a meadow ceases to be a
barrier to prairie xerophytes during a period of unusually dry years.
A peculiar example of the modification of a barrier is afforded by the
defoliation of aspen forests in the mountains as a result of which
poophytes have been enabled to invade them. Nearly all xerophytic
stretches of sand and gravel, dunes, blowouts, gravel slides, etc., and
even prairies to a certain degree, exhibit a recurrent seasonal change
in spring, as a result of which the hot, dry surface becomes
sufficiently moist to permit the germination and growth of invaders,
which are entirely barred out during the remainder of the year. In an
absolute sense, no barrier is complete, since the coldest as well as the
driest portions of the earth’s surface are capable, at times at least, of
supporting the lowest types of vegetation. Relatively, however, in
connection with the natural spread of terrestrial plants, it is possible
to distinguish partial barriers from complete ones. Such a distinction
is of importance in the consideration of invasions from a definite
region, as it is only in this restricted sense that complete barriers
have produced endemism.
Distance, though hardly to be considered a barrier in the strict
sense of the word, unquestionably plays an important part in
determining the amount of invasion. The effect of distance is best
seen in the case of migration, as it influences ecesis only in those rare
cases where viability is affected. The importance of distance, or take
the converse, of proximity, is readily ascertained by the study of any
succession from denudation. It has been established that the
contiguous vegetation furnishes 75–90 per cent of the constituent
species of the initial formation, and in mountainous regions, where
ruderal plants are extremely rare, the percentage is even higher. The
reason for this is to be found not only in the fact that the adjacent
species have a much shorter distance to go, and hence will be carried
in much greater quantity, but also in that the species of the
formations beyond must pass through or over the adjacent ones. In
the latter case, the number of disseminules is relatively small on
account of the distance, while invasion through the intermediate
vegetation, if not entirely impossible, is extremely slow, so that
plants coming in by this route reach the denuded area only to find it
already occupied. It is as yet impossible to give a definite numerical
value to proximity in the various invasions that mark any particular
succession. This will not be feasible until a satisfactory method has
been found for determining a coefficient of mobility, but, this once
done, it will be a relatively simple matter, not merely to trace the
exact evolution of any succession of formations, but actually to
ascertain from the adjacent vegetation the probable constitution of a
particular future stage.
From what has been said, it follows that the primary effect of
barriers upon vegetation is obstruction. Where the barrier is in the
pathway of migration, however, it causes deflection of the migrant as
a rule, and sets up migration in a new direction. This is often the case
when the strong winds of the plains carry disseminules towards the
mountains and, being unable to cross the range, drop them at the
base, or, being deflected, carry them away at right angles to the
original direction. The same thing happens when resistant fruits and
seeds borne by the wind fall into streams of water or into ocean
currents. The direction of migration is changed, and what is normally
a barrier serves as an agent of dissemination.

ENDEMISM

276. Concept. Since its first use by DeCandolle, the term

endemic has been employed quite consistently by phytogeographers
with the meaning of “peculiar to a certain region.” Some confusion,
however, has arisen from the fact that a few authors have made it
more or less synonymous with indigenous and autochthonous, while
others have regarded it as an antonym of exotic. In its proper sense,
endemic refers to distribution, and not to origin. Its exact opposite
will be found then in Fenzl’s term polydemic, dwelling in several
regions. Indigenous (autochthonous) and exotic, on the contrary,
denote origin, and are antonyms, indigenous signifying native, and
exotic foreign. As Drude has shown, endemic plants may be either
indigenous, as in the case of those species that have never moved out
of the original habitat, or exotic, as in the much rarer instances
where a polydemic species has disappeared from its original home
and from all regions into which it has migrated except one. It is
understood that not all indigenous or exotic species are endemic. The
proportion of endemic to polydemic species is a variable and
somewhat artificial one, depending upon the size of the divisions
employed.
277. Causes. The primary causes of endemism are two, lack of
migration and presence of barriers. Since distributive agents are
practically universal, lack of migration corresponds essentially to
immobility, a fact which decreases the difficulty of ascertaining the
immediate causes of endemism in any particular species. Either
immobility or a barrier may produce endemism; extremely immobile
plants, for example, liliaceous species propagating almost wholly by
underground parts, are as a rule endemic, while alpine plants and
those of oceanic islands are endemic in the highest degree, regardless
of their mobility. When the two conditions act concomitantly upon a
species, endemism is almost inevitable. It can not be supposed,
however, that immobility or natural barriers alone, or the
concomitance of the two, must invariably give rise to endemic
species; the most immobile plant may be carried into another region
by unusual or accidental agencies, or the most formidable barrier to
migration may be overcome by the intensity of an agent or through
the action of man. Endemism is also brought about by the
modification of species; new or nascent species are as a rule
endemic. Whether they will remain endemic or not will depend upon
the perfection of their contrivances for dissemination and upon the
presence of barriers to migration or ecesis. Finally, as Drude was the
first to point out, the disappearance of a polydemic species in all
regions but one, owing to the struggle for existence or to changed
physical conditions, will result in endemism.
278. Significance. Endemism is readily recognized by methods
of distributional statistics, applied to areas limited by natural
barriers to migration or ecesis. For political areas, it has no
significance whatever, unless the boundaries of these coincide with
barriers. It determines in the first degree the validity of regions,
though the latter are often recognized also by the presence of barriers
and by the character of the vegetation. Endemism may occur in areas
of vegetation of any rank from a formation to a zone. When the term
is not qualified, however, it should be used of species with reference
to formations alone. Comparisons to be of value, however, can be
instituted only between areas of the same order, i. e., between two or
more formations, two or more regions, provinces, etc. In the same
way, taxonomic groups of the same rank should be used in such
comparisons, i. e., species should be contrasted with species, genera
with genera, and families with families, except when it is desired to
obtain some measure of the age of the vegetation by the
differentiation of the endemic phyla within it. There will be seen to
exist a fundamental correspondence between the rank of the floral
division and the taxonomic group, though the apparent exceptions to
this are still too numerous to warrant its expression in a general law.
As a rule, however, formations most frequently show endemic
habitat forms and species, more rarely endemic genera; regions and
provinces commonly exhibit endemic species and genera, rarely
endemic families; while zones and hemispheres contain endemic
orders as well as families. This correspondence is readily seen to
depend primarily upon the fact that increased differentiation in the
taxonomic sense is a concomitant of the increased invasion of
endemic species, measured in terms of distance and difference in
habitat.
It is too early to decide satisfactorily whether it is proper to speak
of formations as endemic. At first thought it would seem that all
formations, with the exception of ruderal ones, were endemic, but a
study of almost any transition area between regions would seem to
point to the opposite conclusion, viz., that no formations are
properly endemic. It is equally impossible at present to distinguish
different types of endemics, such as relictae, etc., as any such
classification must await the elaboration of a method for determining
the phylogeny of a natural group of species by an investigation of
their comparative differentiation in connection with their migration
in all directions from the vegetation center into new habitats. In
short, it will not be possible to make a thorough study of endemism
and to postulate its laws until modern methods of research have been
extended to a much larger portion of the vegetation of the globe. The
final task of phytogeography is the division of the earth’s vegetation
into natural areas. It will be at once evident that most plants can not
properly be called endemic until the natural regions in which they
are found have been accurately defined, a work which has barely
begun. In the much simpler matter of distribution, upon which the
accuracy of statistical methods depends directly, there are few
regions sufficiently well known at the present time to yield anything
like permanent results.

POLYPHYLESIS AND POLYGENESIS

279. Concept. The idea of polyphylesis, as advanced by Engler,

contains two distinct concepts: (1) that a species may arise in two
different places or at two different times from the same species, and
(2) that a genus or higher group may arise at different places or times
by the convergence of two or more lines of origin. It is here proposed
to restrict polyphylesis, as its meaning would indicate, to the second
concept, and to employ for the first the term polygenesis,[37] first
suggested by Huxley in the sense of polyphylesis. The term
polyphylesis is extended, however, to cover the origin of those
species which arise at different places or times from the convergence
of two or more different species, a logical extension of the idea
underlying polyphyletic genera, though it may seem at first thought
to be absurd. Polygenesis may be formally defined as the origin of
one species from another species at two or more distinct places on
the earth’s surface, at the same time or at different times, or its origin
in the same place at different times. Polyphylesis, on the contrary, is
the origin of one species from two or more different species at
different places, at the same time or at different times. It is evident
that what is true of species in this connection will hold equally well of
genera and higher groups. Opposed to polygenesis is monogenesis,
in which a species arises but once from another species; with
polyphylesis is to be contrasted monophylesis, in which the species
arises from a single other species. It will be noticed at once that these
two concepts are closely related. The following diagrams will serve to
make the above distinctions more evident:

I. Polygenesis II. Polyphylesis III. Monogenesis (Monophylesis)

In I, a species A, becomes scattered over a large area in a series of

places, m ... mn, with the same physical factors, in any or all of which
may arise the new species a. In II, a species with xerophytic
tendency, A, and one with mesophytic tendency, B, in the course of
migration find themselves respectively in a more mesophytic habitat,
m, and a more xerophytic one, x, in which either may give rise to the
new form, c, which is more or less intermediate between A and B. In
III, the method of origin is of the simplest type, in which a species is
modified directly into another one, or is split up into several.
280. Proofs of polygenesis. In affirming the probability of a
polygenetic origin of species, there is no intention of asserting that
all species originate in this way. It seems evident that a very large
number of species of restricted range are certainly monogenetic, at
least as far as origin in space is concerned. It is possible that any
species may arise at two or more distinct times. Polygenesis can
occur readily only in species of more or less extensive area, in which
recur instances of the same or similar habitat. The relative frequence
and importance of the two methods can hardly be conjectured as yet,
but origin by monogenesis would seem to be the rule.
The arguments adduced by Engler in support of polygenesis are in
themselves conclusive, but the investigations of the past decade have
brought to light additional proofs, especially from the experimental
side. In determining the physical factors of prairie and mountain
formations, and especially by methods of experimental ecology, the
author has found that habitats are much less complex than they are
ordinarily thought to be, since water-content and humidity, and to a
less degree light, constitute the only factors which produce direct
modification. In addition, it has been ascertained that the minimum
difference of water-content, humidity, or light, necessary to produce
a distinguishable morphological adjustment is much greater than the
unit differences recorded by the instruments. In short, the
differences of habitats, as ascertained by thermograph, psychrometer
and photometer, are much greater than their efficient differences,
and, with respect to their ability to produce modification, habitats
fall into relatively few categories. A striking illustration of this is seen
in the superficially very different habitats, desert, strand, alkali plain,
alpine moor, and arctic tundra, all of which are capable of producing
the same type of xerophyte. It follows from this that many more or
less plastic species of extensive geographical area will find
themselves in similar or identical situations, measured in terms of
efficient differences, and will be modified in the same way in two or
more of these. In mountain regions, where interruption of the
surface and consequent alternation are great, the mutual invasion of
contiguous formations is of frequent occurrence, often resulting in
habitat forms. The spots in which these nascent species, such as
Galium boreale hylocolum, Aster levis lochmocolus, etc., are found,
are often so related to the area of the parent species as to
demonstrate conclusively that these forms are the result of
polygenesis and not of migration. Naturally, what is true of a small
area will hold equally well of a large region, and the recurrence of the
same habitat form may be accepted as conclusive proof of
polygenesis. The most convincing evidences of multiple origin,
however, are to be found in what De Vries has called “mutations.” It
makes little difference whether we accept mutations in the exact
sense of this author, or regard them as forms characterized by latent
variability. The evidence is conclusive that the same form may arise
in nature or in cultivation, in Holland or in America, not merely
once, but several or many times. In the presence of such
confirmation, it is unnecessary to accumulate proofs. Polygenesis
throws a new light upon many difficult problems of invasion and
distribution, and, as a working principle, admits of repeated tests in
the field. It obviates, moreover, the almost insuperable difficulties in
the way of explaining the distribution of many polygenetic species on
the basis of migration alone.
281. Origin by polyphylesis. In 1898, the author first advanced
a tentative hypothesis to the effect that a species homogeneous
morphologically may arise from two distinct though related species.
During subsequent years of formational study, the conviction has
grown in regard to the probability of such a method of origin. Since
the appearance of Engler’s work, a polyphyletic origin for certain
genera has been very generally accepted by botanists, but all have
ignored the fact that the polyphylesis of genera carries with it the
admission of such origin for species, since the former are merely
groups of the latter. I can not, however, agree with Engler, that
polyphyletic genera, and hence species also, are necessarily
unnatural. If the convergence of the lines of polyphylesis has been
great, resulting in essential morphological harmony, the genus is a
natural one, even though the ancestral phyla may be recognizable. If,
on the other hand, the convergence is more or less imperfect,
resulting in subgroups of species more nearly related within the
groups than between them, the genus can hardly be termed natural.
This condition may, however, prevail in a monophyletic genus with
manifest divergence and still not be an indication that it is artificial.
Darwin[38], in speaking of convergence, has said: “If two species,
belonging to two distinct though allied genera, had both produced a
large number of new and divergent forms, it is conceivable that these
might approach each other so closely that they would have all to be
classified under the same genus; and thus the descendants of two
distinct genera would converge into one.” The application of this
statement to species would at once show the possibility of
polyphylesis in the latter, and a further examination of the matter
will demonstrate its probability. It is perfectly evident that a species
may be split into two or more forms by varying the conditions, let us
say of water-content, and that the descendants of these forms may
again be changed into the parent type by reversing the process. This
has, in fact, been done experimentally. Since it is admittedly
impossible to draw any absolute line between forms, varieties, and
species, it is at once clear that two distinct though related species,
especially if they are plastic, may be caused to converge in such a way
that the variants may constitute a new and homogeneous species.
This may be illustrated by a concrete case at present under
investigation. Kuhnistera purpurea differs from K. candida in being
smaller, in having fewer, smaller, and more narrow leaflets, and a
globoid spike of purple flowers in place of an elongated one of white
flowers; in a word, it is more xerophytic. This conclusion is
completely corroborated by its occurrence. On dozens of slopes
examined, Kuhnistera purpurea has never been found mingling with
K. candida on lower slopes, except where an accident of the surface
has resulted in a local decrease of water-content. The experiment as
conducted is a simple one, consisting merely in sowing seed of each
in the zone of the other, and in growing K. purpurea under
controlled mesophytic conditions, and K. candida under similarly
measured xerophytic conditions in the planthouse.
While the polyphyletic origin of species is in a fair way to be
decided by experiment, it receives support from several well-known
phenomena. The striking similarity in the plant body of families
taxonomically so distinct as the Cactaceae, Stapeliaceae, and