Available online at www.sciencedirect.

com
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
Available
Availableonline at www.sciencedirect.com
Available online
online at
at www.sciencedirect.com
www.sciencedirect.com
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
Procedia Engineering 00 (2017) 000–000
ScienceDirect
Procedia Engineering 00 (2017) 000–000
Procedia Engineering 00 (2017) 000–000
Procedia Engineering
Procedia Engineering00 (2017)
211 000–000
(2018) 297–305
Procedia Engineering 00 (2017) 000–000
Procedia Engineering 00 (2017) 000–000
Procedia Engineering 00 (2017) 000–000
Full-scale Experimental Study of Fire Spread Behavior of Cars
Full-scale Experimental
2017 8th International Conference Studyon Fire ofScience
Fire and Spread Behavior
Fire Protection of Cars
Engineering
Full-scale
Full-scale Experimental
Experimental
Xiao-hui(on JIANG
the Development
a,b Study
Study
, Guo-qing
of
of Fire
Fire
of Performance-based
ZHU a,b,
*, Hui
Spread
Spread Behavior
Code) LI of
ZHUFire, Behavior
a,b
Da-yan a,b
of Cars
Cars
Full-scale
Full-scale Experimental
Experimental Study
Study of
of Fire
Fire Spread
Spread a,b Behavior
a,b Behavior
a,b of Cars
LIa,b ofof Cars
a,b a,b,
Xiao-hui JIANG , Guo-qing ZHU *, Hui ZHU , Da-yan LI
Full-scale Experimental
Xiao-hui
Faculty JIANG
of Safety
a

Xiao-hui
Fire of
b
a,b
JIANG
Research
Study
, Guo-qing
Engineering, China
a,b ZHU
University
Institute,,China
of
Guo-qing
Fire
a,b,
University ZHU
Spread
*,andHui
of Mining ZHUXuzhou
Technology,
a,b,
of mining *,and
and Hui
, Behavior
Da-yan
221116, China
ZHU
Technology,
a,b
Xuzhou ,221116,
Da-yan
Cars
ChinaLIa,b
Faculty
a
Safety Engineering,
a,b China University of Mining
a,b, Technology, Xuzhou
a,b 221116, Chinaa,b
Xiao-hui
Xiao-hui
Faculty
a
of JIANG
JIANG
Safety
Fire Research
b a,b ,
Engineering, Guo-qing
Institute,,China
a,b Guo-qing
China ZHU
University ZHU
University of a,b,
Mining*,
a,b,*,
of mining andandHui
Hui ZHU
ZHU a,b , Da-yan
Xuzhou,221116,
Technology,
Technology,
a,b Da-yan
Xuzhou ChinaLI
221116, LI
Chinaa,b
Xiao-hui JIANG , Guo-qing ZHU *, Hui ZHU , Da-yan LIa,b
Faculty
a b of Safety Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China
Fire Research Institute, China University of mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China
aFaculty
Fire of Safety Engineering, China University of Mining
andand Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China
a
Abstract
b
Faculty Research
of Institute, China
Safety Engineering, University
China of mining
University of Mining Technology,
and Xuzhou
Technology, 221116,
Xuzhou China
221116, China
bFire of
Research Institute, China University of mining andand
Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China
b
a
Faculty
Fire Safety Engineering,
Research Institute, China
China University
University of of Mining
mining and Technology,
Technology, Xuzhou
Xuzhou 221116,
221116, China
China
Abstract b
Fire Research Institute, China University of mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China
Abstract
Two full-scale experiments were carried out to study the burning behavior of car fire. Experiment was designed to simulate a car catching
Abstract
fire alone
Two on the
full-scale road. Experiment
experiments Ⅱ wasout
were carried designed
to studytothe simulate
burningcar fire in the
behavior parking
of car lot. The ignition
fire. Experiment locationstoinsimulate
was designed two experiments were
a car catching
Abstract
Abstract
Two full-scale experiments were carried
all set
fire in engine
alone on the compartment.
road. Experiment Ⅱ wasout
Thermocouples toand
study
designed a tothe
number burning behavior
of cameras
simulate car fire in of car
were
the fire. Experiment
installed
parking to obtain
lot. thewas
The ignition designed
locationsto
temperature insimulate
development a car
two experimentsandcatching
burning
were
Abstract
Two full-scale experiments were carried out toand
study the burning behavior of car fire. Experiment
fire
all alone
process.
set in Theon the
results
engine road. Experiment
show
compartment.that Ⅱ was
flames shot
Thermocouples designed
out froma to
thesimulate
numberengine car fire in
compartment
of cameras the
were parking
and lot.
spread
installed toThe
to obtain thewas
theignition
hood, designed
locations
then spread
temperature to simulate
into
two
development a car
part of catching
rearexperiments
and car were
after
burning
Two
fire full-scale
alone on the experiments
road. were
Experiment carried
wasout to study
designed a tothe burning
simulate behavior
car fire in of
of car
the fire.
parking Experiment
lot. was designed to simulate aa car catching
all
Two set
ignition.
process. in The
engine
full-scale
The compartment.
experiments
maximum
results show were
temperature
that Ⅱ can
Thermocouples
carried
flames out
shotbeout and
tobetween
study
from number
the
the of cameras
burning
800~950
engine behavior were
in engine
compartment
℃ installed
car fire.
compartment,
and spread toThe
to obtain
Experiment and
the ignition
the
hood, locations
temperature
was designed
maximum
then spread into
to tworearexperiments
development
simulate
temperature can
part and
car were
burning
of catching
be between
car after
Two
fire full-scale
alone on the experiments
road. were carried
Experiment wasout toand
study
designed a tothe burning
simulate behavior
car fire in of car
the fire. Experiment
parking lot. was designed to simulate a car catching
all set
process.
fire
800~1000
ignition.in The
alone engine
on
The in compartment.
results
℃ the show
road.
maximum Experiment
driver’s cab.
temperature
Ⅱ
thatInThermocouples
flames shotbe
was
experiment
Ⅱ can out from
designed
II,between
the number
theof
to
tire of cameras
engine
simulate compartment
car
adjacent
800~950 fire
℃car were
in
inwhich installed
and
thewas
engine spread
parking
0.8 mlot.
compartment, toThe
toaway
obtain
the
The ignition
the
hood,
ignition
from
and the
locations
temperature
then spread
locations
burning
maximum
in
car
two
into
two
was
temperature
experiments
development
rear parttoand
of
experiments
easy
can car were
burning
after
were
bebetween
be ignited.
fire
all alone
set
process. in Theon the
engine
resultsroad. Experiment
compartment.
show that Ⅱ
flames was
Thermocouples
shot designed
out and
froma to simulate
number
theof of
engine car fire
cameras in
compartment the
were parking
installed
and lot.
spreadto The
obtain
tocars,
the ignition
the
hood, locations
temperature
then spread in two experiments
development
to and were
burning
ignition.
all set inthe
In cars,
800~1000 The
engine
℃firemaximum
in spread temperature
compartment.
rate
driver’s was
cab. slow incan
InThermocouples be
engine
experiment II,between
and
compartment
the tire 800~950
a number but fast
adjacent℃carin
of cameras engine
werewas
inwhich
driver’s compartment,
installed
cab.
0.8 mtoaway
Out and
ofobtain the
from maximum
temperature
paint
the layers
burning have
car arear
temperature
development
was part
can
great
easy of
be car
effect,
to after
bebetween
and burning
which
ignited.
all set in The
process. engine compartment.
results show that Thermocouples and a number of cameras were installed to obtain the temperature development and burning
ignition.
800~1000
process.
made
In The
The
thethe
cars, flames
℃firemaximum
in driver’s
results show
spread
spread cab.
that
fast
rate on
wasInflames
temperature
the
slow
shot
incan
experiment
flames shot
external beout
out
engine
from
II,between
the tire
from
surface
theof
ofthe
compartment
engine
800~950
engine
cars.
compartment
adjacent℃ in
car engine
which
but compartment
And the
fast spread
in driver’s
and
was
and
speedcab.
spread
compartment,
0.8 m away
spread
at the
Out
to the
and
oftocars,
roof the
was
hood,
from the
hood,
faster
the
then
maximum
then
paintthan
spread
burning
spread
sides
layers
to
temperature
car was
to
of
have
rear
arear
car
part
can
easypart
body.
great to of
be
of car
car
During
effect,
after
bebetween
ignited.
after
the
which
process.
ignition.
800~1000 The
The
℃ results
maximum
in showcab.
driver’s thatInflames
temperature shotbe
can
experiment out
II, from
between
the tiretheofengine
800~950 compartment
adjacent℃ in
car engine
which and spread
compartment,
was 0.8 m to the
away and hood,
from then
maximum
the spread
burning to
temperature
car wasrear part
can
easy to of
be
be car after
between
ignited.
In cars,
burning
made thethe
ignition. Thefiremaximum
process,
flames spread rate
the melting
spread fastwas
andslow
temperature
on incan
dropping
the engine
external be compartment
between
phenomenon
surface but
800~950
wasAnd
of cars. fast
obvious.
℃ in
the in driver’s
engine
spread cab.
at Out
compartment,
speed of cars,
the roof andthe
was paint
maximum
faster layers
than have a great
temperature
sides of car caneffect,
body. be which
between
During the
ignition.
800~1000 The maximum
firein driver’s temperature
cab. In incan
experiment beII,between
the 800~950 inwhich
enginewascompartment, and maximum temperature canto be between
the tire of adjacent℃car 0.8 m
In
madecars,
800~1000
burning thethe ℃
℃ inspread
flames
process, spreadrate
driver’s fastwas
cab.
the melting onInslow
and the engine
external
experiment
dropping II, compartment
surface
phenomenon of cars.
tire ofwas but
And fast
adjacent carin
the
obvious. driver’s
spread
which speed
wascab.
0.8 m away
at Out
the of cars,
roof
away from
was the
from the
faster
the burning
paint layers
than car
sides
burning have
car was
of car
was easy
a great
body.
easy to be
be ignited.
effect,
Duringwhich
the
ignited.
800~1000
In cars,
thethe inspread
fire driver’s cab.
rate wasInthe
experiment II, compartment
the tire of adjacent carinwhich was 0.8 m away from the burning car was easy to be ignited.
andslow in engine but fast driver’s cab. Out of cars, the paint layers have aa great effect, which
made ℃
flames spread fast on external surface of Selection
cars.
burning
In
© cars,
2017 process,
the
The the melting
fireAuthors.
spread rate was
Published dropping
slow phenomenon
in Elsevier
by engine compartment
Ltd. wasAnd
but the
obvious.
fast
andspread
in speed
driver’s
peer-review atunder
cab. the
Out roof was faster
of responsibility
cars, the paintthan sides
layers
of the of
have car body.
great
Academic During
effect, the
which
Committee
In
madecars,
thethe fire spread
flames spreadrate
fastwas
on slow
the in engine
external compartment
surface of cars. but
And fast
the in driver’s
spread speedcab.
at Out
the of cars,
roof was the paint
faster layers
than sideshave
of a great
car body. effect,
Duringwhich
burning
made
of
© ICFSFPE
2017 process,
theTheflames the
2017.
Authors. melting
spread fast and
Published dropping
on the external phenomenon
surface
by Elsevier Ltd. was obvious.
of Selection
cars. And theandspread speed atunder
peer-review the roof was faster than
responsibility ofsides During the
of car body.Committee
the Academic the
made
burning theprocess,
flames spread
the fast
melting on
and the external
dropping surface
phenomenon of cars.
wasAnd the
obvious. spread speed at the roof was faster than sides of car body. During the
© 2017
burning
of ICFSFPE The
process,Authors.
the
2017. Published
melting and by
droppingElsevier Ltd.
phenomenon Selection
was and
obvious. peer-review under responsibility of the Academic Committee
burning
© 2017process,
The Authors. the melting and dropping
Published phenomenon
by Elsevier was obvious.
Ltd. Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the Academic Committee
of
© ICFSFPE
2018 The
Keywords: 2017.
fullAuthors.
scale Published
experiment, byby
car fire, Elsevier Ltd.
burning behavior
©
of
© 2017 The
ICFSFPE
2017 The Authors.
2017.
Authors. Published
Published by Elsevier
Elsevier Ltd. Selection
Selection and
Ltd.committee and peer-review
peer-review under responsibility
responsibility of
of the
the Academic
Academic Committee
Peer-review
Keywords: fullunder
scale responsibility
experiment,
© 2017 The Authors. Published by of
car fire, the organizing
burning
Ltd. Selection of
behavior
Elsevier andICFSFPE 2017.under
peer-review
Committee
under responsibility of the Academic Committee
of
of ICFSFPE
ICFSFPE
Keywords:
2017.
2017.
full scale experiment, car fire, burning behavior
of ICFSFPE
Keywords: 2017.
1. Introduction experiment, car fire, burning behavior
full scale
Keywords: full scale experiment, car fire, burning behavior
Keywords:
1. full scale experiment, car fire, burning behavior
Introduction
Keywords: full scale experiment, car fire, burning behavior
1. Introduction
With the improvement of people’s living standards, the number and the trip rate of vehicles are increasing. Meanwhile,
1. Introduction
With the
accident
1. improvement
potentials
Introduction start toof rise.
people’s living standards,
According to information the number andevery
statistic, the trip
yearratesince
of vehicles
2000, the are number
increasing. Meanwhile,
of vehicle fire
1. Introduction
With the
accident
accidents andimprovement
potentials
the death toofhave
starttoll people’s
rise. livingHappened
According
increased. standards,
to information the number
quiet inand
statistic,
often theyears,
every
recent trip
yearrate of vehicles
since
vehicle 2000, are number
the
fire accidentsincreasing.
have of Meanwhile,
vehicle
been fire
attracting
1. Introduction
With the improvement of rise.
people’s living standards, the number andevery
the trip ratesince
of vehicles are number
increasing. Meanwhile,
accident
accidents
theWith
attention potentials
andimprovement
ofthe starttoll
thedeath
whole to have
society. According
increased. to information
Happened quiet statistic,
often inand
recent year
years, vehicle 2000, the
fire accidents have of vehicle
been fire
attracting
accident
With the
potentials
the improvementstart toof
of people’s
rise.
people’s living
According
living standards,
to
standards, the
information
the number
statistic,
number and the
every
the trip
year
trip rate
rate of
since
of vehicles
2000,
vehicles are
the
are increasing.
number of
increasing. Meanwhile,
vehicle
Meanwhile, fire
accidents
the attention
J. Mangs
With the and of
andthe
the
O.death
whole
improvement toll
Rahkonen have
society.
ofhave[1] increased.
took
people’s the Happened
lead
livingHappened in
standards, quiet
full-scale often in
experiment
the number recent
and of years,
car fire
theyears,
trip vehicle
in
rate 1994 fire
and
of vehicles accidents
obtained have
the
are number been
heat
increasing. attracting
release
Meanwhile, rate
accident
accidents
accident potentials
and the
potentials start
death
start to
toll
to rise.
rise. According
increased.
According to
to information
quiet
information statistic,
often in
statistic, every
recent
every year
year since
vehicle
since 2000,
fire
2000, the
accidents
the have
number of vehicle
been
of fire
attracting
vehicle fire
the J.attention
(HRR),
accidentMangs
mass ofchange
and
potentialsthe
O. whole
Rahkonen
and
start society.
smoke
to [1]increased.
rise. took the lead
production
According rate
to ininformation
full-scale
as a function experiment
of in
time.
statistic, of car firevehicle
Subsequently,
every year in 1994
since andaccidents
the2000, obtained
domestic
the the
andhave heat
foreign
number of release
researchers
vehicle rate
fire
accidents
theJ.attention
accidents and
and the
ofthe
thedeath
whole
death toll
toll have
society.
have increased. Happened
Happened quiet
quiet often
often in recent
recent years,
years, vehicle fire
fire accidents have been
been attracting
attracting
(HRR),
have Mangs
done
accidents mass
and and
some theO.
change Rahkonen
work
deathand
on smoke
this [1]
tollsociety.
have took
filed, the
production lead
and these
increased. Happened in
ratestudiesfull-scale
as a function
mainly
quiet experiment
of in
time.
focused
often of
on
recent car fire
Subsequently,
causes,
years, in 1994
fire the
vehicletrace and
fire obtained
domestic the
andhave
accidents heat
foreign
identification, garage
beenrelease
researchers rate
fires and
attracting
the attention
J. Mangs
the attention of
and the
O.
ofchange
the whole
Rahkonen
whole [1] took the lead in full-scale experiment of car fire in 1994 and obtained the heat release rate
(HRR),
have donemass
fire-extinguishing
theJ.attention
Mangs some work
ofchange
and the
O. on society.
and
system.
whole
Rahkonen
smoke
this
To date,
society.
[1]
production
filed, and
there
took thethese
are rate
lead two in
as
studies a function
main mainly ofstudy
waysexperiment
full-scale
time.the
tofocused Subsequently,
on
of causes,
car
car fire.
fire fire
One
in
the
1994is domestic
trace and
and experiment
full-scale
obtained
foreign
theidentification, garageresearchers
fires and
andrate
the
(HRR),
haveJ. donemass
Mangs and
some O.
work and
Rahkonen
on smoke
this [1] production
took
filed, andthetheseratestudies
lead in as a function
full-scale
mainly of time. on
experiment
focused Subsequently,
of car fire
causes, in
fire the
1994
trace domestic
and and the
obtained the
identification,
heat
foreign
heat
garage
release
researchers
release
fires rate
and
fire-extinguishing
other
J.
(HRR), is the
Mangs
mass numerical
and O.
change system.
Rahkonen
and To
simulation date,
[1] there
method.
took theare
The
lead two in main
full-scale ways
full-scale to
experiment study
experiment is the
the
of car
mostfire. One
direct
fire in is
and
1994 the full-scale
accurate
and experiment
method
obtained the contrasting
heat releaseand the
that
rate
have
(HRR), donemass
fire-extinguishingsome work
change on smoke
and
system. this
smoke
To date,
production
filed, and these
production
there are
rate
rate
two
as
studies
as aa function
main mainly
function
ways
of time.
tofocused
ofstudy
time. Subsequently,
on causes,
Subsequently, fire the
trace
the domestic
is domestic
and
and foreign
identification, garage
foreign researchers
fires
researchers and
other
(HRR),
have is the
the numerical
donemass numerical
some simulation
change
work simulation
and
on method
smoke
this method.
depends
production
filed, and The
on
theserate full-scale
complicated
as
studies experiment
materials
a function
mainly ofstudy isthe
time.
focused the car
definitionsmostfire.
Subsequently,
on causes,
Onebody
direct
for car
fire and
the
trace
the full-scale
accurate
and
domestic and experiment
method
inner contrasting
decorative
foreign
identification, garage
andthat
items.
researchers
fires
the
But
and
fire-extinguishing
have
other done
is the some
numerical system.
work on To
this
simulation date,
filed, there
and
method. are
these
The two main
studies
full-scale ways
mainly tofocused
experiment is the
on
the car fire.
causes,
most One
fire
direct is
trace
and the full-scale experiment
identification,
accurate method garage and
fires
contrasting the
and
that
the numerical
because
have done thesome
fire-extinguishing simulation
experiment
work on
system. method
samples
this
To depends
are there
filed,
date, completeon
and these
are complicated
cars
two which
studies
main materials
are costly,
mainly
ways tofocused
studydefinitions
the onresearches
the causes,
car for
fire. car
fire
One body
adopted
trace
is and
the
the inner decorative
full-scaleexperiment
identification,
full-scale garage items.
experiments fires
and But
were
and
the
other is the
fire-extinguishing
the numerical numerical
simulation simulation
system. To
method date,method.
there
depends The
are two
onscrap full-scale
main
complicated experiment
ways to study
materials is the
the most
car direct
fire. One and
is accurate
the method
full-scale contrasting
experiment and that
the
because
little and the
most
fire-extinguishing
other is the experiment
of experiment
numerical system. samples
To
simulation are
samples
date, complete
were
there
method. are
The cars
two which
cars.
main
full-scale M. are
waysShipp
to
experiment anddefinitions
costly,
study the
isM.
the
the car
most
for car
researches
Spearpoint
fire. One
direct
body
adopted
[2] used
is
and
and
the
the inner decorative
full-scale
calorimeter
full-scale
accurate experiment
method
items.
experiments
hoods to
contrasting
But
were
measure
and the
that
the
othernumerical
because is the
the simulation
numerical
experiment method
simulation
samples depends
method.
are completeon
The complicated
full-scale
cars which materials
experiment
are costly, definitions
is
the the most for
researches car
direct body
and
adopted and inner
accurate
the decorative
method
full-scale items.
contrasting
experiments But
that
were
little
the
other
the and
HRR,is the
numerical most of experiment
temperatures
numerical
simulation and
simulation
method samples
other method.
dependswereon
parameters Thescrap firecars.
incomplicated
full-scale M. Shipp
experiments
experimentofand
materials motor
isM.the Spearpoint
vehicles.
definitionsmost In
direct
for car[2]
2000,
andused
body calorimeter
Yuan-ping
accurate
and method
inner hoods
Cheng [3]to measure
conducted
contrasting
decorative items. that
But
because andthe
theexperiment
numerical experiment
simulation samples
method are complete
dependswereon carscars.
which M.are costly, the researches adopted the full-scale experiments were
little
the
an HRR,
numerical most of experiment
temperatures
with a carand
simulation in samples
other
a tunnel
method parameters
model
depends andincomplicated
scrap fireresearch
his materials
Shipp
experimentsshowedofand definitions
motor
theM.favorable foropportunity
Spearpoint
vehicles. car
for In
body
[2]
2000,used and inner
Yuan-ping
for decorative
calorimeter
people tohoods
Cheng [3]to
escape items.
conductedBut
ismeasure
limited
because
little
because
the andthe
HRR, most
the experiment
of experiment
experiment
temperatures
samples
samples
and other
are
samples
are wereonscrap
complete
complete
parameters in
complicated
cars
cars
fire
which
cars.
which
materials
M.are
are
experiments
costly,
Shipp and
costly,
of
definitions
the
M.researches
the
motor Spearpoint
researches
vehicles.
car
In
body
adopted
[2]
adopted
2000,used and
the inner decorative
full-scale
calorimeter
the full-scale
Yuan-ping hoods items.
experiments
to
experiments
Cheng [3]
But
were
measure
were
conducted
an
to experiment
15
because
little minutes.
and the
most with
Yusuke
experiment
of a car in a
Shintani
samples tunnel
etare model
al. [4]
complete and
used 5 his
cars research
different
which showed
models
are of
costly, the
cars
the favorable
to test one
researches opportunity
by one,
adopted for
and
the people
obtained
full-scaleto escape
mass loss
experiments is limited
rate and
were
the
to
heat
HRR,
little
an 15 and
experiment most
minutes.
release rateofofexperiment
temperatures
with
Yusukea car and
experiment
burning.in other
samples
samples
aIttunnel
Shintani was
were
parameters
were
model
etparameters
al.
found[4]
scrap
and
used
that
in his
scrap firecars.
5fire
the cars. M.
research
different
total
Shipp
experiments
M.models
Shipp
showed
burning
ofand
of
motor
andthe
M.
cars
duration
Spearpoint
vehicles.
M.favorable
Spearpoint
isto test one
In [2]
2000,
[2] used
toused
opportunity
proportional by one,
calorimeter
Yuan-ping
calorimeter
for
and
body peopleof
obtained
weight
hoods
Cheng
hoods
tomass [3]to
escape
loss
vehicle.
measure
toconducted
ismeasure
limited
rate
Four and
full-
little
the
an and
HRR,
experiment most of experiment
temperatures
with a carand
in a samples
other
tunnel were
model scrap
andin his cars. M. Shipp
experiments
research showedof and
motor
theM.favorable
Spearpoint
vehicles. In [2]
2000,used
opportunity calorimeter
Yuan-ping
for people hoods
Cheng
to [3]
escape toconducted
ismeasure
limited
the
to
heat
scaleHRR,
15 release temperatures
minutes.
experiments rateYusuke
ofwere and
burning. other
Shintani et
Ittunnel
carried was parameters
out al.
found
by [4] used
that in
Katsuhiro 5
thefire experiments
different
total
Okamoto models
burning
et ofofmotor
cars
duration
al. [5]motor vehicles.
to test
isvehicles.one In
proportional
to compare the by2000,
one, Yuan-ping
to body
results and
offorweight
burning Cheng
obtained
of mass [3]
loss
vehicle.
behavior conducted
rate
Four
inconducted and
full-
different
the
an
to HRR,
experiment
15 temperatures
minutes. with
Yusukea carand
in other
a
Shintani parameters
et al.model and
[4] used in fire
his
5his experiments
research
different showed
models of the
of the favorable
carsfavorable In 2000,
opportunity
toproportional
test one by one, Yuan-ping
and peopleCheng
obtained to [3]
escape
mass is
lossFour limited
rate and
an
heatexperiment
scale release
experiments
ignitions at rate
the with
of a car
burning.
were
splash in aItof
carried
guard tunnel
was
out
right model
found
by andthe
that
Katsuhiro
rear wheel or research
total
Okamoto
the left showed
burning
et duration
al.
front [5]
seat to
in is
compare
the opportunity
the
passenger to
results body
of
compartmentfor people
weight
burning ofto escape
vehicle.
behavior
with gasolinein isdifferent
limited
spill. full-
Sun
an
to
heatexperiment
15 minutes.
release ratewith
Yusuke
of a car
burning.in aIttunnel
Shintani et
was model
al.
found[4] andthe
used
that 55his research
different
total showed
models
burning of the
cars
duration favorable
isto test oneopportunity
proportional by one,
to forweight
and
body peopleoftomass
obtained escape
loss
vehicle. israte
Fourlimited
and
full-
to 15
scale
ignitionsminutes.
experiments
at the Yusuke
splash Shintani
wereguard
carriedofwaset
out al.
right [4]
byrear used
Katsuhiro
wheel different
orOkamoto models
the burning of
et al. seat
leftmodels
front [5] cars
to to test
in compare
the one by
the by
passenger one,
results and
of
compartment obtained
burning mass
behavior
with loss
gasoline rate
inspill. and
different
Sun
to
heat15
scale minutes.
release
experiments rateYusuke
of Shintani
burning. It et al.
found[4] used
that 5
the different
total of cars
duration isto test one
proportional one,
to and
body obtained
weight of mass loss
vehicle. rate
Four and
full-
heat release
ignitions at the ofwere
ratesplash carried
burning.
guard out
Itofwas
rightbyrear
found Katsuhiro
that
wheel theorOkamoto
total
the left et al.
burning
front [5] to
duration
seat in compare the results
is proportional
the passenger of burning
to body
compartment weight behavior
of
with vehicle.inFour
gasoline different
spill. full-
Sun
heat release
scale experiments
ignitions at ratesplash
the ofwere
burning.
guard Itofwas
carried out found
rightby rear that
Katsuhiro
wheel theorOkamoto
total
the burning
left et
front duration
al. [5]
seat to
in is proportional
compare
the the
passenger to body
results of
compartment weight
burning of vehicle.inFour
behavior
with gasoline full-
different
spill. Sun
scale experiments
* Corresponding author.were carried out by Katsuhiro
Tel.: +86-158-5249-6092; Okamoto et al. [5] to compare the results of burning behavior in different
fax: +86-516-8359-0598
scale experiments
ignitions at were carried out byrear Katsuhiro Okamoto et al. [5] to compare the results of burning behavior inspill. different
ignitions
E-mail at the
address:
* Corresponding the splash
splash guard
Tel.:guard
xiaohuiJ@cumt.edu.cn
author.
of
of right
right rearfax:
+86-158-5249-6092;
wheel
wheel or
or the
the left
+86-516-8359-0598 left front
front seat
seat inin the
the passenger
passenger compartment
compartment with with gasoline
gasoline spill. Sun Sun
ignitions at the splash guard of right rear wheel or the left front seat in the passenger compartment with gasoline spill. Sun
*1877-7058
Corresponding
E-mail address: author. Tel.: +86-158-5249-6092;
xiaohuiJ@cumt.edu.cn
© 2018 The Authors. Published byfax:Elsevier
+86-516-8359-0598
Ltd.
* Corresponding
E-mail address: author. Tel.: +86-158-5249-6092; fax: +86-516-8359-0598
xiaohuiJ@cumt.edu.cn
Peer-review under responsibility of the organizing committee of ICFSFPE 2017
* Corresponding
E-mail author. Tel.: +86-158-5249-6092; fax: +86-516-8359-0598
address: xiaohuiJ@cumt.edu.cn
*10.1016/j.proeng.2017.12.016
Corresponding author. Tel.: +86-158-5249-6092; fax: +86-516-8359-0598
E-mail address: xiaohuiJ@cumt.edu.cn
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +86-158-5249-6092; fax: +86-516-8359-0598
E-mail address: xiaohuiJ@cumt.edu.cn
E-mail address: xiaohuiJ@cumt.edu.cn
 298 Xiao-hui JIANG et al. / Procedia Engineering 211 (2018) 297–305
Xiao-hui JIANG et al/ Procedia Engineering 00 (2017) 000–000

Xuan et al. [6] also conducted full-scale experiments using two scarp cars in 2010. However, both Katsuhiro Okamoto and
Sun Xuan didn’t take in to account the ignition at engine which is the most common fire site in a great deal of investigation.
In 2013, Song Bo et al. [7] focused on the impact of tank leakage on heat release rate of burning and his experiments
showed that the heat release rate which was about 4.5 MW in general can reach up to 6.8 MW if the large area leakage of
gasoline occurs. In general, the previous studies have done a lot in terms of heat release rate, mass loss rate and other date,
but the development process and spreading behavior of car fire which is important for fire investigation and rescue work are
not adequate.
In this paper, two full-scale experiments were designed sequentially to simulate two car fire scenarios. The first fire
scenario is a car fire on the road and the second scenario is a car fire in parking lot. In the second scenario, the situation that
the adjacent car was ignited by flame was taken into account. The ignition locations were in the engine compartment in both
experiments. The multiple views of burning process and temperature distribution of car were obtained to study the
development of car fire and provided valuable guidance for vehicle fire rescue.

2. Experimental

2.1. Experimental cars and condition

Three cars (car A, car B, and car C) were provided for this study. All cars were Volkswagen’s saloon with traditional
modeling of four doors and three vans. Three cars had the same specifications: the body length was 4.5 m, the body weight
was 1070 kg, and the engine displacement was 1595 L. The identical cars are difficult to find as experiment specimen unless
they are expensive new cars. Although the models and brans of three cars were same, the car A was newer than car B and
car C. The car A was still in use, but the car B and car C have not been running for a very long time. All cars’ bodies were
largely intact. The experiments were carried out in the fire experimental hall (20 m×12 m×10 m) with good air ventilation.
Outside the experimental hall, one fire truck was on standby to put out fires.

2.2. Experimental design

2.2.1. Experimental I

Experiment I was designed to simulate a car catching fire alone on the road. Car A was used in the experiment I. The
front windows were fully opened and the rear windows were opened in half. The driver’s door was kept open throughout the
whole burning process to simulate the situation after driver escaping from the cab in the reality. Very little gasoline (<1%)
was left in fuel tank. After ignition, the fire was allowed to keep burning about 15 minutes until it was put out by firemen.
The equipment layout of the experiment I is showed in Fig. 1. The K-type thermocouples (measurement range:
0~1200 ℃) locations were marked from No.1 to No.10. The locations from No.1 to No.3 were on one line in the engine
compartment. The location of No.4 was on the steering wheel, the location of No.5 was on the part between the driver’s seat
and the front passenger seat, the location of No.6 was on the middle of the rear seat. The locations from No.7 to No.9 were
on one line in the upper part of automobile compartment about 10 cm from the roof. The location of No.10 was above right
front wheel. Two HD cameras were used to record the process of car fire in the directions of front and right side. The front
camera’s distance from the car was 4 m and the side camera’s distance from the car was 5m. The thermal imager was also
placed at the right side nearby the HD camera 1.

2.2.2. Experiment Ⅱ

Experiment Ⅱ was designed to simulate car fire in the parking lot. Therefore, the doors and windows of car B were
closed. Very little gasoline (<1%) was left in fuel tank, and the fire was allowed to keep burning about 35 minutes until it
was put out by firemen. To further considering the fire risk of two side-by-side cars in parking, the car C was paralleled to
the car B to test whether the body of car C could be ignited by fire. The car C was at a distance of 0.8 cm side of the car B,
and the doors and windows of it were closed too.
The equipment layout of the experiment Ⅱ is showed in Fig. 2. The K-type thermocouples (measurement range:
0~1200 ℃) locations were marked from No.1 to No.9. The locations from No.1 to No.8 were on the car B. The locations
from No.1 to No.3 were on one line in the engine compartment. The location of No.4 was on the part between the driver’s
seat and the front passenger seat, the location of No.5 was on the driver’s seat back, and the location of No.6 was on the
middle of the rear seat. The locations of No.7 and No.8 were separate on the right front tire and the right rear tire. The
 Xiao-hui JIANG et al. / Procedia Engineering 211 (2018) 297–305 299
Xiao-hui JIANG et al/ Procedia Engineering 00 (2017) 000–000

location of No.9 was one the right rear tire of the car C. Four HD cameras were used to record the process of car fire, and
the HD camera 3 was put on the driver’s seat to record internal combustion.

(a) Top view

(b) Right side view

Fig. 1. The equipment layout of the experiment I (a) top view (b) right side view.

Fig. 2. The equipment layout of the experiment II.

 300 Xiao-hui JIANG et al. / Procedia Engineering 211 (2018) 297–305
Xiao-hui JIANG et al/ Procedia Engineering 00 (2017) 000–000

2.3. Ignition produce

The statistics of a lot of vehicle fire accidents show that the most frequent fire source location is in car engine [8]. In our
study, the same ignition location was set in the car engine compartment near the location of No.2 for both experiment I and
experiment Ⅱ. Before the ignition, open the hood and put the a sponge impregnated with a little bit of gasoline at the
ignition location, then close the hood and ignite the gasoline by the electric spark which caused by shot circuit.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Burning process

3.1.1. Burning process of experiment I

Burning period of the experiment I is shown in Table 1. After the ignition of sponge in car engine compartment, a flame
quickly shot out from the right gap of the hood. At 15 s, a small amount of plastic materials melted down and started to drip
on the ground. At 1 min, part of paint layer of hood was carbonized by heat and blackened, and burned afterwards. With the
development of burning process, more and more flame drips gathered in the ground and formed a pool fire which further
accelerated combustion. At 6 min, the right front tire was ignited by flame and the body of car slanted to the right gradually.
At 10 min 30 s, flames spread to the cab through the open driver’s door. Note that the fire in cab grow very fast because of a
large quantity of air supplied by open windows and driver’s door. Moreover, it was observed that the flames in cab spread to
the passenger compartment through the roof of the car and the whole compartment was engulfed in fire in 40 s. About 15
min after the ignition, all the sections of car except the truck were burning violently, and then the fire was put out by
firemen completely.

Table 1. Burning period of experiment I

1 min 4 min 30 s 6 min 7 min 30 s 9 min 30 s

10 min 30 s 10 min 40 s 11 min 13 min 30 s 15 min

(a)

1 min 2 min 30 s 4 min 30 s 7 min 30 s 10 min 30 s 13 min 30 s

(b)

Fig. 3. The burning process of experiment I. (a) the burning process recorded by camera 1. (b) the burning process recorded by camera 2.
 Xiao-hui JIANG et al. / Procedia Engineering 211 (2018) 297–305 301
Xiao-hui JIANG et al/ Procedia Engineering 00 (2017) 000–000

The burning process of experiment I recorded by two cameras is shown in Fig. 3. After 13min 30 s, the front images
recorded by camera 2 were in a sea of fire.

3.1.2. Burning process of experiment Ⅱ

Burning period of the second car in experiment II is shown in Table 2. After ignition, the flames came out from the right
gap of the hood with black smoke. At 3 min 30 s, the part of hood which carbonized started to burn. The flames spread to
the bumper and the right headlight at 8 min, and then to the left front tire at 16 min. These above burning phenomena were
similar to the early stage of experiment I. At 16 min 30s, there were no flames on the surface of the hood and the
development of fire in cab was accelerating. At 21 min flashover occurred in driver’s cab with the driver’s window broken,
and flames ejected from the window. About 25 min, the left passenger window was also broken and flames shot out.
Meanwhile, flames started to spread to the trunk along the surface of the car roof. With the development of burning process,
the left rear tire was ignited at 27 min. Finally, about 35 min after ignition, the fire was put out by firemen completely.
During the whole burning process, the right rear tire of the car C which paralleled to the burning car was ignited at 20 min
30 s, then the whole car C was consumed by fire gradually.

Table 2. Burning period of the car B in experiment II

17 min 21 min（flashover） 25 min 27 min 34 min

(a)

3 min 30 s 8 min 16 min 20 min 30 s 27 min

(b)

flashover in driver’s cab 15 min 25 min 30 min

(c) (d)

Fig. 4. The burning process of experiment II. (a) the burning process recorded by camera 1. (b) the burning process recorded by camera 2. (c) the image
recorded by camera 3. (d) the burning process recorded by camera 4.
 302 Xiao-hui JIANG et al. / Procedia Engineering 211 (2018) 297–305
Xiao-hui JIANG et al/ Procedia Engineering 00 (2017) 000–000

The burning process of experiment II recorded by three cameras is shown in Fig. 4. However, it is worth noting that the
camera 3 put on the driver’s seat was destroyed by fire after flashover in cab.

3.2. Flame spreading behavior

Throughout two experiments, flame spread behaviors were similar to each other because of the same ignition location.
After ignition, flames spread from engine compartment to hood, to right front tire, to driver’s cab, to passenger compartment,
to trunk at last. However, the ways of flames spreading to driver’s cab are different. In experiment I, it was observed that
flames spread to driver’s cab by open driver’s door. But in experiment II, the similar spread behavior was not observed.
From the image recorded by camera 3, it was suggested that the flames spread to the driver’s cab through the air-
conditioning vents when doors and windows are closed. In compartment, the flames spread fast to the rear compartment
through the roof and the height of flame on the roof can reach 1.5 m. Because the doors and windows were closed in
experiment II, the explosion of window glasses which occurred in experiment II didn’t happen in experiment I. Out of
compartment, flames spread over the paint layer of car body, and it was also clear that the spread speed at the roof was
noticeably faster than sides of car body both in experiment I and experiment II. Due to the great height of flames, flames
spread across the windshield of the car and then the roof burned. But when the roof of car was covered by the flames, there
was still no visible flames on the sides of car doors because of the barrier effect of the little gap for the front doors’ joints.
Throughout the burning process of cars, it was found that except plastics and fabrics, the paint layer of car body also is the
most important component of the combustibles of cars which maintain the combustion of car shell. However, little
researches have been done in this areas before, much work is still needed on the combustion characteristics and flame-
retardants of paint layer.
By contrasting Table 1 and Table 2, there is a clear difference between the timeline of experiment I and experiment II. In
experiment I, two thirds of car was burned in 15 minutes. But the flames had not spread to passenger compartment at 15 min
in experiment II. The primary analysis considered that this was caused by the difference between car A and car B. In engine
compartment of car A, there were some oils left such as engine oil, transmission oil and brake oil which can combust
rapidly and stably. However, the car B didn’t drive for a long time and there weren’t such oils left in its engine compartment.
So, in experiment II, plastic parts in engine compartment were the main fuel involved in combustion after gasoline as the
source of the ignition burned out. Plastic materials burn slower and can product more smoke than oil. This analysis was also
further confirmed by observation that smoke production of experiment II was more than experiment I in combustion stage
of engine compartment. Song Bo [6] had point out that tank leakage can accelerate the whole burning process. Similarly, oil
left in engine compartment can also accelerate the burning process but this was often neglected when experiment with
scraped cars. So, the result of experiments with scraped cars can’t really reflect the actual situation. The results of
experiment I are consistent with actual situation closely.

3.3. Temperature in burning car

3.3.1. Experiment I

The temperature measurements of burning car A in experiment I were shown in Fig. 5. The thermal points from No.1 to
No.3 were in engine compartment. After ignition, the temperatures of No.1 and No.2 whose locations were near the igniting
position increased rapidly. However, because the location of No.3 was a certain distance from the igniting position, the
temperature of No.3 rose slowly at the beginning until 7 min 30s. At 8 min 30 s, the temperature measurements of No.1,
No.2, and No.3 started to become relatively stable, and temperature in engine compartment can exceed 900 ℃. The thermal
point No.10 was on the right front tire, and the temperature of it began to rise obviously at 6 min. At this time, the right
front tire was ignited by flame which observed by camera and the temperature reached 912 ℃ at 9 min.
At 10 min, the temperature measurements of thermal points in driver’s cab and passenger compartment started to
fluctuate. At 12 min, the temperature measurements of No.7, No.8, and No.9 rose rapidly in almost same time. This
indicates that flames spread very fast through the roof of car. The peak temperature measurements of these three points were
1021 ℃, 935 ℃, and 898 ℃. The thermal points No.4 and No.5 were in driver’s cab and the temperature measurements
rose quickly to about 900 ℃, but the temperature of rear seat measured by the thermal point No.6 rose very slowly and only
reach 150 ℃ at 15 min. The location of thermal point No.6 was below thermal point No.9. Comparing the two temperature
measurements, it was found that the temperature in upper air was higher than seat in rear passenger compartment. It was
thought that the flame spread through car roof faster than it spread through the bottom space filled with seats and so on in
passenger compartment, and the rear seat was not burned fiercely at that time. By the calculation, the average heating rate of
car roof and driver’s cab were 13.8 ℃/s and 12.7 ℃/s which were very close.
 Xiao-hui JIANG et al/ Procedia Engineering 00 (2017) 000–000
Xiao-hui JIANG et al. / Procedia Engineering 211 (2018) 297–305 303

(a)

(b) (c)

Fig. 5. Temperatures in experiment I

3.3.2. Experiment II

The temperature measurements of burning car A and car B in experiment II were shown in Fig. 6. The thermal points
from No.1 to No.3 were in engine compartment of car B. After igniting the engine compartment of car B, the temperature
rising behaviors of those three thermal points caused by different distance from the igniting positon were similar to
experiment I, but the top temperature and the rising velocity were slower than experiment I. The reason for this
phenomenon was previously explained in section 3.2. The temperatures of those three thermal points reached each peak in
succession, and then fell gradually because flames started to spread to the next part of car B from the engine compartment.
The top temperature in engine compartment was about 860 ℃, not reaching 900 ℃. The thermal point No.7 was on the right
front tire. The temperature of it began to rise apparently at 7 min 25 s, and reach 800 ℃ at 23 min 40 s. Subsequently, the
temperature fell and flattens. At 33 min 20 s, the temperature rose again. By elementary analysis, the reason was that the
temperature of right front tire was enhanced by the burning of adjacent car which was ignited by flames.
The thermal points of No.4 and No.5 were in driver’s cab, and temperatures of them began to rise at 20 min. Comparing
with temperature curves of experiment I in Fig. 5, there were intense fluctuations in rising stage, which was caused by direct
contact with flame. At 23 min 40 s, the temperature of No.5 reached 800 ℃ and then rising velocity became slower. At 25
min, the temperature of No.4 reached over 800 ℃, then fell and stabilized gradually. The thermal point No.6 was on the rear
seat. The temperature of it increased slowly and reached 574 ℃ at 35 min. The thermal points of No.8 and No.9 were
separately on the right rear tire of car A and car B. The temperature of No.8 began to rise fast at 20 min 30 s. At this time,
the right rear tire of car A was ignited by adjacent burning car which can be observed by camera. At 30 min after ignition,
the flame spread to the rear of car. And the temperature of right rear tire reached 800 ℃ at 35 min.
 304 Xiao-hui JIANG et al. / Procedia Engineering 211 (2018) 297–305
Xiao-hui JIANG et al/ Procedia Engineering 00 (2017) 000–000

(a)

(b) (c)

Fig. 6. Temperatures in experiment II

3.4. Melting and dropping phenomenon

There are a lot of combustibles in the engine compartment, such as wire harness, inlet and exhaust manifold, oil tubes,
air-conditioning pipes and so on. Those combustibles are mostly made from PVC, PP, PE, and ABS which are thermoplastic
materials. In the combustion process, not only toxic and harmful gases are produced, but materials melt down and flames
drop together, forming pool fire on the ground, which accelerated the combustion in the front part of the car. Rich, Celia et
al. [9] conducted small-scale experiments to define the inflammation conditions of twenty-five car bumper plastic materials.
Du Xianming [10] chose bumper guard board, door trim and fender for experimental samples, and tested these combustion
characteristics in the cone calorimeter and vertical fire spread test. The results showed that these car external decoration
materials can be ignited easily in air with low oxygen index values (20~21), and obvious melting and dropping phenomenon
was found in vertical fire spread test.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 7. Melting and dropping phenomenon in experiment I

In experiment I, the melting and dropping phenomenon can be clearly seen in Infrared Thermal Imaging photographs
shown in Fig. 7. At 15 s after ignition, it was clearly observed that there were flames on the ground, which may drop from
the engine compartment through vents on the chassis. And soon the bumper and other plastic parts around the engine
 Xiao-hui JIANG et al. / Procedia Engineering 211 (2018) 297–305 305
Xiao-hui JIANG et al/ Procedia Engineering 00 (2017) 000–000

compartment melt down, flowing down through the edge of hood. In Fig. 7(b), the right rear tire was ignited by the melting
drips. The pool fire formed very quickly, and most of flames concentrated on the ground under the front of the car at 15 min.

4. Conclusions

In this study, two full-scale experiments were conducted to study the burning behavior of car fire. The experimental
design attempted to approach as closely as possible situations that happened in real life. The ignition location was designed
in engine compartment in both two experiments, and the burning processes and temperatures were analyzed emphatically.
The flame spread behaviors in these two experiments were largely consistent, and the following conclusions may be drawn:
(1) When car engine caught fire, flames came out from the gap of the hood first and covered the surface of the hood
gradually. Then flames spread to driver’s cab and passenger compartment. Because there was not enough air in engine
compartment, temperature increasing rate was slow and the maximum temperature can be between 800~950 ℃. But
temperature in driver’s cab increased quickly and the maximum temperature can be between 800~1000 ℃ which a little
higher than temperature in engine compartment. By comprehensive analysis of the results of two experiments, there is a
favorable opportunity for people to escape during the initial 10 minutes after ignition of engine.
(2) Out of compartment, flames spread mainly over the paint layer of car body and the flame spreading velocities are
different in sides and top. Because of the barrier effect of the little gap for the front doors’ joints, flames were stopped
from spreading in the early stage. But flames ignited the paint layer of the roof across the windshield because of the
higher flame height and spread rapidly backward. Therefore the effects of paint layers of car can’t be ignored to the
spread of flames and flame retardance of paint should be reinforced to slow the spread.
(3) The oils such as engine oil, transmission oil and brake oil and so on in engine compartment can affect the speed of
spread of fire. This was often neglected in previous experiments which used scraped cars. So the car fire in actual may
grow faster than fire in experiment.
(4) During the burning process, the melting and dropping phenomenon was very obvious, especially in the front of car.
Thermoplastic materials melt down and flames dropped forming pool fire on the ground, which further speed up the
burning.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank members of Fire Research Institute for organizing the fire experiments and financial
support. The authors are grateful also to Dr. Zhu for giving suggestions.

References
[1] Mangs J., Rahkonen, O. 1994. Characterization of the fire behavior of a burning passenger car, Part II: Parameterization of measured rate of heat
release curves, Fire Safety Journal 23, p. 37–49.
[2] Shipp M., Spearpoint M. 1995. Measurements of the severity of fires involving private motor vehicles, Fire Mater 19(3), p. 143–151.
[3] Chen Yuan-ping, R Joh n, 2002. Experiment Research of Motorcar Fire, Journal of China University of Mining and Technology 31(6), p. 556–560. (in
Chinese)
[4] Shintani, Y., Kakae, N., Harada, K., 2004. “Experimental Investigation of Burning Behavior of Automobiles,” 6th Asia-Oceania Symposium on Fire
Science and Technology. Daegu, Korea, paper #6B-5.
[5] Okamoto, K., Watanabe, N., Hagimoto, Y., et al., 2009. Burning behavior of sedan passenger cars. Fire Safety Journal 44(3), P. 301-310.
[6] Sun Xuan, Wang Wandi, Li Yinqing, et al, 2010. Experimental full-scale car fire study, Journal of Tsing University 50(7), P. 1090-1093. (in Chinese)
[7] Song Bo, Zhao Li-zeng, Bai Dian-tao, et al., 2013. Experimental Study on Combustion Characteristic of Ordinary Car, China Safety Science Journal
23(7), p. 26-31. (in Chinese)
[8] Kruger, S., Hofmann, A., Berger, A., et al., 2016. Investigation of smoke gases and temperatures during car fire- large-scale and small-scale tests and
numerical investigations, Fire and Materials 40(6), p. 785-799.
[9] Rich, Célia1, Delémont, Olivier, Vanlerberghe, Bruno, et al., 2015. “Car bumper reaction to fire” Fire and Materials - Proceedings of the 14th
International Conference and Exhibition, pp. 698-704.
[10] Du Xian-ming, Zhao Lan-ming, Qin Jun, 2013. Research of combustion characteristic of car external decoration materials, Fire Science and
Technology 33(3), P.243-246. (in Chinese)