Fire Technology, 60, 617–639, 2024

© 2024 The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature
Manufactured in The United States
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10694-023-01532-2

Performance-Focused Analysis of Fire-

Blocking Blanket for Lithium Ion Battery
Fires

H. S. Zhen and X. Q. Shang, The Mechanical and Electrical Engineering

College, Hainan University, Haikou, China
X. Y. Liu, The Mechanical and Electrical Engineering College, Hainan
University, Haikou, China; The Mechanical and Electrical Engineering
College, Hainan Vocational University of Science and Technology, Haikou,
China
Z. L. Wei*, The Mechanical and Electrical Engineering College, Hainan
University, Haikou, China
Y. L. Wang*, The Mechanical and Electrical Engineering College, Hainan
Vocational University of Science and Technology, Haikou, China

Received: 19 June 2023/Accepted: 29 November 2023/Published online: 8 January 2024

Abstract. So far too long, people have been working hard to develop fire prevention
measures to deal with lithium ion battery (LIB) fires. LIB fires have a high calorific
value, a rapid burning and spread speed and a high risk of re-ignition and explosion.
Under thermal runaway, LIB fires develop from the inside out, preventing fire extin-
guishing agents from entering the interior of LIB, thus resulting in low extinguishing
efficiency or even failure of the extinguishing agents. Based on the principle of ‘isola-
tion and stifling’, fire-blocking blanket can effectively inhibit the spread of fire, sup-
press the combustion intensity and reduce the smoke emission. This paper digs into
the detailed performance requirements of fire blanket to block LIB fires. By conduct-
ing laboratory tests to mimic LIB fires, the candidate materials including fiber materi-
als, woven textile and woven fabrics with organic coatings are systematically
investigated. Performance of the materials are evaluated, including fire resistance,
thermal insulation, tensile strength at break and blast resistance, respectively. The
testing results help to screen out the best material for LIB fire blanket, and high-silica
glass fiber coated by polyurethane has the best thermal and mechanical properties
among all materials tested. This paper also presents a three-layer structured design of
blanket, which can pass all the tests proposed.

Keywords: Lithium ion battery fire, Fire test, Fire prevention, Fire-blocking blanket

* Correspondence should be addressed to: Z. L. Wei, E-mail: zhilongwei@hainanu.edu.cn;

Y. L. Wang, E-mail: 11177378@qq.com

1
618 Fire Technology 2024

1. Introduction
The lithium ion batteries (LIBs) have been widely used in electric vehicles after
their success in hand-held electronic devices. Electric vehicles (EVs) are being
developed at a fast pace and are expected to replace traditional vehicles powered
by internal combustion engine. However, LIBs may easily fall into fires or explo-
sions due to their thermal instability and flammable/combustible constituents.
Over the past decades, the number of fire accidents of LIBs or EVs has been ris-
ing. Yet, fire mitigation for such large-scale applications remains a major hurdle,
slowing down their further commercialization.
To minimize the damage from dangerous fire accidents involving LIBs,
researchers endeavored to deploy fire extinguishing agents to suppress LIBs fires.
Generally, fire extinguishing agents are classified as gaseous agents, aerosol agents,
water-based agents and dry powders. Yuan and his group [1] conducted a compre-
hensive review of existent fire extinguishing agents and evaluated their suitability
and effectiveness for LIBs fires. Basically, four mechanisms in suppression of a
typical fire are discussed, i.e. isolation, smothering, cooling and chemically inhibi-
tion. According to the review, aerosol releases diluting inert gases and chemically
inhibiting particles in a fire circumstance. It can quickly put out visible LIB fires
in a relatively closed place. However, when the closed space is ventilated, the bat-
tery will re-ignite. Meng et al. [2] compared the advantages and disadvantages of
dry powders. Dry powders could absorb heat, isolate oxygen and dilute flammable
gases. Among dry powders, ABC powder is more widely used than BC powder or
D powder. Further, it is able to chemically suppress the combustion reactions out-
side a battery, but it cannot prevent occurrence of re-ignition of LiCoO2 batteries.
CO2 is widely suitable for electrical fires due to its non-conductive properties
[3]. CO2 can extinguish visible flames outside a battery by combing smothering,
isolation and cooling, but it hardly lowers the temperature of LIBs and re-ignition
still occurs. Similar to CO2, C3HF7 is also good for electrical fires with less resi-
due, less electrical conductivity and less toxicity [4]. Having a large latent heat of
vaporization, it extinguishes LIBs fires mainly through cooling and smothering.
Additionally, the thermal decomposition of C3HF7 releases fluorinated species to
remove combustion radicals of H, O and OH. Therefore, visible flames external of
LIBs can be suppressed quickly, but the extinguished fire burned again after the
agent terminated. As flammable gas keep being ejected out of LIBs, re-ignition
occurs [5]. C6F12O is a liquid at room temperature and its boiling point is 49˚C. It
not only has a high heat capacity and thus good cooling capability, but also a
strong chemical inhibitory ability due to its thermal decomposition products of
CF3 and CF2. But it is observed that when an insufficient amount C6F12O is
applied to LIB fires, the combustion would be promoted instead of suppressed [6].
Water-based fire extinguishing agents including pure water, water mist and
foam are also widely used for LIBs fires. Water is the main component of these
agents, which will form a covering layer on LIBs surface to isolate them from air.
Furthermore, water evaporation cools LIBs for fire extinction and reduces the
possibility of re-ignition. However, gas re-burning still happens if the agent is ter-
minated [7]. In other words, it needs water to continuously spray for a long time
Performance-Focused Analysis of Fire-Blocking 619

to suppress LIBs re-burning. So the consumption of water is very high. Further,

the water stain may cause secondary damages to LIBs [8].
From previous studies of fire extinguishing agents, it is easy to see that one
common drawback of them all is the difficulty to prevent re-ignition of LIBs. As
thermal runaway originates from the inner of LIBs, the battery shell blocks any
fire extinguishing agent from entering it [9]. Therefore, these agents tends to have
low extinguishing efficiency or even failure especially when deployed at insufficient
amount.
In contrast to fire extinguishers, fire blankets aim to isolate fire source and pro-
tect its surrounding materials from being ignited. Fire blankets are typically used
in buildings. When placed over a firing platform, the blanket serves as a barricade
to prevent penetration of flames and hot gases from reaching the platform
beneath. It can also be used in a way of wrapping around the burning person to
smother the fire [10]. Different to fire extinguishers, fire blanket has no danger of
running out of ‘dosage’ and it can work for a long time. Its main mechanism of
fire suppression is isolation and stifling. Therefore, for multiple materials close to
each other, wrapping of the one firstly catching on fire by a blanket can interrupt
the fire spread to adjacent materials, which is potentially a very effective way to
avoid catastrophic fire accidents [11].
However, the characteristics of LIBs fires put forward sterner requirements to
traditional fire blanket, e.g. higher temperature, massive heat transfer and possible
explosion [12]. At present, the resistant temperature limit for traditional fire blan-
kets is generally 600800˚C, and there is no requirements for heat-proof and
explosion-proof, just as stipulated by GA1205-2014 Fire Blankets [13]. Obviously,
a fire blocking blanket applicable to LIBs fires should resist the penetration of
flame and heat and also withstand the explosion so as to limit fire spread. Other
minor requirements can be light weight, durability and low cost, etc. [14]. So, new
fire blanket should have the following performance of fire-proof, heat insulation,
strength to withstand bending, folding and other rough handling during deploy-
ment, and more importantly resistance to explosion. Among them, resistance to
higher extreme temperature and bigger strength for explosive resistance would
direct the development direction of fire blocking product for LIBs fire in the
future [15].
As afore-discussed, when large quantities of LIBs or EVs are stored outdoors,
the outbreak of a fire can lead to the firing of adjacent LIBs or EVs. In such cir-
cumstance, fire-blocking blanket is probably a more effective measure in compar-
ison to fire extinguishers to mitigate catastrophic accidents. Therefore, it is of
significance to develop fire-proof and explosion-proof blanket to meet the new
needs of fire suppression. A Norway company named Bridgehill has developed a
light weight, reusable fire blanket which can provide fire isolation and smoke con-
trol to EVs fire, but the blanket is very expensive. Owing to the booming market
of EVs and the urgent need for fire-blocking blanket in Chinese, many domestic
companies are developing similar products of Bridgehill. Yet, to produce new fire-
blocking blanket for LIBs fires, many unsolved questions are still open, such as,
can traditional fire blanket meet the requirements of blocking LIBs fires? What
parameters are to be evaluated to characterize the performance of new fire blan-
620 Fire Technology 2024

ket? What can be done to improve such fire blanket? Therefore, it is fundamental
to evaluate the source materials, fabrics and coatings of traditional fire blanket in
laboratory tests, and thus to screen out their respective performance suitable for
manufacturing new fire blanket.
Before studying the performance requirement of new fire blocking blanket, it is
a priority to understand the fire and explosion behaviors of LIBs. The composi-
tion of lithium batteries are complex and their thermal stability are sensitive to
temperature. Fu and his team [16] examined the burning behaviors of 18,650
lithium batteries in several different fire cases, and showed that the burning speed
of lithium batteries is very high. Ping et al. [17] carried out full-scale burning test
of high-energy lithium ion battery cell. The testing showed that the burning dura-
tion time of lithium battery cell is about 7–8 min, and the maximum temperature
reached is about 1200˚C. Larsson et al. [18] experimentally abused several lithium
battery cells to gas explosion. They measured the explosive pressure of a single
battery cell to be about 0.5 MPa, while that of a battery pack is about 0.8 MPa.
Somandepalli [19] adopted a combustion chamber to investigate the gas explosion
of a lithium battery, revealing that that the maximum overpressure is 7.1 bar, and
the explosion index is higher than that of methane but lower than that of hydro-
gen. To summarize from Refs. [16–19], it is clear that lithium ion battery fires
have the following characteristics: 1. High burning speed, and burning duration is
long; 2. Flame temperature is high, which can be as high as 1200˚C; 3. there exists
a risk of explosion at any time and the explosion pressure can reach 0.8 MPa.
The objective of this paper is to evaluate and thus screen out materials suit-
able for building LIBs fire blocking blanket. Laboratory methods for testing mate-
rials are to be proposed to mimic the conditions produced by LIBs burning. The
materials’ ability to resist the penetration of flame and heat and to withstand gas
explosion will be evaluated and ranked. Eventually, using the screened-out materi-
als, a new design of LIBs fire blanket is developed, which exhibits the best perfor-
mance in terms of fire retardance, heat insulation and strength to withstand gas
explosion. The results of this study would provide guidance for better design and
faster development of domestic LIBs fire blocking blankets.

2. Research Method and Technique

2.1. Evaluation Methods & Burn Tests
According to the reported fire and explosion behaviors of LIBs [16–19], new fire
blocking blanket needs to possess following four requirements of its performance.
Namely, the materials within the blanket provide the primary resistance or retar-
dance to flame and to heat from hot gases and fragments of LIBs. In this study, a
least requirement is proposed that the materials be not burned to failure by a
torch of 1200˚C for 10 min. In addition to fire and heat resistance, the cover mate-
rials must be water-proof, tear resistant and flexible, either to maintain the blan-
ket intact or to facilitate its deployment. Most importantly, the blanket should
withstand the destroying force and survive the gas explosion of LIBs, say at
0.8 MPa. Finally, it is also reasonable to expect that the blanket has a low leak-
Performance-Focused Analysis of Fire-Blocking 621

age of air, so as to play its role of stifling and smothering. To mimic the interac-
tion between blanket materials and firing/explosive LIBs, flame and heat penetra-
tion, isothermal strength and gas explosion tests are conducted in this study. All
tests are carried out in the Flame and Combustion Laboratory of Hainan Univer-
sity. The schematic layouts of the testing methods and rigs are given in Fig. 1.
Flame and heat penetration test is the prime method to screen out suitable mate-
rials for producing fire-blocking blanket. To block LIBs fires, the materials must
be able to withstand high temperature of LIBs fires so as not to be burned
through by fire. In the standard of GA1205-2014 Fire Blanket [13], a torch flame
is used to impinge onto the material specimen with a time period of 12 s. During
this period, the phenomenon of the burning/burnt material is recorded. As know,
the burning time of LIBs is much longer than 12 s, being around 8 min. So the
burn test of flame penetration is set to a longer exposure time of the specimen to
the flame in this study, i.e. 10 min. The flame torch used is a premixed LPG/air
flame generated by Bunsen burner, as shown by Fig. 1. By pre-setting the flowme-
ters controlling the LPG and air flowrates as well as their ratio, a repeatable flame
can be formed and the flame tip temperature is kept at 1200˚C. Then, the burner is
lifted by the platform on which it is mounted so that the torch flame touches the
material specimen for 10 min. During the time, the burning phenomenon of the
specimen is recorded and its carbonization is examined afterwards.
In GA1205-2014 Fire Blanket [13], a diffusion flame torch of oil is used which
typically has a maximum temperature of 800˚C, far below that of LIBs fires. To
mimic this sterner heat transfer, the test of heat penetration adopts the same pre-
mixed LPG/air flame with a tip temperature of 1200˚C. When being burned, a K-
type thermocouple adhered to the unfired surface of the material is used to mea-
sure the surface temperature, and temperature versus time data are registered for
10 min, as illustrated by Fig. 1.
The isothermal strength test is to qualify the most strong but flexible materials
for developing fire blanket to pass later gas explosion test. Firstly, the blanket
must withstand bending, folding, crushing, tearing, being walked on and other
rough forces during its deployment. So, it is a key step to evaluate the isothermal
strength so as to maintain itself intact when gas explosion is going to happen. For
this purpose, the tensile strength of the blanket material, measured by a tensile
testing machine (ETM series electronic universal testing machine) as shown in
Fig. 2 (left), is chosen to represent is isothermal strength. Further, in face of gas
explosion due to lithium ion batteries, a gas explosion test is adopted. As sketched
out by Fig. 2 (right), the gas explosive test rig is comprised of high-pressure air
gun and clamps. High-pressure air gun comprises cavity, air inlet, air outlet and
trigger. The testing procedure is as follows. After the blanket specimen is burned
for 10 min, it is immediately moved to the clamps on the floor. The cavity of air
gun is pre-filled with high pressure air of 0.8 MPa through air inlet. Its air outlet
is aimed at the blanket specimen on the clamps kept at a distance of 10 mm away.
Then, the trigger is pressed, high pressure gas will accelerate and expand through
the outlet tube to create high energy explosion within about 0.1 s, finally imping-
ing onto the blanket specimen. After that, the damage of the blanket can be
judged. Note that according to the fire test principle of worst condition, flame
622 Fire Technology 2024

Figure 1. Layout of flame and heat penetration test rig.

Figure 2. Layout of test rigs for isothermal strength (left) and gas
explosion (right).

torch temperature and explosive gas pressure have been chosen to be the upper
limits of LIBs fires, i.e. 1200˚C and 0.8 MPa. In addition, gas explosion test is
repeated several times in this study to mimic more realistic LIBs explosion.
In addition to the laboratory tests, real fire testing of blanket using lithium bat-
tery is also conducted in this study. The disadvantage of real fire testing is that
the thermal and dynamic process of fire is out of control, compared to the labora-
tory flame. To make the testing result more extensive, both small-scale and larger-
scale fires are adopted to test the performance of fire blanket. In order to create
the worse thermal and dynamic conditions, a polymer lithium battery is used for
small-scale test while an electric bicycle powered by ternary lithium battery pack is
utilized for large-scale test. The purpose of both real fire tests is to examine whe-
ther the blanket can survive the corrosive gases, high temperature and explosion
of lithium battery fire.

2.2. Materials Evaluated

To develop LIBs fire blocking blanket, a number of design considerations such as
fire resistance, heat insulation, light weight, water-proof, enough strength and
Performance-Focused Analysis of Fire-Blocking 623

thermal stability, durability. Based on these requirements, many candidate organic

and inorganic materials are tested in this study, aiming to identify most robust
and effective solution to design of LIBs fire blanket.

2.2.1. Inorganic Fiber-Based Fabric Briefly, flame resistance materials include can-
didate fabrics, which are woven from inorganic fibers of glass fiber or ceramic
fiber. These inorganic fibers have the merits of fire-proof, light weight and low
thermal conductivity. When woven into tight fabrics, they possess the ability to
act as a shield to block flames or fires from penetration. Fiber glass fabrics are
already widely used in fire protection facilities for civil buildings, such as fire cur-
tains, fire walls and fire partitions. Fiber glass fabrics are the most commonly
used skeleton materials of traditional fire blankets for short time flame blocking,
such as for electric welding. In contrast, ceramic fibers are more typically used in
the motionless scenarios of heat insulation, such as pipes or stoves. This is simply
because ceramic fibers have higher melting temperature but are more fragile than
glass fibers. For woven fabric of either glass fiber or ceramic fiber, the differences
in the weave can be fiber material, fiber diameter, yarn density, weave style and
fabric coating [19]. These varying features are extracted from fabric suppliers’ lit-
erature and are given in Table 1 for reference purpose only. Generally, for tight
enough weave, areal mass values become an indicator of the ease for deployment.
The areal mass values as well as the continuous temperature capabilities of the
woven fabrics tested are also given in Table 1.
For traditional fire blanket, fiber glass fabrics are a leading content. A large
number of fiber glass fabrics are woven from alkali-free glass fiber yarns, and each
yarn is in turn comprised of hundreds or even thousands of glass fiber filaments
with a length of several kilometers. From fiber filaments to woven textiles, many
processing operations are used, such as melting, drawing, wetting, bundling, twist-
ing, and weaving. Sometimes, fine steel wires and glass fiber filaments are bundled
together to reinforce the mechanical strength of yarns or strands1 [20]. Basically,
all are non-combustible inorganic textiles. Depending on the SiO2 content of the
yarn, fiber glass textile can be classified into ordinary glass fiber textile and high-
silica glass fiber textile. Their difference is the latter has a higher SiO2 content,
typically over 96%. As a result, high-silica glass fiber textile is more resistant to
higher temperature than ordinary glass fiber textile. For ordinary and high-silica
textiles, resin impregnation or coating usually becomes the last step of processing.
Coatings help the fire blanket to further improve its mechanical properties, such
as abrasion resistance, water resistance.
Ceramic fibers are short filaments made of very small diameter fibers containing
alumina, silicate, calcium, magnesium or zirconium. Fibrous preforms of ceramic
fibers are usually random chopped mat, needled-punched mat and ceramic paper.
For former two, ceramic fibers have a loose, cottony structure while ceramic
paper is compact whereas an organic binder holds ceramic fibers together more
densely. Sometimes, compression is also used for compact preforms processing.
With alumina as the main constituent, ceramic fibers are more refractory and
fragile, and therefore less damage tolerant than glass fibers when being twisted
and woven. For instance, the continuous temperature capability of zirconium-con-
 624

Table 1
Materials Tested

Fiber
Diameter Yarn Density Measured Areal Continuous Tempera- Thickness
Material Composition (μm) (warps*wefts) Weave Style mass (kg/m2) ture Capability (˚C) (mm)

Ordinary glass fiber textile Alkali-free glass 9 19*12 Satin, 0.4 550 0.4
(OG) fiber 4 harness
High-silica glass fiber textile 96% SiO2 glass 9 19*12 Satin, 0.6 1000 0.7
(HSG) fiber 8 harness
Steel wire glass fiber textile Stainless steel 9 19*12 Satin, 0.7 650 0.6
(SOG) wire—glass fiber 8 harness
Silicone rubber glass fiber fab- Silicone rubber 9 19*12 Satin, 0.6 550 0.42
ric (OG-Si) coated OG 4 harness
Polyurethane glass fiber fabric Polyurethane 9 19*12 Satin, 0.5 550 0.42
(OG-Pu) coated OG 4 harness
Silicone rubber high-silica Silicone rubber 9 19*12 Satin, 0.8 1000 0.72
glass fiber fabric (HSG-Si) coated HSG 8 harness
Polyurethane high-silica glass Polyurethane 9 19*12 Satin, 0.7 1000 0.72
fiber fabric (HSG-Pu) coated HSG 8 harness
Silicone rubber steel wire glass Silicone rubber 9 19*12 Satin, 0.9 650 0.62
fiber fabric (SOG-Si) coated SOG 8 harness
Ceramic needle-punched cot- Aluminum-Zirco- 4 –- Compression 0.9 1200 10
ton (CC) nium-silicate fiber
Ceramic fiber paper (CP) Aluminum-Zirco- 6 – Wet mold- 0.2 1000 0.2
nium-silicate fiber ing
Fire Technology 2024
Performance-Focused Analysis of Fire-Blocking 625

taining fibers is quoted at about 1200˚C, much higher than glass fiber at 800˚C.
Due to low thermal conductivity, ceramic fibers are good insulator to resist flame
and heat, and can conform to any size required. But, ceramic mat, paper or blan-
ket tear easily as compared to glass fiber textile, so their material damage due to
handling is expected. Silica aerogel is relatively new to be commercialized on a
large scale. Porous aerogel consist of silica aerogel material entrained in silica or
other fiber mat. In other words, only short fibers of glass or ceramic is available
in the marker. Therefore, their mechanical properties and industrial applications
are similar to ceramic fibers. Both ceramic fiber and silica aerogel are preferred in
motionless environments such as linings for heat insulation.

2.2.2. Coating Materials Coating refers to the cover film or material of organic
materials or other composite materials on the surface of textiles. Its function is to
compensate the shortage of the bare textile, so as to achieve the functions of
water-proof, rot-proof, leak-tight, barrier to puncture, resistance to ultraviolet,
and etc. Silicone rubber coating even improves fire resistance and continuous tem-
perature capabilities of the blanket. Due to its low cost, durability and especially
its reinforcement effects to both mechanical and thermal properties of the textile,
silicone rubber coating is most widely used for traditional fire blanket manufac-
ture [21]. Now, the impregnation technique has matured to allow silicone rubber
coating compatible with fiber glass textile to make the fabric have the both char-
acteristics of textile and coating. Such mutual compensation usually achieve more
excellent mechanical and thermal properties of fabrics or fire blankets.
In view of the explosive nature of lithium batteries, the requirements to coatings
for LIBs fires blocking blanket is tough. Coatings are expected to strengthen the
mechanical properties of fabrics and protect blankets from being punctured by
explosion to lose its function of fire blocking. In future, coatings will be expected
to generate substances that can inhibit flame spread and neutralize toxic fumes
under high temperature LIBs fires. Therefore at present, the combination of
organic coating and woven textile as well as ceramic fiber as lining material is a
potential choice for producing new fire blanket to block LIBs fires. According to
the discussion, typical candidate materials available domestically are chosen for
testing in this study. As listed in Table 1, they are ordinary glass fiber textile
(OG), high-silica glass fiber textile (HSG) and steel wire glass fiber textile (SOG).
Depending whether coated or not and coating type, the classified groups are sili-
cone rubber glass fiber fabric (OG-Si), polyurethane glass fiber fabric (OG-Pu),
silicone rubber high-silica glass fabric (HSG-Si), polyurethane high-silica glass
fiber fabric (HSG-Pu), and silicone rubber steel wire glass fiber fabric (SOG-Si).
Wherever the textile or fabric are not provided, e.g. the combination between steel
wire and high-silica glass fiber textile, or the coupling between polyurethane, steel
wire and high-silica glass fiber fabric, they are not available in domestic market.
For comparison purpose, two non-textile materials of ceramic needle-punched cot-
ton (CC) and ceramic fiber paper (CP) are also tested and shown in Table 1.
626 Fire Technology 2024

3. Results and Discussions

3.1. Flame Penetration Test
To screen out the chosen candidate materials, the burn test of flame penetration is
firstly conducted. As in Fig. 1, the premixed flame with a temperature of 1200˚C is
used to burn the materials for 10 min. During this time, the phenomena of the
materials are recorded and then compared. Before testing, each piece of materials
in Table 1 is cut into 150*100 mm rectangular specimens, and then placed hori-
zontally on the plateau holder. The holder is a large plate with a center hole of
200 mm diameter allowing flame penetration through it. Adjusting the platform
on which the burner is mounted to certain desired height, such that the flame tip
when ignited would touch the lower surface pf the specimen. After the prepara-
tion, open the LPG and air supplies and ignite the torch flame, keep the flame
heating and burning the specimen continuously for 10 min.
The materials tested are found to be immediately self-extinguishing when the
flame torch is removed. Whereas, smoke is observed to emit from the unfired side
of the specimens. By registering the time of smoke releasing, the smoke releasing
amount can be quantified and thus compared. Figure 3 presents the smoke releas-
ing time of the burnt specimens, which is an averaged value of three repeated
measurements. It can be seen that all specimens but ceramic needle-punched cot-
ton release more or less smoke when being burnt. Slight smoke even emits from
bare (with no coating) fibers of OG, HSG and SOG, with a smoke releasing time
ranging from 33 s to 44 s. Such smoke is due to the organic reagent used for wet-
ting the filaments before the bundling operation. Comparison of the same textile
with and without coating shows that the coated textile releases more smoke than
the uncoated one. Taking silicone rubber for example, the smoke releasing time of
OG is extended from 41 s to 221 s when it is coated by silicone rubber. Similar
extension of smoking time can be seen from comparison of HSG and HSG-Si,
SOG and SOG-Sir or OG and OG-Pu. If the coatings of silicone and poly-
urethane are compared based on the same bare textile, e.g. OG-Sir and OG-Pu or
HSG-Si and HSG-Pu, it reveals that the textile coated by polyurethane is shorter
in smoke releasing time than that coated by silicone rubber. Hence, the silicone-
rubber-coated specimens inevitably have much heavier smoke emission than those
coated by polyurethane. By referring to the areal mass values given in Table 1, it
is known that the fabrics of OG-Si or HSG-Si are heavier their counterparts of
OG-Pu or HSG-Pu. Therefore, because of larger mass of silicone rubber coating,
its smoke emission when burnt is heavier, too. Thus, polyurethane is more prefer-
able to silicone rubber in the consideration of smoke reduction.
It is observed that none of the specimens is burned through by the lit flame
torch, and a black carbonization circle or ring is formed locally to the heated zone
around the flame tip. Upon folding the burnt specimens by hands, it is found that
the ordinary glass fiber textile (OG) has been brittle to break easily. In contrast,
high-silica glass fiber textile (HSG) is found still flexible after burning, because of
its more content of SiO2 as well as relatively higher melting temperature. Simi-
larly, the steel wire glass fiber textile (SOG) cannot stand the torch’s high temper-
ature of 1200˚C, and the molten fragments of glass fibers are easily stripped off
Performance-Focused Analysis of Fire-Blocking 627

250
221
205 203
200
Smoking Time (s)

150
122
100

50 41 42 47
33
9
0
0

CP
SG

CC
i

i
G

u
-S

-S

-S
-P

-P
SO
O

SG

G
H

SG
O

SO
O

H
Material type

Figure 3. Smoke releasing time of all materials when burned.

when scratched by fingers. So, stainless steel wires could help to hold the frag-
ments together in sheet form. Handling of the coated candidate materials of OG-
Si, OG-Pu, HSG-Si, HSG-Pu and SOG-Si exhibits no significant damage. All the
specimens are not easy to be torn apart but after tearing or folding many times,
some of them would still break down, such as OG-Si and HSG-Si. Therefore, in
the perspective of flame resistance, fiber glass textile with stainless steel wire is
more desirable to the corresponding one without steel wire [20]. Moreover, a tex-
tile with coating is stronger and thus more favorable than the one without coating
[21].

3.2. Heat Penetration Test

Using the flame impingement test rig as Sect. 3.1 and introducing a K-type ther-
mocouple to the unfired surface center of the specimen, the data of temperature
versus time is registered by a temperature recorder at a rate of one value per sec-
ond. Figure 4 gives the temperature variation curves of five materials without
coating, i.e. OG, HSG, SOG, CC and CP within 10 min of being heated by a
flame of 1200˚C. It can be seen that the temperature of the unfired surface of five
materials initially rises rapidly within a few seconds upon flame impingement, and
then reaches a relatively constant level. In such case, a thermal equilibrium of heat
transfer is maintained within the material sheet. Therefore, the temperature value
of the constant level can be utilized to represent the heat insulation capability of
the material [22]. The lower the constant temperature, the better the thermal insu-
lation ability to limit backside temperature rise.
By arranging the data, the constant temperature values of five materials are
ordered as follows: CC 214.6˚C<CP 528˚C<SOG 560.2˚C<HSG 617.6˚C<OG 634.5˚
C. Obviously, the backside temperature of ceramic needle-punched cotton is two
628 Fire Technology 2024

700

600

500
Temperature (℃ )
OG
400 HSG
SOG
300 CC
CP
200

100

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (min)

Figure 4. Backside temperature variations against time for five

materials of OG, HSG, SOG, CC and CP.

hundred Celsius degrees lower than the other materials, for which the backside
temperatures show less deviation from each other in the range of 500˚C to 700˚C.
But it should be noted that such seemingly best insulation for CC is due to its lar-
ger thickness of 10 mm. The 10 mm thickness is the thinnest one available in Chi-
nese domestic market. Howbeit, the tested textiles of OG, SOG, HSF as well as
CP which is made of the same ceramic fiber as CC are less than 1 mm thick, as
shown in Table 1. It is clear that the thermal insulation capability depends on not
only the material itself but also the thickness of the specimen. In comparison of
the backside temperatures of the specimens those are less than 1 mm thick, it is
clear that ceramic fiber paper has the lowest backside temperature while being the
thinnest at 0.2 mm. Therefore, CP is the top heat resistance material. This is
mainly because of lower thermal conductivity of ceramic fiber, which tends to
have more porous internal structures [22]. As far as the textiles containing glass
fiber are compared, it is interesting to see that SOG is better than HSG and OG,
beyond the expectation that the component of steel wire promotes heat transfer
from fired side to unfired due to higher metallic conductivity. The reason is firstly
that a small number of steel wires are bundled together with a large number of
glass fiber filaments. The increased thermal conductivity is marginal. Secondly, the
finest steel wire has a diameter one order larger than the glass fiber filament which
is usually around 20 μm. When bundling together under the same tow size, the
yarn diameter would be increased. As shown in Table 1, the bundled yarn of SOG
is 0.6 mm thick, larger than that of OG. Such thicker yarn would lead to a tighter
weave under similar yarn density of 19 warps and 12 wefts. As a result of tighter
weave of SOG, heat penetration becomes harder than HSG and OG.
As presented in Table 1, there are three types of bare textiles available to be
coated by silicone rubber, i.e. OG, HSG and SOG. Besides, OG and HSG can be
Performance-Focused Analysis of Fire-Blocking 629

700

600

500
Temperature (℃ )
OG
400 OG-Si
OG-Pu
300

200

100

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (min)

Figure 5. Comparison of backside temperatures for OG, OG-Si and

OG-Pu.

coated by polyurethane, too, but SOG cannot due to the limit to current process-
ing technique. Figure 5 shows the backside temperatures of OG, OG-Si and OG-
Pu during the burn test. It can be seen that the constant temperature level of OG
is above those of OG-Si and OG-Pu. Namely, the effect of coating is to promote
heat insulation of the textile of ordinary glass fiber. Further, the constant temper-
ature level of OG-Pu is above that of OG-Si, indicative of better promotion effect
of silicone rubber than polyurethane in terms of heat insulation. To confirm such
finding, the backside temperatures of HSG-Si and HSG-Pu are further tested. The
comparison also shows a better effect of heat insulation promotion by silicone
rubber coating. The reason for silicone rubber to promote heat insulation is that
silicones exposed to high temperature decompose, leaving behind an inorganic sil-
ica residue. Silica residue is a porous, thick and thermally stable layer of char [21].
This carbonized layer serves as an insulating barrier to shield heat, preventing
flame from penetrating, thereby improving the thermal insulation performance of
the textile.

3.3. Isothermal Strength Test

Isothermal strength test refers to measurement of tensile strength at break accord-
ing to the national standards of GB/T7689.5–2013 and HG/T2580-2008 [23, 24].
Both bare textiles without coatings and coated fabrics are tested at room tempera-
ture. For specimen preparation, each material is cut along the warp and weft
direction respectively into a strip of 250*50 mm. Five identical strips are prepared
for each different type of material, and then mounted onto the tensile strength
testing machine. Finally, the averaged value of tensile strength at break is repor-
ted in this paper.
630 Fire Technology 2024

Figure 6. Tensile strengths of isothermal OG, HSG and SOG at room

temperature.

Figure 6 illustrates the tensile strength values of three uncoated textiles which
are cut in two different ways. For either way of cutting, it is seen that the order of
tensile strength is HSG<OG<SOG. That means, the textile of steel wire glass
fiber is the stronger than ordinary glass fiber or high-silica glass fiber textile. It is
simply because the presence of steel wire reinforced the fiber strength. On the
other hand, the tensile strength of HSG is weaker than OG. It is mainly because
the alkali metal content in the alkali-free glass fiber is less than 0.8%. While high
silica glass fiber is treated with acid to make its SiO2 content greater than 96%,
resulting in an increase in the alkali metal content. So, the resultant strength is
lower, which is generally 20% to 50% of the alkali-free glass fiber [25].
Figure 7 gives the tensile strength of HSG with and without coatings. Compar-
ison between HSG, HSG-Si and HSG-Pu reveals that silicone rubber coating
increases the warp tensile strength of HSG by 25% and the weft tensile strength
by 11%. While, polyurethane coating increases the warp and weft tensile strength
of HSG by 77% and 48% respectively. Therefore, coatings improve the tensile
strength of the textile at room temperature. The strength is increased significantly
by silicone rubber and even more significantly by polyurethane. Similar finding
can be obtained by testing OG, OG-Si and OG-Pu. The reason is coating is an
organic binder to hold glass fiber together more densely, and its own properties
have a significant impact on the mechanical properties of the coated textile [25].
The more significant effect of polyurethane to enhance mechanical strength is
probably due to the fact that it contains a large number of rigid network struc-
tures. In contrast, room temperature vulcanized silicone rubber is a linear struc-
ture [26]. Thus, as Fig. 4 has indicated that SOG is the strongest among three
uncoated textiles, it is reasonable to expect that polyurethane coated steel wire
fiber glass fabric would have even better tensile strength. However, such fabric is
not commercially available at present, and more research can be proposed in this
direction.
Performance-Focused Analysis of Fire-Blocking 631

3000
2807
HSG
2500 HSG-Si
Tensile strength at break (N) HSG-Pu
2000 1971
1772
1585
1500 1325
1198
1000

500

0
Warp Weft
Cutting direction

Figure 7. Tensile strengths of isothermal HSG, HSG-Si and HSG-Pu at

room temperature.

3.4. Gas Explosion Test

The gas explosion test rig shown in Fig. 2 is designed for estimating the mechani-
cal strength of a material. It can generate 0.8 MPa gas explosion which is applied
to the surface of the material. Each material is cut into a square shape of
20*20 cm, and is moved to undertake the test of flame and heat penetration. After
being burned for 10 min, the specimen is immediately shifted to the test rig of gas
explosion. Gas explosion tests are conducted by keeping the specimen at 10 mm
from the outlet of the gas explosion device. By triggering the device, high-pressure
gas explodes on the surface of the specimen and then the damage can be
observed.
Table 2 presents the photos of the damages of the tested materials including
OG, HSG, SOG, OG-Si, OG-Pu, HSG-Si, HSG-Pu and SOG-Si. It is shown that
all specimens except HSG-Pu are broken with holes by gas explosion, indicative of
decayed strength of the textiles or fabrics due to burning. To affirm it, identical
fresh specimens before burning are sent to gas explosion testing, but no one is
found to break by gas explosion. Therefore, all these materials are strong enough
at room temperature for deployment. But, under high temperature, the materials
are damaged to varying degrees. For example, ordinary glass fiber textile is blast
into a big hole, which will allow flame or heat penetration and thus leads to fail-
ure of the fire blocking function. Such big hole is a direct result of molten and
softened glass fiber which has a melting point of 600800˚C. Similar failure occurs
to high-silica glass fiber textile, where the hole tends to be larger due to poor ten-
sile strength of HSG. For steel wire glass fiber textile, the molten and softened
glass fiber is blown away by gas explosion, leaving the steel wire skeleton to allow
penetration of flame or heat.
632 Fire Technology 2024

Table 2
Gas Explosion Test Results

Material Damage Material Damage

OG OG-Pu

HSG HSG-Si

SOG HSG-Pu

OG-Si SOG-Si

When OG is coated by silicone rubber, OG-Si exhibits a smaller damage hole

than OG, indicative of the strength reinforcement effect by coating. In compar-
ison, the damage hole becomes even smaller in the case of OG-Pu. It shows that
polyurethane is better than silicone rubber, being more effective to prevent glass
fiber from melting and softening at high temperature atmosphere. The reason is
that polyurethane is an intumescent polymer coating. According to intumescence
mechanism, the melt viscosity of pyrolytic residues is high to create an intumes-
cent and firm layer of char, which can protect from heat and oxygen transferring
to the interior textile [27]. As for silicone rubber coated HSG, HSG-Si displays
relatively smaller damage hole in comparison to that of HSG. Surprisingly, poly-
urethane coated HSG, HSG-Pu is not broken into holds with one blow of gas
explosion. To confirm this finding, more blows of gas explosion is tried, but HSG-
Pu is still intact with perfect strength to survive. The physics behind it is twofold.
First, due to its abundant SiO2, HSG would melt and soften at higher tempera-
ture than OG. Namely, HSG can endure higher temperature than OG to avoid
thermal damages such as melting or softening. Second, polyurethane is a better
Performance-Focused Analysis of Fire-Blocking 633

thermal barrier than silicone rubber, as found out in the cases of OG, OG-Si and
OG-Pu. Therefore, polyurethane shields the thermal damages to certain extent
where OG melts and softens heavier than HSG. So, the combination of poly-
urethane and HSG has better thermal and mechanical properties than poly-
urethane and OG. According to this reasoning, SOG-Pu if possibly available,
would associate with ever better performance than HSG-Pu, based on the fact
that SOG has the higher isothermal tensile strength at break. Unfortunately,
SOG-Pu is not available in the market due to unknown reason.

3.5. New Design of Three-Layer Fire Blocking Blanket

Up to now, the potential materials for manufacturing new fire blanket to block
LIBs fires has been evaluated. Through prior tests of flame and heat penetration,
isothermal strength and gas explosion, the merits and faults of the materials have
been identified. It can be summarized that none of the fabrics fully meets the per-
formance requirements for LIBs fire blocking blanket, and thus improvement can
be carried out. Judging from the unsatisfying data of high backside temperatures
and large explosive damage holes, the open question is how the capabilities of
both heat insulation and explosion resistance can be improved.
Next, a three-layer structured composite using the tested materials and fabrics
are designed. The design consideration is to use coated textiles as the upper and
lower covers due to their good mechanical properties, while use ceramic fiber cot-
ton as the lining due to its good heat insulation behavior. According to the test
results, HSG-Pu has the best performance in both isothermal strength and explo-
sive strength, making it an ideal cover material. In addition, OG-Pu and SOG-Si
are also good candidate materials. Therefore, all of them are combined respec-
tively with ceramic fiber cotton to construct three-layer composites, and three
composites are then respectively tested to evaluate their capabilities to resist flame,
heat and explosion.
Figure 8 illustrates the tested results of flame or heat penetration. For the purpose
of comparison, the temperature curve for single layer CC is also given in Fig. 8. It
clearly reveals that all three-layer composites have their temperature curves lower
than that of single CC. This indicates that the composites have better heat insulation
capabilities than sing layer material due to increased thickness. Further, the back-
side temperature of OG-Pu+CC+OG-Pu is higher than those of HSG-Pu+CC+
HSG-Pu and SOG-Si+CC+SOG-Si. In fact, the backside temperatures of the lat-
ter two composites are much close to each other, with the average temperature at
about 170˚C. This reveals that the thermal insulation capabilities of HSG-Pu+CC
+HSG-Pu and SOG-Si+CC+SOG-Si are better. The reason for better thermal
performance of the former composite is proposed to be related to the higher SiO2
content of HSG. While the reason for similar thermal performance of the latter
composite, i.e. SOG-Si+CC+SOG-Si, is highly possible to be due to the higher
yarn diameter of stainless steel bundled with glass fiber.
After burnt, three composites are sent to rig of gas explosion. More than one
blow of gas explosion is applied to each composite, and the results show that all
composites pass the testing. Therefore, three-layer structured composite becomes
634 Fire Technology 2024

Figure 8. Backside temperatures of the three-layered composites

using CC, OG-Pu, HSG-Pu and SOG-Si.

stronger than single layer, due to increased mass, strength and thermal barrier of
the former. Further, the composite is heavier and stiffer than the single layer. For
example, the estimated areal mass is respectively 1.8, 2.2 and 2.5 kg/m2 for Pu+
CC+OG-Pu, HSG-Pu+CC+HSG-Pu and SOG-Si+CC+SOG-Si. Also, due
to higher stiffness of stainless steel wire than glass fiber, SOG-Si+CC+SOG-Si is
more difficult than the other two composites to wrap smaller size electric vehicles.

3.6. Real Fire Testing of Three-Layer Fire Blanket

As the proposed three-layered fire blanket is designed according to the laboratory
tests, so its performance is adequate to pass all laboratory tests. Next, real fire
made by lithium batteries is set up to further test the performance of the proposed
fire blanket. Firstly, a polymer lithium battery typically used for mobile phone is
set on fire by needle punching and a small-scale blanket is laid on the firing bat-
tery once it starts burning. Figure 9 shows the burning phenomena of the battery
and blanket. The explosive burning lasts for around 5 min, during which no visi-
ble flame penetrates the blanket. The blanket after extinction is inspected with
great care, which shows that there is no single rupture or hole. Therefore, the
blanket passes smoothly the small-scale real fire testing.
Next, an electric bicycle is used to make fire for testing the large-scale fire blan-
ket. As ternary lithium battery tends to associate with higher combustion temper-
ature and stronger explosion force, the power system of the bicycle is changed to
a ternary lithium battery pack of 48v20Ah capacity, which consists of more than
one hundred 18,650 battery cells. The burning phenomena of the bicycle and blan-
ket are shown in Fig. 10. The results show that the bicycle burning lasts for a
long time of over 1 h, during which couples of explosion occur. After extinction
Performance-Focused Analysis of Fire-Blocking 635

Figure 9. Small-scale burning of three-layered fire blanket.

of fire, the blanket is sent for visual inspection. One of the blackened area of the
burned blanket is shown in Fig. 10, with no hole or rupture seen. Therefore, it is
clear that the three-layer fire blanket can be used to cope with lithium battery fire
by blocking the fire from spreading.
636 Fire Technology 2024

Figure 10. Large-scale burning of three-layered fire blanket.

4. Conclusion
This paper documents the results of several experimental tests of potential materi-
als for manufacturing new blanket to block lithium battery fires. The tests are
devised to mimic both thermal and mechanical atmosphere of LIBs fires and the
Performance-Focused Analysis of Fire-Blocking 637

materials tested include ordinary glass fiber textile (OG), high-silica glass fiber tex-
tile (HSG), stainless steel wire glass fiber textile (SOG) and their corresponding
fabrics with the coating of silicone rubber (Si) or polyurethane (Pu). Two ceramic
materials of ceramic fiber cotton (CC) and ceramic fiber paper (CP) are also tes-
ted. The main findings are as follows:

(1) Flame penetration test. Among three uncoated glass fiber textiles, the amount
of smoke produced from HSG is the least. Together with no occurrence of
burnt hole, HSG has the best fire resistance ability. Among two ceramic mate-
rials, CC has no emission of smoke while CP does due to organic binder car-
bonization. However, ceramic materials is not suitable for new blanket cover
due to its poor mechanical strength. For coated textiles, organic coatings sig-
nificantly increase the degree of carbonization and smoke emission as well.
Among them, the fabrics with polyurethane coating has relatively slighter car-
bonization traces and smoke.
(2) Heat penetration test. For all materials tested, CC has the best thermal insula-
tion ability, mainly due to its largest thickness. Both coatings of silicone rub-
ber and polyurethane act as good thermal barriers to prevent heat from
entering the interior textile. Comparatively, polyurethane behaves better than
silicone rubber in the performance of heat insulation.
(3) Isothermal tensile strength test. The tensile strength of HSG is found to be the
lowest among three uncoated glass fiber textiles, which is related to its higher
content of SiO2. While, SOG is the strongest at room temperature due to its
reinforced strength of the textile by bundling glass fiber with steel wire. It is
found that coatings can significantly reinforce the tensile strength, too. It is
interesting to observe that the combination of Pu and HSG exhibits an out-
standing increase in tensile strength, even better than that of HSG-Si. This
makes HSG-Pu a potentially feasible material for manufacture of next genera-
tion blanket in LIBs fires applications.
(4) Gas explosion test. Only SOG-Pu can survive the gas explosion test after
being burned under a high temperature of 1200˚C. This finding shows that the
coating of polyurethane provides better thermal and mechanical protection
than silicone rubber on one hand, and on the other, stainless steel wire is also
a good bolster to resist penetration of flame, heat and force.

Based on current findings, a three-layer composite consisting of glass fiber tex-

tiles as covers and ceramic fiber cotton as lining is proposed. It can smoothly pass
all the tests conducted in this study. Further, this study suggests that more
research can be made on the combination between SOG with Pu. Finally, it is
expected that a fire blocking blanket will be realized in near future for LIBs fires
such that the catastrophic accidents of electric vehicle chain fires can be controlled
and avoided.
638 Fire Technology 2024

Acknowledgements
The Authors thank for the Hainan Province Science and Technology Special
Fund (ZDYF2023GXJS015) for the financial support of this study.

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