82 RADAR AND AIS FOR WATCHKEEPING OFFICERS
eye) tangential to the surface of the sea. The optical horizon is to the
point where a theoretical object of no height on the surface could be
seen by eye, and the radar horizon is that point where the radar could
detect such a theoretical object.
The formulae are given, for comparison as follows:
Geometrical horizon 1.92"fr
Optical horizon 2.08"fi
Radar horizon 2.21\fr....(for 3 cm radar. l0 cm is slightly longer),
where h is the height of the point of observation (e.g. the scanner).
The possibility of detecting targets beyond the radar horizon will, in
addition to all the other factors such as response characteristic, depend
upon the height of the target (i.e. whether or not part of it extends
above the horizon). Thus the theoretical detection range is the range
from the scanner to the radar horizon added to the range from tfie
target to the radar horizon of the target.
Detection range of a tar : in order to allow for the refraction of light rays passing from space
^[i + 2.21 J-H
get 2.21
where h and H are heights of the scanner and target respectively in
metres. The detection range is in nautical miles.
These formulae are theoretical on the assumption that:
o Standard atmospheric conditions prevail.
o The radar pulses are sufficiently powerful.
o The target response characteristics are such
to return
echoes.
o The weather conditions, such as precipitation etc., through which
the pulses have to travel, do not unduly attenuate the signals.
It is worth remarking that while scanner height is obviously a major
factor in the detection range of targets, there comes a point whlre
increasing the scanner height gains very little. To double the range of
High Land
FIcunr 6.2 The theoretical detection range oftargets.
THE RADAR HORIZON 83
the radar horizon, the scanner height would have to be quadrupled.
For example a scanner height of 25m gives a theoretical radar horizon
of 11.05 miles. To increase this to 22 miles would require:
22:2.21"fr
.t1
T; LL
"rt n:
L2l
_oo<
h:99m.
:
Refraction in General
Refraction affects detection ranges or tadar. The phenomenon of
refraction should be well-known to every navigating officer. On
occasions, in astro-navigation for example, he/she employs corrections
through the atmosphere to the observer.
Refraction takes place when the velocity of a wave system, such as
light or radio waves is changed. This happen when the wave front
pisses the boundary of two mediums (e.g. air and water) of different
densities. One medium offers more resistance to the waves than the
other and hence the velocity of the waves will change. The medium
where the resistance is greatest is called the denser of the two. When the
detectable
wave system meets the boundary between the mediums at right angles,
no change in direction will place, but the wave will be accelerated or
slowed down bodily. If, however the boundary is hit at an oblique
angle, a change in the direction of wave system will follow. In the case
thit the oblique angle is very large, striking the interface at a small
angle, and the wave system travels from a dense to a less dense medium,
the change in direction of the wave front may be so large that the wave
will return to the dense medium instead of going forward. This is called
total reflection (see Figures 6.3 and 6.4). This phenomenon can be seen
underwater where from below, only something above the surface
immediately above the observer can be seen. AIso between air and water
a familiar phenomenon is when looking at a straight object such as long
pole going down into clear water at an angle, there seems to be a bend
in the pole as it passes the surface. This refraction also takes place
where the medium is the same, but of different density in different areas.
Air is subject to different density depending on different conditions
(usually ternperature) and the day to day effect of this is mirage and
other optical illusions such as the appearance of 'water' on the road in
 RADAR AND AIS FOR WATCHKEEPING OFFICERS THE RADAR HORIZON 85

hot weather. Where the change ir-r density is increasing or decreasillg

gradLrally, so the direction of the wave front gradually changes and it
Wave pattern. Faster in
will follow a curved path. Note that the hollow part of the curve is
Less dense medium
always towards the denser mediuln.
In considering radar energy, bein,e trat.rsmitted from a scanller
comparatively close to the sllrface of the sea, and transl]-ritted over a
wide vertical beam, most ol' this will be subjectecl to some degree of
refraction. That part of the beam which is sent oLlt horizontally, Lllldel'
'normal' conditions will not be refracted as it remailts itl the satle
density layer. However, the upper part ol the beam, projected at
between l0 and 20 degrees to the horizontal will be refracted. Most of
this will be lost in space but at son-re point in the upper atmosphere that
part of the bealn which is at a shallow ar-rgle to the atmosphere layers
will totally reflect. This will be duly refracted agair-r back towards the
surface of the earth, but unless there are conditions of sr"rper-refl'action,
FIcunr 6.3 Relractior.r dia,qran.r I
they do not increase the range ofdetection (see Fig. 6.5).

Less dense medium DifJi'ctt'tiort

Total
Reflect
This is the ability of certain wave-ler-rgths to bend aroutld objects in
fraction their path. This is one component of the range of the raclar horizon, but
should not be confused with the principles of refractiolt. Even light has
a small degree of diffractive properties.
Standard atmospheric conditiorts, which never really exist in practice,
tl
are levels agreed by meteorologists so that standards can be agreed
upon and data recorded, compared and tabulated. They are defined as
follows:
Pressure: l013mb decreasing at 36 mb/1000ft of height.
Temperature: l5"C decreasing at2.Cll000ft of height.
More dense medium
Relative humidity :60"/u and constaut with height.

Frcunr 6.4 Refraction diagranr 2

These conditions give a refractive index of 1.00325 which decreases
at 0.00013 Llnits/1000ft of height. While temperatlrre decreases with
Effective radar horizon height, and all other things bcing equal, cold air is denser than warm,
but so does pressure decrease with height and the density of the air is
less the higher one goes.
Layers of
atmosphere The term 'standard' should not be confused with the tertl 'normal',
which is extremely subjective and imprecise. Standard conditions are
rarely likely to be achieved in any particular part of the world.
Radar energy reflected Radar energy refracted at
These 'standard' conditions relate to the vertical composition of the
Radar energy refracted at
each layer when angle of incidence each layer atmosphere. The mariner cannot obtain a precise knowledge of this and
to the layers is small
so nlllst rely ot.r a rlore general appreciation of the weather conditions,
Flcunr 6.5 Reliaction olthe rzrd:rr heanr the part of the world, the time of the year, meteorological data and
86 RADAR AND AIS FOR WATCHKEEPING OFFICERS THE RADAR HORIZON 87

forecasts and experience for guidance on the effects that they can have Super-refraction
on the detection ranges oftargets. init of course is the opposite to sub-refraction, and of far less of
Under 'normal' conditions in most oceans frequented by shipping, concern to the mariner. If the rate of decrease in the refractive index of
super- rather than sub-refraction is more likely. the atmosphere is greater than normal, the radar beam tends to be bent
towards the surface, thus increasing the range of the radat horizon.
The atmospheric conditions which might bring about super-refraction
Sub Refraction
are:
Sub-refraction occurs when the refractive index of the atmosphere
decreases at a lesser rate with height than normal. The atmospheric a decrease in relative humidity with height,
conditions which can bring this about are: temperature falling more slowly with height than normal, or even
increasing.
l. increase in relative humidity with height, andlor
2. abnormal decrease in temperature with height. Such conditions are more often met with in tropical'areas, but can
be met in higher latitudes, often in high pressure, settled weather, even
Often these two conditions occur together. At sea, the surface layers extreme conditions, land and shipping can be
of the atmosphere cannot be dry, but in certain areas of the world, such
in winter-time. Under
detected at extreme ranges such as ships and objects on the sea surface
as polar regions, very cold air may be found over warm seas. In this
at 48 miles.
case the lapse rate, the degree at which temperature decreases with
height, is less than normal. Referring to Figure 6.5 showing the effect of
Ducting
refraction in the different layers of the atmosphere, there will be less
refraction with the effect of bringing the effective horizon closer to the This is a form of intense super-refraction. When there is a layer of
source of the radar energy. This will have the effect of lifting the radar
warm air above a layer of cold air, usually called an 'inversion', the
beam up from the surface and reducing the distance to the effective radar beam is effectively trapped between it and the sea surface; the
radar horizon. Situations where sub-refraction may be encountered are,
as stated, polar regions, where very cold air is present over
comparatively warmers seas; in the Grand Banks area of the North
Atlantic where cold polar air blows over the Gulf Stream; in areas Layer of cold
air over layer
where cold katabatic winds blow from mountains over warm seas, such of warm air
as in the Gulf of Lions in winter-time. The onset of mid-latitude
depressions may also cause sub-refraction mainly due to the high
humidity. This is of concern as these conditions are often associated All or most radar energy
Effective radar horizon
reflected at interface
with poor visibility and the need for good radar visibility. between layers
extended

Frcunr 6.7 Ducting.

Effective radar horizon

Layer of
Layers of warm air
atmosphere over layer of
cold air

All or most radar energy

Radar energy refracted at Radar energy reflected 'Normal' radar horizon reflected at interface Targets may not be
each layer when angle of incidence
to the layers is small
between layers detected

FIcunr 6.6 Sub refraction FIcunr 6.8 Elevated ducting.

88 RADAR AND AIS FOR WATCHKEEPING OFFICERS
refractive index between the layers is such that the radar beam is totally
reflected. This can concentrate the beam and give it the ability to detect
targets at extreme range. While this may seem to be a desirable
condition, in fact is can be quite a disadvantage, as it usually produces
second trace echoes (see Chapter 7 on false echoes) from land and other
objects very far away and causing clutter and unwanted echoes which
confuse the screen.
Such atmospheric conditions which can bring about ducting are cold
settled conditions, often associated with high pressure.
Another form of ducting is elevated ducting. In this, there is a lower
layer of less dense air above the surface of the sea, and a higher layer of
less dense air, thus forming a 'sandwich' of denser air between two
layers of less dense air. The radar beam is trapped between these two
layers and exhibits much the same effects as surface ducting, but with
the possibility that objects on the sea surface will not be detected.
Conclusions
Under standard atmospheric conditions the radar horizon is slightly
further than the optical. The long range detection of targets, assuming
good echo response, will depend on the height of the scanner combined
with the height of the object. The radar beam is affected by the
atmosphere, mainly by refraction /reflection as it passes througi the
layers of decreasing air density with height. However, varying and
anomalous atmospheric conditions can have an effect on the radar
beam in various ways, with super refraction making it possible to detect
targets at very long ranges, and sub-refraction reducing the detection
range. While surface ducting may have an effect of increasing the
detection range, elevated ducting can cause wanted targets not being
detected.
Chapter 7
False Echoes
This chapter examines false echoes produced by various means. These
can be by
o Re-reflection off part of the ship's structure.
o Re-reflection offother ships or objects.
o Multiple echoes.
o Second trace echoes.
o Interference from other radars.
o Natural phenomena.
False echoes are produced by several different means. At best they
are a nuisance and a distraction, at worst they may be mistaken for real
echoes and cause some action to be taken which places the ship in
danger. Between these two extremes they can clutter the screen and
obscure genuine echoes.
In modern radars much effort and technology is applied to reducing
false echoes, but some are of such a nature that, so far, has placed them-
beyond the capabilities of present technology to eliminate them.
Recognising false echoes is mainly a matter of experience. Many such
echoes are less flrm or more nebulous than real echoes and thus givq
an indication of their false character, but others can have all the
appearance of real echoes. A knowledge of the causes of false echoes
will help the observer to recognise them as such, but a situation can
arise where even though an echo is suspected as being false it must be
treated as being a real one untilit is absolutely certain that it is not.
This may mean stopping the ship, or turning away from the direction of
the echo.
The siting of the scanner in relation to the ship's structure has much
to do with certain false echoes, which is discussed in the section on
scanner siting in Chapter 3. Sometimes scanners are sited in less than
favourable positions for various reasons.
The proliferation of offshore wind farms, particularly in estuaries
and near shipping lanes has caused concern, not so much because of the
echoes that the wind generators produce themselves, but being strong
radar largets they tend to re-echo off parts of the ship's structure and
other objects such as passing ships and thus produce false echoes,
sometimes in critical parts of the radar screen.
89