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FORTSCHRITTE
DER
PHYSIK
H E R A U S G E G E B E N IM AUFTRAGE D E R P H Y S I K A L I S C H E N GESELLSCHAFT
DER
DEUTSCHEN DEMOKRATISCHEN R E P U B L I K
VON F. KASCHLUHN, A. LÖSCHE, R. RITSCHL UND R. ROMPE
H E F T 5 • 1981 . B A N D 29
A K A D E M I E - V E R L A G . B E R L I N
31728 EVP 1 0 , - M ISSN 0 0 1 5 - 8 2 0 8

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Zeitschrift „Fortschritte der Physik 14

Herausgeber: Prof. Dr. Frank Kaschluhn, Prof. Dr. Artur Lösche, Prof. Dr. Rudolf Ritsehl, Prof. Dr. Robert Rompe, im Auftrag
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© 1981 by Akademie-Verlag Berlin. Printed in the German Democratic Republic.
AN (EDV) 57618
ISSN 0 0 1 5 - 8 2 0 8
Fortschritte der Physik 29, 187—218 (1981)
Quantum Electrodynamics in Curved Space-Time

I. L . BUCHBINDER
Pedagogical Institute, Tomsk, USSR
E . S. FRADKIN
Lebedev Physical Institute, Moscow, USSR
D . M . GITMAN
Pedagogical Institute, Tomsk, USSR
Contents
Introduction 187
1. Lagrangian and Representaion Picture 188
2. Free Spinor Field 190
3. Free Electromagnetic Field 194
4. Amplitudes of Quantum Processes. Generalized Normal Product 198
5. Feynman's Rules in Curved Space-Time 202
6. Reduction Formulae 203
7. Equations for Exact Green's Functions 205
8. Calculation of Mean Values 209
9. Representation of the Generating Functionals by Means of Functional Integrals . . . . 213
10. Some Consequences of Unitary Condition of the S-Matrix . 216
References 217
Introduction
The quantum field theory in curved space-time where a gravitational field is described
b y classical metrics, and all the other physical fields being quantized, is an important
stage in the construction of the quantum gravity theory. The interest to the quantum
theory with an external gravitational field may be explained by its applications to black
hole physics and cosmology. Modern achievements of the quantum field theory in curved
space-time are given in review papers by D E W I T T [1] and P A B K E R [2, 3]. It is generally
accepted that the quantum field theory in curved space-time is a rather good model for
t h e description of many quantum gravitational effects.
However, most of the investigations are carried out in the theory of free fields 1 ). The
problems of the fields theory interacting in curved space-time have been studied in
papers [4—16], where mainly the particular aspects have been considered.
The important features of the quantum theory with an external gravitational field are
connected with the ambiguity of a vacuum state and first of all lead to the effect of-
*) We call free fields the ones interacting with an external gravitational field only.
1 Zeitschrift „Fortschritte der Physik", Bd. 29, Heft 5

188 I. L. Buchbinder, E. S. Fradkin, D. M. Gitman
particles creation from vacuum. For the correct description of a particle creation effect
the interaction with external gravitational fields should be taken into account exactly.
On the base of perturbation theory one should consider the interactions of fields with
each other and selfinteraction. The possibility of particles creation from vacuum points
out that the standard Feynman's rules for the calculation of quantum processes ampli-
tudes should be modificated.
Note that the quantum theory with an external gravitational field has two types of
matrix elements in comparison with the quantum field theory in a flat space. First,
while processes amplitudes calculation matrix elements appear, vacua of initial and
final states do not coincide. Second, the theory contains the matrix element being the
mean values relative to the initial vacuum. Such matrix elements are, for example, a
number of particles created from vacuum or energy-momentum tensor of created matter.
Generally speaking, Feynman's rules for the calculation of two types indicated above ma-
trix elements should be different.
The suggested paper is devoted to the construction of formalism of quantum electro-
dynamics in curved space-time concerning the possibility of particle creation by a strong
gravitational field. The same problems appear in quantum electrodynamics with an
external electromagnetic field too, where they are chiefly solved [17—19]. This paper is
the paper [17—19] method generalization concerning curved space-time.
The lay out of the paper is as follows. In section 1 the Lagrangian of quantum electro-
dynamics in curved space-time is constructed and the interaction picture taking into
account the external gravitational field exactly is introduced. (This is the analog of the
Furry picture in quantum electrodynamics). The transform from the Heisenberg picture
to the interaction picture is carried out in a manifestly covariant way [20]. In sections 2 , 3
the properties of free spinor and electromagnetic quantum fields are discussed and
conditions under which initial and final creation and annihilation operators are connec-
ted by unitarity transformation are indicated. Sections 4, 5 deal with the derivation of
Feynman's rules for quantum processes amplitudes calculation on the base of generali-
zed normal product of operators. In section 6 the way of reduction formulae derivation is
indicated and the suitable Green's functions are introduced. In section 7 a generating
functional for this Green's function is defined and the system of functional equations for
them is obtained. Section 8 is devoted to Feynman's rules derivation to calculate mean
values relative to the initial state. Green's functions which appear are shown to be diffe-
rent from those introduced for the processes amplitudes calculation. The generating
functional for mean values calculation is introduced and a functional equation for it is
obtained.
In section 9 the representation of different generating functional s by means of functional
integrals is introduced. In section 10 some consequences of ^-matrix unitary condition
is considered which leads to the generalization of the optic theorem.
1. Lagrangian and Representation Picture
Let us consider spinor electrodynamics in curved space-time.The Lagrangian fields

system has the form:
I = + + Hint. (1)
Here is Lagrangian of a free spinor field:

= 1/-?(*) y(*) fa"* (*) - m] y>(x) (2)
where y^(x) = ePa{x) y", y" is Dirac's matrices, eâ(x) — tetrad, D^ = dîp + 1 l2coIMJboabip
covariant spinor derivative, o j ^ spin connection, o ab = l/'i(yttyb — yby") (see e.g. [21]).
Quantum Electrodynamics in Curved Space-Time 189
Jf 2 is Lagrangian of a free electromagnetic field in the Lorentz gauge:
1 F " ( Z ) + 2 (P„4*(z))«J
(3)
Fuy(x) = - M »
Jf i n t is interaction Lagrangian:
•Tint = -i-g(x) j"(z) A„(X)
W
/"(«) = y tvO*)» y"^) v M l •
The following equations of motion are taken from Lagrangian (1.4)
iy"(x) — mip(x) = ey^{x) f(x) A^x)
iD/Jji(x) y^(x) + myi(x) = —eyj(x) y^(x) A^x) (5)
• - M*) =
where
• 4,=
The commutation relations for operators ip(x), fix), A^(x) can be written in a manifestly
covariant form. Let a(x) — const be a spacelike surface, f^ an arbitrary vector, <pa (a = 1,
..., 4) an arbitrary spinor. Then different from zero commutation relations have the
form:
J [A„{x), VxA'(x')]fv(x') da\x') = if,(x)
a
x€ a (6)
a
/ {%(»)> {w(x') /(*'))(,} <Pb(x') dak(x') = <pa(x)
where [,] — commutator, {,} — anticommutator. One can show that relations (6) are not
dependent on the choice of surface a. Therefore, instead of a one can choose the surface
x° = const. Then relations (6) transform to simultaneous canonical commutation re-
lations.
Equations (5) are the field equations in the Heisenberg picture. For the construction of
perturbation theory one can turn to the interaction picture where the equations of motion
for field operators become homogeneous.
Let us introduce the operators:
ip(x) — S{a, <70) y>(x) S-ô, a0)
f {x) = S(a, a0) yi(x) S'â, cr0)

(7>
A^x) = S(a, (r0) A„(x) S-ô, a0)
S{a0, ff0) = 1.
1*
190 I. L. Buchbi>tder, B. S. Fradkist, D. M. Gitman
Let us demand that the operator S should satisfy the general covariant Tomonaga-
Schwinger equation 2 ):
. s s ^ = _ _ i g
da(x) y—g{x)
where J ? i n t depends on field operators in the interaction picture. Then one can show that
operators ijj, fi, A^ satisfy field equations for free fields. Let us note that the interaction
with the external gravitational field is taken into account exactly. The formal solution
of equation (8) has the form:
8(a, <r0) = T exp j i f ^ i n t ( x ) d ' x J . (9)
Integration goes over four-dimensional volume closed between two surfaces a(x) = a and
a(x) = (Tq. The perturbation series is taken by the operator S expansion in e.
I f it is not mentioned further, we shall concern with the operators in the interaction
picture only, so tilde over the operators is not denoted anywhere.
2. Free Spinor Field
The field equations for free spinor field have the form:
iy^x) Dîp{x) — mip(x) = 0

(10)
iD/ztp(x) y>*(x) + mxp(x) = 0 .
Let us consider the description of quantum processes for noninteracting fermions. For
the calculations of amplitudes processes one should give the initial and final states.
Suppose that space-time is globally hyperbolic [22] and consider two spacelike hyper-
surfaces a{x) = <Ti and a(x) = a2. Suppose that the surface a2 lies in the future with re-
spect to the surface a v This should be denoted as a 2 > oi- Initial states will be given on
the surface crj and final states on the surface <r2. According to the general principles of
quantum mechanics on the fixed spacelike surface one can prepare an arbitrary state.
Hence, one can put a question about probability transition into the arbitrary state on the
other fixed spacelike surface. The concrete choice of states should be defined from physi-
cal meanings. When considering various problems different approaches of quantum
fields in curved space-time states choice were suggested [23—41]. The unique recept of
particle states construction in the external gravitational field at present is absent.
We consider a formal method suitable for any initial and final states. We require the only
supposition about these states. Let these states be classical according to the principle
particle-antiparticle by any way.
Suppose on the surface c t h e r e is a complete set of states {±<pp(x | cr,)}, where the sign +
is related to electrons and the sign — to positrons, and on the surface <r2 there is a com-
plete set of states ( ± 9? i (a; ] cr2)}. Here p,q are quantum numbers. The sign rp(x \ a) notes
that the point x lies on the fixed surface a. The introduced states satisfy orthogonality
2 ) Let us give the definition of the derivative on the surface
8F\a] lim JK] - Fjal Av = i-g(x) Ax0 Ax1 Ax2 Ax3

do(x) ¿¡,->0 dv
a' follows from a by the deformation near the point x.
relations
(±9V ±<Pp,)o1 = àpp'< (t9V ±(Pp)c1 = 0, (11)
where the inner product of states is
(<Pi, <P2)c = / I a) y(x) <p2{x | a) dopipe), (12)

a
and the complete relation is
J E {+<pP(x I ffi) +Vp(x' I ai) + -ivfc I -fyte' I y"^') f(x' I ffi) «M^)
Cl
= /(s|<Tl) V /(« I Cl)- (13)
Equalities which are analogous to equalities (11—13) are fulfilled for the states {±93,(0; | <r2)}
too.
Let us expand the field operator ip{x \ ax) in a complete states system {±<pp(x | Cj)} :
V(x I <*i) = L M i n ) +<Pp(x I + V ( i n ) -Vpi* I °i)l • (14)

Then
Op(in) = (+<Pp, , bp+(in) + (-q>p, v)*,
(15)
a p +(in) = (+<pp, ip)Cl, bp(in) = (_<pp, y)ai.
From the relations (6), (15) commutation relations for the operators a(in), a + (in), £>(in),
6 + (in) follow:
(ap(in), a.*, (in)} = {¿„(in), bp{in)} = ôpv-
(16)
(a p (in), «y (in)} = {«„(in), 6p-(in)) = {«„(in), 6;,(in)) = {¿„(in), &„<(in)} = 0.
Let us expand the field operator tp(x | a2) in a complete states system {±<pq{x \ a2)} :
ViX k 2 ) = E K ( ° U t ) + <Pq(X I ffî) + V ( ° u t r <Pq{X I • (17)
q
From the relations (6), (16) commutation relations for the operators «(out), « + (out),
£>(out), 6 + (out) follow:
{a,(out), «¿(out)} = {6?(out), 6+.(out)} = ôqq- (18)
{a,(out), gy(out)) = {«g(out), -(out)} = (a ? (out), 6+.(out)} == {6,(out), ¿y(out)} = 0.
By means of electron and positron annihilation operators «(in), 6(in), «(out), ¿(out) one
can define the vacuum vectors of the spinor field |0)jn, |0)out as the solutions'of equations :
«„(in) |0)in = 6„(in) |0>in = 0 V p,

(19)
«,(out) |0)out = 6 t (out) |0>out = 0 Wq.
Equations (19) are solved in the original Hilbert space if the operators {«.(in), a+(m),
¿(in), ¿+(in)} and {«(out), a + (out), ¿(out), ¿ + (out)} are unitary equivalent to the set of
annihilation and creation operators for which there is a vacuum vector in this Hilbert
space \42\ I t is known that there is a vacuum vector for a free spinor field in plane space-
time. Then one can show [27] that the conditions of equation solution existence [14] in
192 I . L . BUCHBINDER, E . S . F E A D K I N , D . M . GITMAN
the original Hilbert space have the form
^-Vl2)
p.P'
E f l U v + IUv < oo,
(20)
E il(+<?v ^ ' U 2 + I("9V ^ D J 2 } < oo.
9.9'
where
±
±9jj,(°)(a; | oi) = ±9?p(ic | ffi)|9iiv=w<v, %(0)(a; I <r2) = ±<p„{x | (T2)|^v=^„.
Further we require the amplitudes of the simplest quantum processes: cv = out (0 | 0);n is
the amplitude of the probability vacuum to be vacuum, a>(q | p) = cB—:lout<(0j a,(out)
X a p + (in) |0)in is the amplitude of electron scattering, oj(q\p) = c„-1o„t(0| 6 ? (out) &„+(in) |0)in
is the amplitude of positron scattering, co(0 j p' p) — c„ _1 out {0 ¿¿-(in) a p + (in) |0)jn is the
amplitude of pair annihilation, co(qq' | 0) = c„~1out(0[ a,(out) 69-(out) |0)in is the ampli-
tude of pair creation.
For the calculation of these amplitudes let us find the relations connecting the operators
a.(in), ¿(in) and a(out), ¿»(out). Note that the solutions of equation (10) are connected by
Green's function G(x, x')
y>(x) = / G(x, x') yf(x') f(x') d o ^ x ' )
(21)
yj(x) = J ip(x') y^x') G(x', x) doîx')
a
moreover from commutation relations (6): G(x, x') = ly>(x), xp(x')) follow. Green's func-
tion G(x, x') is bispinor [43] satisfying the equations
(iyx(x) Dxm - m) G(x, x') = 0
G(x, x') y^(x') + mG{x, x') = 0 ,
and the boundary condition
(G(x, x') yl(x')) ab n^x') = idabda(x, x'),
where n% is a normal to the surface a and 8a{x, x') is ¿-function on the surface defined by
the relation
/ ¿.(as, x') n»(x') f(x' \ a) da^x') = f(x \ a).
a
Green's function G(x, x') may be constructed by using any complete and orthogonal set
of the Dirac equation in curved space-time solution \<pn{x))
G(x, x') = £ <pn(x) (pn(x').

rt
Let in relations (21) be a; € a 2 and a = a l t then:
y){x | a2) = j G{x, x') yf{x') y{x' \ fft) da^x').

Let us put expansion (17) into the left side of this equality and expansion (14) into the
right side and use the orthogonality relations. Then we have :
a(out) = G(+1+) a{in) + G(+|_) ¿>+(in)
6 + (out) = G("|+) « M + G("|_) 6 + (in)

(22)
a (out) = a (in) G( 1 ) + 6(in) £(_| )

+ + + + +
6(out) = a+(in) G(+|-) + 6(in) 6?(_[~)

where
G{± |±p) = / da^x) f dajx')* <pq(x | at) y"{x) G(x, x') y'{x')± <pp{x' \ a{)
02 Oi
(23)
0i(±ï'U±) = f da^x) f do,(x')± <pv{x | y"(x) G(x, x') y'(x')± <pq{x' \ a2).
ai ff 2
Analogously from relation (21) at x € au a = a2 we have
«(in) = G(+\+) a(out) + G(+\~) b+(out)
6+(in) = G(_|+) «(out) + G(_\~) 6+(out)

(24)
a+(in) = a+(out) G(+1+) + 6(out) G(~|+)
6(in) = a + (out) <?(+|_) + 6(out) G("|_).

For matrix elements of Green's functions G^ | ± ), G{± \± ) there are a number of relations
following from commutation relations for creation and annihilation in and out states
operators and equalities (22, 24). These relations have the form:
G(±|+) G(+|±) +G(±|_) G(_|±) = 1
G(±|+) G ( + n +G(±|_) G(_|=F) = 0
£( ± | + )<?( + |±) + G ( ± | - ) £ ( - | ± ) = 1 (25)
G(±|+) G ( + | t ) + 0 ( ± | - ) G ( - | t ) = 0
G(±|±)+ = G(±|±).
Using relations (22, 24, 25) one can find the expressions for the simplest processes ampli-
tudes :
w{q\p) = G~i(+ |+)îp, w{q\p) =
M0\p'p) = C-V+I^Vp = - [ « " M l - ) G(~l+)]P> (26)
w{qq'\o) = [G~H+n G{+\~)\q. = -[0(+|.) ^(I-)]«,'-
Relations (22, 24) show that the operators {«(out), a+(out), 6(out), 6 + (out)} and {»(in),
a + (in), 6(in), 6 + (in)} are connected by linear transformation. Suppose that this trans-
194 I. L. Buchbinder, E. S. FRADKIN, D. M. GITMAN
formation is unitary. Then the operator F is such that :
(
a(out) \ / »(in) \
6+(out)/ \6 + (in) /
Then
CF = in<0| F |0) i n .
The explicit expression for the operator F can be found b y using functional methods [42] :
F = cr exp [—a+(in) w( +~ \ 0) 6 + (in)] exp [a+(in) In w(+1+) a(in)]

X exp [6 + (in) In w(~|~) £>(in)] exp [—6(in) w(0 |~ + ) a(in)],
(28)
Cy = det (?( _ |_).
Note that the operator F is the analogous to ^-matrix of quantum field theory in plane
space-time.
L e t us find the conditions where the operator F is unitary. The unitary criterion of the
operator performing linear canonical transformation is found in the papers [42, 44]. The
applying of this criterion in our case leads to the relation :
S p [<?(+!_) G(_|+) + G(-| + ) G(+\-)] < OO. (29)
L e t us show that the expression in the left side of this relation (29) is a full number of
electrons and positrons created from vacuum. The number of electrons created from
vacuum in the state with quantum numbers q is equal to :
! V = in<0| < - ( o u t ) fl^(out) |0>in = [G(+1_) G(_| + )] m .
Analogously the number of positrons created from vacuum with quantum numbers q is
equal to :
n f = in <0| (out) 6,(out) |0>!n = [G("| + ) £ ( + | " ) ] M .
Then the full number of created electrons and positrons has the form :
n+ = sp G( + |_) G(_|+), n~ = sp G(~| + ) G(+\~). (30)
One can see that n + + coincides with the left side of relation (29). Thus, if the full
number of particles created b y the gravitational field is finite the transformation from
in operators to out operators is unitary and vice versa. The other consideration of the
unitarity transformation problem (22, 24) is given in the paper [45].
3. Free Electromagnetic Field
The equation of free electromagnetic field has the form:
• A"(x) — A'(x) = 0 . (31)
L e t us suppose that on the surfaces oi, a 2 there are given complete sets of electromagnetic
field states {±e^(x | o j , n^Vê^x \ at)} a n d ^ e & ^ a ; | cr2), n2>Vv ±e%li(x | <r2)} where is
the normal to the surface crli2 • = = We assume that the state of photon
may be characterized by quantum numbers n, m and polarization indices i, j (i, j = 0, 1,

2, 3). The states with i,j= 1,2 are the three dimensional transversal and describe the
physical photons. This property is analogous to the property of photon states in plane
space-time. Some details are given in the paper [52], The introduced states satisfy ortho-
gonal relations
(32)
where
K, e2)a = —i f e^{x | a) V* e2fl(x \ a) dax(x)
a
and complete relations
f£ I I V;' Av(x' | a,) da^x') = AJx | a,).

J n,j
ui
Let us expand field operators AM(x | a^), A^(x | a2) in complete systems { ± e} and {±e}
accordingly :
A»(x ]<T l )= £ {cB;-(in) + e^(x | a,) + cM+j(in) | ffl)}
n,j
(34)
A*(x | at) = X1 {cffli(out,) +e"mi{x \ a») + c^(out) ~e^(x | cr2)}.
m,i
Then:
cni{in) = i?w(+eBi, A) a i , c+-(in) - yfj(A, +enj)0l
(35)
Cmi(out) = rjii(+emi, A)„„ c+ôut) = rjn{A, +
emi)02.
From relations (6.35) commutation relations for the operators (c(in), c+(in)} and {c(out),
c + (out)} follows:
[cBi(in), c+,j,(in)] = —rjjôjj'ônn', [cB,-(in), c„y(in)] = 0
[Cmi(out), c+ v (out)] = —rjidii'i5mm', [effli(out), c roY (out)] = 0. (36)
(Vif = y & f ) •
From equalities (36) one can see that the operators c„0(m), c+0(in), c m0 (out), c^ 0 (out) have
"non right" sign in commutators. This points to the necessity of indefinite metrics
using.
By means of the annihilation operators c(in), c(out) one can define vacuum vectors of
electromagnetic field as the equation solutions :
c„,-(in) |0)in = 0 V n, j
(37)
c mi (out) |0)out = 0 v m, i.
Using the Lorentz condition in the form :
(in| F„A"(x | ffl) |in) = 0
(out| VpA^x | <r2) |out) = 0

196 I . L . B U C H B I N D E R , E . S . F R A D K I N , D . M . GITMAN
where |in), |out) are the arbitrary linear combinations of Fock's vectors created by the
action of the operators c+(in) on |0);n and by the action of the operators c + (out) on |0)out
accordingly, one can show that there are the following equalities at the admissible
states as in the plane space-time [46]
[c„0(in) - c„3(in)] |in) = 0
(38)
[c,„o(out) - c m3 (out) lout) = 0.
Let us write the conditions where equations (37) are solved in the original Hilbert space
of physical photons. These conditions can be derived as conditions (20) and have the
form:
n,j
(39)
E l( + *»i. ~ < © J 2 < ° °
m,i
where
JO) _ - I +J0) _ J
Let us consider the simplest quantum processes amplitudes: cv = out(0 I 0)in 1

is the
amplitude of probability vacuum to be vacuum, w{mi \ nj) = cv ~ 0Ul (Q | c m j(out)
X c^-(in) |0)i„ is the photon scattering amplitude, w(0 \ n'j' nj) = c F _ 1 o u t (0 | c^-(in)
X c^(in) |0)in is the pair annihilation amplitude, w(mim'i' | 0) = c F _ 1 o u t (0 | c mi (out) cm-4'
X (out) |0)i„ is the pair creation amplitude. Note that the vacuum vectors |0) out , |0);n
are defined so that:
out<0| AM{x) |0)IN = 0.
Let us find the connection between the operators {c(in), c + (in)} and (c(out), c + (out)}.
One introduces Green's function of equation (31) as the bivector [43\ A^x, x') satisfying
equations
E
[<V • « - A*)] *') = o
(40)
[<V Ox' - Arte, x') = 0
and boundary conditions
AM ,(x> x') = 0, if x £ a, x' 6 a

(41)
nx (x') Vl'A^x, X') = d'Mx, *')•
Green's function AM ,(x, x') transforms the solution of equation (31) into the solution again
AM(X) = -i f A,v (x, x') V xA'(x') da,{x')- (42)
a
From commutational relations (6) it follows that
A^te, X') = -[A^x), Ate')],

Am {x> ') = — A lite'> x)> A*,te> x') = Apte', x)-
x
x
Green's function AMV (x> ') c a n be constructed if a complete set of orthogonal solutions of
equations (34) {/„-"(a;)} is known. Then:
= Z fn,(x)ttte')-
Let in relations (42) x € cr2, a = o^ and then x C alt a = <r2 a n < i use expansion (31). As a
result one obtains:
+
c(out) = Zl(+|+) rçc(in) + Zl(+|_) t}c (in)
c + (out) + c(in) r)A(_\+) + c+(in) (43)
+ +
c(in) = A{+1 ) jjc(out) + zl( + |") r]c {out)
c+(in) = c(out) VA(~\+) + c + (out)

where
¿{£i\*J = ~ViVi f dea(x) f da^x') | or,) V" ®') \ ox)

o2 ai
(44)
ai aa (
From the commutation relations for the operators c(in), c + (in), c(out), c + (out) and re-
lations (43) follows the equations:
J( + |_) rjA{_\~) = 0
zi(+n - j(+|-) = (45)
A(+n.vA(+\_)-A(+\-)vA(-\,) =0
ZI(±[ T ) = - z l ( ± | T ) .
A number of equalities follow from relations (38, 43) :
¿Îiîol V) = ¿(¿»12). ¿(ïli<) = ; i, / = 1,2

¿ U f ) + ¿(¿315?) = ¿ U ? ) + ¿ U ? ) (46)
¿ ( f l Î o ) + ¿ ( Î t a ) = ¿ ( f l i s ) + ¿(?l£o)-
By using relations (43, 45) one can write the simplest processes amplitudes in the form :
w(mi \ nj) = —rjirjj ¿-1(+|+)raiBJ-

w(0 | n'j'nj) = Vi[Am A~^\+)]nynj (47)
w(mim'ï | 0) = J7j[^|-1(+l+)^(+r)]mi».Y-
Let us consider relations (43) in case when in the left side the physical photon operators
only should be. Then using relations (46) we obtain :
Cm;(out) = {Ai^j) cnj(in) + c+-(m)}

n,j=1,2
Cmi(out) = (c„;(in) A{"J\+mi) + c+-(in) d t f j ; , ) } , (48)
i = 1,2.
198 I. L . BUCHBINDER, E . S. F r a d k i n , D. M. GITMAN
Suppose there is such an unitary operator V that for physical photons operators:
( & 2 > ) - < 0 | = " < 0 | F - (49)

Here |0)¡„, |0) ollt are defined only for physical photons:
e,,(in) |0>in = 0 V » , 1 = 1, 2
c m i (out) |0) out = 0 \Jm, i — 1, 2 .
Thus, we suppose that only physical photon annihilation and creation operators are
connected b y unitary transformation. The assumption of unitary transformation existen-
ce between longitudinal and time photon operators is not necessary.
B y using the results of [42] we obtain:
V = cr exp c+(in) w(|0) c+(in) exp [c + (in) In w{l) c(in)] exp — c(in) w(0|) c(in)
(50)
cv = det w(mi \ nj) ; i, j = 1, 2.
I n equality (50) all summations are done over the states with i , j = 1 , 2 only. The con-
dition necessary and sufficient for the operator V to be unitary has the form :
spzl( + |_) A{_\ +) < oo. (51)
L e t us calculate a complete number of physical photons created from vacuum by the

gravitational field:
n = Z in<0| c+j(out) c m i (out) |0>in = sp Zl(+|_) A(_| +). (52)

m,i = 1,2
Then relation (51) will be rewritten in the f o r m : n < oo. Thus, the condition necessary
and sufficient for the operator (49) to be unitary a full number of physical photons
created from vacuum must be finite.
4. Amplitudes of Quantum Processes. Generalized Normal Product
The amplitude of arbitrary quantum processes with a given number of initial and final
particles has the following form:
înôut = out<0| o(out) ••• 6(out) ••• c(out) Sc+(in) ••• b + (in) ••• a + (in) |0>;„ (53)
where
S = lim S(a2, ai), |0) in = |0>£ 10)^,
Ox—> — oo (out) (out) (out)
(Ja—>oo
10)1^ are spinor field vacuums, Oî? are electromagnetic ¡field vacuums. A particular
(out) (out)
feature of a matrix element (53) from analogous matrix elements in plane space is that
vacuum states and creation and annihilation operators to the left and to the right side
of the operator S are different. So, the usual way for the derivation of the F e y n m a n rules
based on ¿/-operator reduction to the normal form as regards to single vacuum becomes
unsuitable.
We'll show that by the introduction of a suitable normal product generalization one can
obtain modificated Feynman rules for matrix element calculation.
Let us define the generalized normal form spinor and electromagnetic field operators as
the form where these operators are expressed only by initial state annihilation operators
a(in), b(in), c(in) and final state creation operators a + (out), 6 + (out), c + (out), moreover, all
final state creation operators are placed to the left of all initial state annihilation opera-
tors. The generalized normal product (¿^-product) of operators one should call the pro-
duct of these operators reduced to the normal, form, supposing that within the reduction
all anticommutators for spinor field and all commutators for electromagnetic field are
equal to zero. This normal product generalization was introduced to quantum electro-
dynamics with the external electromagnetic field in papers [17—19] and used for the
derivation of the Feynman rules in quantum theory with the external gravitational field
in papers [11, 12].
With the help of JV-product one can introduce the generalized pairing of operators
AB = AB — N{AB)
and generalized chronological pairing
AB = T{AB) - N(AB).
For the reduction of the operators to the generalized normal form one should express
them only by a + (out), £>+(out), c + (out) and by a(in), 6(in), c(in). I t can be done by using
relations (22, 24, 26), 43, 47). The result of the calculation has the form:
(out) = £ w[q | p) ap{in) — 27 ™{m' | 0) ¿«¿"-(out)

v g'
6,(out) = 27 w{q I p) bp(in) + 27 w(qq' | 0) < ( o u t )

v q'
a p + (in) = 27 a„+(out) w(q \ p) — 27 w(o | p'p) bp-(in)

9 p
(54)
(in) = 27 V ( o u t ) w(ff + 27 «Ko|pp') oy(in)
q p'
Cm.(out) = —27 w{mi \ nj) r)fnj(in) — 27 w{mim'i' | 0) (out)
in) = - 2 7 cî(out) raw(mi \ nj) - 27 w ( ° I njn'j') j? j<c„y (in).

m,i n'/j'
Relations (54) permit the field operators y), y>, to express in a generalized normal
form. Let us do the calculations for the operator A^ for the spinor field operators these
calculations are analogous. Put a — o1 into relation (42) and take the expansion in func-
tions { ± e} for A^x' \ ai). Then we obtain
•¿M) - 27 {c»,-(in) +efinj(x) + c+-(in) _ew-(x)} (55)

n,j
where
±enj(x) = -»'/ ¿"fr *') V' ±enj(x' | <yi) dax(x').
200 I. L. BUCHBINDBB, E. S. Fradkin, D. M. GITMAN
P u t a = a2 into relation (42) and take the expansion in functions {±e} for A^(x' \ a2) •
= E ( c mi(out) +el,mi{x) + c+ ; (out) ~eMmi(x)}

m,i
(56>
±e
mi(x)
= —i J Aîx, x') V* | a2) dat{x').
"2
B y changing the operators c(out), c + (in) through c + (out), c(in) according to equalities
(54) we get:
A„{x) = A^{x) + A,}-\x)
= E -aMmi(x) cUout) (57)

m,i
A^-){x) = £ +afinj{x) cnj{in)

n,j
where
_<Vmi(aO = ~E rjiw{mi \ nj) _e„B,-(a;)

n,j
= ~emi(x) —£ w{mfi'mi \ 0)
(58)
+%nj{x) = ~E yj+etimi(x) w{mi I nj) = +ew(a;) - E rjjwi0 | njn'j') — eM„r(x).

m.i n'.j'
The same takes place for spinor field
tp(x) = fîx) + ip(~)(x), %p{x) = y<+>(a;) + y(~>(a;)
W^(x) + Z V(°ut). = E +V>P(x) «P(in) (59)

<1 v
^)(x) = £ +rpq(x) «/(out), y(~){x) = £ jpp(x) bp(in)
q p
where
+fp(x) = Z +(Pq(x) w{q\p) = +<Pp(x) + JT w{0 Iq'p) _<pp-(x)
<7 P'
~Vq{x) = E w(<712») -Vp(x) = ~<Pq(x) — E w{i'<l I +9V(«)

V t'
+vi?(a;) = E wiq I p) = +fq(x) + E Am' I o)

p q'
(60)
_rpp(x) = e ~n(x) p) = -<Pp(x) — E \pp') +vAx)
i P'
±<Pp(x) = "I
/ G:{x, x') yf(x') ±<pp(x' I (Tj) da^x')
±(Pq{x) = f x') Y^x') ±<Pq(x' I <r2) dOp(x') .

»2
Relations (57—60) solve the problem of field operators expression in terms of functions
of initial state annihilation operators and final state creation operators only. After all
the operators are expressed in this way, operator functionals reduction to the generalized
normal form may be achieved by usual Wick's theorem. The prove of Wick's theorem
(see e.g. [47]) is based only an algebraic properties of operators, that reflect in the ex-
pressions for pairing and chronological pairing.
Thus, to reduce the operators to generalized normal form by Wick's theorem one should
first calculate pairing. By calculating on the base of relations (54, 57, 59) we obtain:
a ? (out) &9'(out) = w(qq' | 0), a 9 (out) a p + (in) = w(q\p)
6g(out) (in) = w[q | p), 6 / ( i n ) a / ( i n ) = w(01 p'p)

(61)
c mi (out) c mV (out) = w{nim'ï \ 0), c^(in) c+ y (in) = w{0 | n j n ' f )
I 1 I I
c mi (out) c+(in) = w(mi \ nj).
Write chronological pairing in the form :
y>(x) y(x') = C f - W O I Ty,(x) y>(x') |0)i„ = -iS<(x, x')
if a(x) > a(x')

' \ -S^){x,x'), if a(x) < a(x')
S<~>(z, x') = %<">(*), y<+>(a;')} = 27 +%{x) w[q\p) +<pp(x')

p.q
£<+>(*, x') = t{V(+>(®). = ¿27 ^q\p)-q>v(x)

(62)
A,(x) A,(x') = cF-i0Ut<0] TA^x) A,(x') |0>,„ = -i&Jx, x')
(
i 2' -\x,x'), if a{x)>a(x')
t,x') = l
* ' ~ x'), if a(x) < a(x')
2>{-\x, x') = i[A^~\x), Ay\x')] = i 27 +eumi(x) w{mi \ nj) _evnj{x')

mi.nj
®') = x).
From relations (62) one can show that the functions 8°, 3jc satisfy the equations:
Ô{
[%r(x) Dx/X - m] S°(x, x') = - * ~ x }
(63a)
v-gfr)
S(x — x')
[<y - *') = 9Ax) , • (63b)
V-g(x)
From the definitions (62) follow the important properties of the functions Sc, S>c:
+V>p(x) = / S°{x, x') y"{x') +<pp(x' | tr,) da^x')

o1
Jpp{x) = i f _<pp(x' I <r,) y"(x') Sc(x', x) daM(x') (64)
202 I . L . B U C H B I N D E R , E . S . F R A D K I N , D . M . GITMAN
~ipq(x) = i j Sc{x, x') yf(x') -<pq(x' | a2) da^x')

a*
+ g f (x) = - i f +<pq{x' I at) y"(x') Sc(x', x) daß(x') (64)
+<W®) = i f x') V1 I ffi) da,(x')
+<W®) = -t / »') "e^«' I dax{x').

a2
Kelations (64) show that the functions <SC, 3)c play the role of Feynam propagators in
curved space-time. They propagate the positive frequency states into the future and the
negative frequency states into the past.
5. Feynman's Rules in Curved Space-Time
Thus, to calculate matrix elements (53) it is suitable to represent ^-matrix in a generali-

zed normal form using Wick's theorem for T-products. The corresponding pairings are
defined in respect to a generalized normal product introduced in the previous section.
Interaction Lagrangian is also suitable to represent in a generalized normal form
înt = -1-9{x) A„(x) nx) = - 1 l - g { x ) N{A^(x) j»{x)) - i~g(x) A,(x) f{x)
+ N ( A , ( x ) i"(x)) = -i-g{x) N{A^(x) f{x)) - ]/-g(x) J»(x) A^x) (65)
where
J»(x) = err-xo»*<0| f{x) |0)in = ie sp y»(x) Sc(x, x)
(66)
S°(x, x)= j [S°(x + 0, x) + S°{x, x + 0)].
According to the results of the previous section matrix elements calculation (53) is
reduced to matrix element of a generalized normal product calculation:
out (0| a(out) ••• 6(out) — c(out) N{...) c + (in) ••• 6 + (in) ••• a + (in) |0>in. (67)
I t is clear that a matrix element is different from zero if the sum of particle numbers of
each field in initial and final states is more or equal to field operator numbers of each
field under the sign of normal product. If for each field operator tp, \p, Ay from generalized
TV-product there will be the operator a(out), 6(out), c(out) from the final state or the
operator a + (in), 6 + (in), c + (in) from the initial state it can pair with, so such matrix ele-
ment is represented by usual Feynman diagrams with modificated corresponding rules.
1. The function +y>p{x) (+y>q{x)) (60) is corresponding to electron in the initial (final)
state with quantum numbers p(q).
2. The function Jj>p(x) (~tp9(x)} (60) is corresponding to positron in the initial (final)
state with quantum numbers p(q).
3. The function +a^{x) (58) is corresponding to photon in the initial (final)
state with quantum numbers nj(mi).
4. The propagator —iSc(x,x') (62) is corresponding to an internal fermion line directed
from the point x' to the point x.
5. The propagator —i2> c Jx,x') (62) is corresponding to an internal photon line directed
from the point x' to the point x.
6. The function Jf(x) (66) is corresponding to a closed fermion line.
7. The contribution of any diagram contains as a multiple cr = cF(1)C(/<2> where c 7 (1) is
the probability amplitude of vacuum to be vacuum for spinor field (28), c/ 2) is the
probability amplitude of vacuum to be vacuum for electromagnetic field (50).
The rest of the corresponding rules are general. (Taking into account that integration
is carried out over invariant volume element ]/—g(x) ri%).
Let the number of operators in initial and final states be more than necessary for the
operator from a normal product compensation. In this case matrix element is equal to
Feynman's diagrams contributions that appear with the help of compensation operators
from normal product by initial and final state operators multiplied by amplitudes
w(q • • • q' • • • mi\nj • • • p' • • • p) obtained from uncompensated initial and final state operators.
Feynman;s diagram contribution is calculated as mentioned above. The amplitudes
w[q ••• q' ••• mi\nj ••• p' •••p) are calculated by means of the operators a9(out), ..., iy (out),
..., cml(out), c^-(in), ..., iy(in), ..., ay (in) reduction to a generalized normal form with
the help of Wick's theorem and relations (61). Thus, the probability amplitude iu(q ••• q' •••
mi | nj • • • p' • • • p) is expressed in the form of product sums of the simplest processes ampli-
tudes (26, 47) with the corresponding signs obtained from Wick's theorem. For example,
the probability amplitude of photon scattering with photon pair creation has the form:
w(mim'i'm"i" | nj)
= w(mim'i' | 0) w(m"i" | nj) + w{mim"i" 10) w{m'i' | nj) + w(m'i'm"i" | 0) w(mi \ nj).
6. Reduction Formulas
Let us consider matrix element of the process
out<0| «,„(out) ••• a,/out) bq'K,(out) ••• (out) ••• c mti ,(out) ...
X c miil (out) S c l h ( in) ••• c^ K (in) ¿¿/(in) ••• b ^ (in) a+(in) ••• ctpj in) |0)in
= oal(NN'L\S\KM'M)in. (68)
Let us show that matrix element (68) is expressed by Green's function of the form:
G(x, y, fiz) = (out(0| S |0>in)-1 out<0| ? > ( * , ) y > ( x n ) f(Vl) - y>(yn) - ¿ M |0)in.
(69)
Thus, processes matrix element calculation is reduced to the calculation of correspond-

ing Green's function (69).
Write the equality (68) in the form
out(NN'L\ S \KM'M)in = oul(NN'L\ Sciih(in) \K - n^M'M)^
where it's denoted:
|K - n&M'M)^ = clh(m) ••• 4 K j x (in) ftjîn) ... a;,Jin) < ( i n ) ••• < , ( i n ) |0)in.
Let us represent:
in) = i f do«{x) +e^ljl(x) V'A^x).
at—>—00
2 Zeitschrift „Fortsehritte der Physik", Bd. 29, Heft 5

204 I. L . BUCHBINDER, E . S. FEADKIN, D . M . GITMAN
Then, using Gauss's theorem we obtain:
oat(NN'L\ S\KM'M)in
= 0Vl1(NN'L\ (in) 8\K- nxjxM'M)-m
- i J d*x i-g{x) +e»ih(x) [<y - 0UNN'L\ TA^x) S \K - njxM'M){ri.
Let us represent the operator cjjîn) in a generalized normal form (54) and use Gauss's
theorem again, as a result there will be
oat(NN'L\ S |KM'M)in = rjMmi | nj,) oai(NN'L - ™i\ 8 \K - n^M'M)^

m,i
- ¿>(0 | nxhn2j2) Vh 0Ut(NN'L\ S \K - njxM'M)in
+ o^NN'L\ TApfa) S\K — nxjxM'M)-m (70)
where it is denoted:
= - i f d% 1-gfo) ^ZiMi) (¿i - K&))-

Thus, a matrix element (68) is reduced to the expression (70) containing matrix ele-
lements with a less number of initial photons. Using formulae (70) for certain times one
can exclude initial photons at all. As a result we shall have:
aal(NN'L\ S \KM'M)in
p
= Ti +Oz Pm ••• +OzP(s>(—Vipfs+1>)
X w(mPiS+1)iP{S+l) I Wp s I)7>(s 1)) ••• (—Vipm) w(m i
( + + | np^jp^)
P(0 P(i)
X w(0 | nP(l)jnl)nP(l+i)jP(l+l)) (—>?, ) ••• w(0 |

P(I+1)
X (—Vp(K)) om(NN'L — m i P(S+1) P(S+1) — ••• — mnl)iP(l) \ TA{zP(:l)) •••

X A{zP(S))S\OM'M)in. (71)
The sum over P denotes a summation over all different ways of index P ( S ) = 1, . . . , K
arrangement in combination with the expressions + 0 , w(\), w(0|). Let us consider now the
function:
out(NN'R\ TAfa) - A^zs) S \OM'M)in ' (72)
and reduce final photon states. Write function (72) in the form:
oui{NN'R - m ^ l c miil (out) T(---S) \OM'M)in.

Let us use the same transformation that leads to expression (70), we obtain
- £ r\l2w{mxix m2i2 | 0) out (NN'R - mxix - m2i2\ T(...S) \OM'M)ia

nii.ii
+ oal(NN'R - mxix| T{.. ,A^(zx) S) |OM'M)in - (73)

= - i j d % i-g(zx) n2l - R£(zx)) ~a^{zx).

Using equality (73) for some time one can exclude all photons f r o m final states. The final
expression for a matrix element (68) reduced over photon states has the f o r m :
0Vl(NN'L\ S \KM'M)in
— +0Zp(1) ••• +0Zp(S>{ ViP(s+i>)

P,0
X w(mP(S+l)iP{S+1) | %>(s+i)/p(s+i)) ••• (—mPU)) ™(mp(i)ip(i) I np(i)jp{i))
X w(0 | np^jp^np^jp^) — (?1P(1+1)) ••• w(0 | npiK^jpyc^npwjpw)
X w(mQir+1)iQ{r+1)mQ^+2)iQiT+2) \ 0) (—?7tQ(r+2)) ••• M™<?(£-i+s-i)^<s(£-!+s-i)> m «(£-'+s)
X i 0 ( i _ I + S ) ) |0) ( - > ? W J (NN'0\ T{A(zPil))-A(zP(S)) A(zW)) • • • A(zm) S) | O i f ' J f ) i n
X - ~Kr>- (74>
T h e sum over Q denotes a summation in all different ways of index Q(r) = [L —wip(,$+i)
i P ( S + 1 ) — ... — m p ^ i ^ i ) ! arrangements in combination with the expressions ~ 0 andw(jO).
Further one should reduce spinor field states. I t is done b y analogy with the equality
(70, 72) derivations. W e won't give a general expression as it is v e r y complicated. I t
should be noted only that matrix element (68) is represented b y product sums of the
simplest quantum process amplitudes for the spinor and electromagnetic field and the
expressions of the form
- +d%+BXl ... - JO Xl+n out(0| Ty,(Xl) -
x f ( x i ) t p { x l + 1 ) ••• f { x l + n ) v j ( ^ i ) ••• y ( y k ) v t a t + i ) ••• v(yk+m)
XA^Z,) ... A^(zs) A,sJzs+1) ... A^Jzhh) S |0)in
x ••' ~0Zs+t+Cy 1 ••• +Cy~BVtH ••• ~BVktm (75)
+BX = i f d4x y~g(x) +yv{x) {iy^x) Dx„ - m)
~BX = i J dix(iDXflyt'{x) + m) ~yq(x) ] / - g ( x )
Hz = % f d*x f-g(x) Jpv(x) (iy"(x) DXfi - m) (76)
+CX = i J d*x{ii)Xl/yl'{x) + m) +yP(x) ]/—g{x).
Thus, process matrix element calculation is reduced to Green's function (69) calculation.
N o t e that reduction formulas for scalar field in curved space-time have been constructed
in paper [9].
7. Equations for Exact Green's Functions
L e t us add using papers \48, 49] to Lagrangian (1) the external sources interaction
Lagrangian.
f{x) = I0(x) + (77)
where Jf 0 (x) has the form ( I ) and:
= I » ( x ) A„(X) - r / ( x )f ( x ) — f ( x ) r i ( x ) . - (78)
2*
206 I. L. Buchbinder, E. S. FRADKIN, D. M. GITMAN
Here rj, r] are Grassman's functions. All operators are taken in the Heisenberg picture.
The equations of motion corresponding to Lagrangian (77, 78) are written in the form:
(iy^x) Dp — m) y>(x) + ey^x) ip{x) AM(x) = rj(x)
y)(x) (iBtfUx) + m) - ey}(x) y"(x) A„{x) = - * rj(x) (79)
(6/ • - E/(x)) Av(x) + j«(x) = -=L= /"(*).

V-gfr)
Let us introduce the operator S(I, rj, rf) satisfying the equation:
= _ 1 ^
<M«) ]i—g(x)
(The operators are taken in interaction picture).

Let us denote S = lim S(a, a0) and consider the generating functional:
(T—>OO<
,70—* —00
Z{I,rj,V) = ont<0|-§(/,»?,»?) |0) l n . (80)
Green's functions (69) are obtained as the functional (80) derivatives over sources:
G(x, y, Z) = ( — i)m pn+mfi . (81)

Z driixj ••• drj(x„) drj/y,) ••• ¿rj(yn) SIî) — /=? = !) = 0
Let us find equations for the generating functional Z. For it one should note that accord-
ing to (81):
6Z
= -¿o„t(0|y^(z)|0)in,
dl"(x)
IZ
<5 t](X) = toat<0| T§?(X) |0) in> (82)
^ L . = -¿ o u t <0| TSw(x) |0) i n .
Using the equation of motion for the field operators y{x), y){x), A^x) (78) we obtain
according to \48, 49] the equations for the functional
S p
W a - ™ u r n ?'{x} m m ' f = m n x ) z
D + z m
- - - ) m smu-i*) - ' T T J ,
• {iD^(x) +m)~ ie——— y"(x) = -J==rl(x) Z.

6r](x) v ' dt](x) r/I"(x) i~g{x)
Let us introduce notions for one particle Green's functions

<52 In Z
G(x, x') = —i D^x, x') --- —i (84)
dr}{x) drj(x')
7j = rj=0 dl"{x) dl'(x')7) =7) =0
and denote
.<5 In Z
(.4„(%)) = i
6I"(x) r]=rj =0
First let us note that (A^x)) is not mean electromagnetic field as:
(A,(x)) = ;t(0| TSA,(X) |0)i,

out<0| S |0>„ n=n=0
while the mean field should be written in the form: ¡ n (0| A^x) |0);n Differentiating
equation (83) with respect to sources and using the definition (81) we obtain:
1
(<?/• - B/(x)) (A*{x)) - ie Sp y"(x) G(x, x) = I"(x)
1l-g[x)
( d / n x - RAx)) m * , X-) + ie Sp y"{x) = V (85)
60(x, x') _ d(x - x')

(iy«{x) Dx/i + ey"(x) (A^x)) - m) 6(x, x') + iey"(x)
Equations (85) may be transformed into Schwinger's equations. As in the plane space
[46\ let us introduce :
dG(x, x)
SP y"(®)dF(x')
¿j^y = -/ dyi-g{y) n*°(x, y) DoX {y , x')
(86)
6G(x, x')
t>
iey {x)
d I"(x) = - / d y ~ f - y ) G{y, x)
where
E(x, y) = ie 2y"(z) f du ]/—g(u) f dv ]/—g{v) G(x, u) r°(u, y, v) D^x, v)
IJ""(x, y) = ie2 Sp y"(x) J du ]/—g(u) f dv ]/—gt{v) G(x, u) r°(u, v, y) G{v, x)
(87)
r'(x, y, z) = y°[z) + ¿A .{Xt y, z)
* a(x
e A v z) _ 1 W x>v)
e A (x, y, z) — ^ ^
Then equations (85) have the form: I"(x)

(<$/• - B/(x)) (A'(x)) - ie Sp y"(x) G(x, x) =
V-sK*)
208 I . L . BTJCHBINDER, E . S. FRADKIN, D. M. GITMAN
(<?/ •« - £/(*)) DAx, x')-jdy i-g/y) n>'{x, y) Dttl{y, x') = <5/ X ) (88)
(5(x — x')
(iy"(x) Dxtl + ey«(x) (A^x)) - m) G(x, x') - J dy V~g(y) E{x, y) 0(y,z') =
Equations (87, 88) are the base of perturbation theory for. Green's functions G, D.
Let us find the expressions for the polarization and mass operators in the lowest order
in e2. From relations (87) it is obvious that:
/ y ( s , y , ,) = , - ( , ) (89)
Then using (87, 89) we obtain:
nr{x, y) = ie2 Sp y«(x) Sc(x, y) y(y) S°(y, x) (90)
where propagators Sc are defined according to (62).

Let us consider now equations for (A^x)) and G(x, x'). Denote x) = ie Sp y"(x) Sc{x, x)
and write the solution of the first equation (88) at I = 0 in the form:
(A^x)) = jdy 1/-g(y) D<»{x, y) f(y). (91)
Substitude expression (91) into equation (88) for the function G(x, x') and obtain
{iy»{x) Dx„ - m) G{x, x') - f dy ) E0(x, y) G(y, x') = (92)
where in the lowest order:
£<>(*, V) = ey*(x) J dz i-g{z) D^{x, z) J'(z) ^ ^ A + S°(x, y) y(y) D%{x, y).

(93)
From equalities (90, 93) if follows that polarization and mass operators are given by the
following diagrams:
o +
Another variant of perturbation theory is obtained by considering the equations for

(A^x)) and G(x, x') as the system of equations and choosing Green's function G(0>
depending on (A), as the null approximation. In this case mass operator is given by the
following diagram:
O
Here a bold line is Green's function G(0) which is the solution of the equation:
8{ X]
(iy(x) Dx„ + eyf{x) {A,{x)) - m) G^(x, x') = - * ' '. (94)
y-s'W
The field (A f Jx)) in its turn is defined by equality (91).
8. Calculation of Mean Values
There are a great number of problems of quantum field theory in curved space-time con-
nected with the calculation of mean values over the initial state. Such a mean value is
the number of particles created from vacuum. The problem of finding energy-momentum
tensor matter created from the initial state is reduced to the calculation of mentioned
mean value too. Under semiclassical consideration such energy-momentum tensor
should be substituted into the right side of the Einstein equations to define the back
reaction of matter created per metrics.
The mean value over the initial state is defined by the relation
(F)M = (in| F |in) (95)
where |in) arbitrary initial state and F an operator in the Heisenberg picture.
To calculate mentioned mean values introduce accordance [17] the generating functional
dependent on a doubled number of sources.
ZM(h, Ti» 7]2, II, Vl> Vl) = in<0| S-L(It, rj2, m) <§(/„ Tji, ^ |0) i;
(96)
Zm(I2, m, Vz> A. r?i> m)h=h = 1 •
Vn = Th
Vi = 1t
1
The operators 8 , S have the form:
S(I, rj,rj) = T exp { - i f dhÎ^x) A^x) + rj(x) y>(x) + r?(a;)]}

(97)
« - ! ( / , f j , rj) = exp {if d4x[I«(x) A^x) + rj(x) y>(x) + xp{x) r){x)]} T.
The symbol T standing to the left of the operator performs chronological ordering, and
to the right — antichronological ordering.
From the definition (96) it follows t h a t :
fin+m+l+n'+m'+l'
<fy2(a:,) . . . dr]2(xn) drj2(j/,) ... drj2(ym) SI2(zl) ... dl2(zt) d r j ^ ' ) ... dr,h{yx') ... dl^z',.) 0
+l + +
= t " - ' ( - l ) " ' ' " ' in<0| V(*l) • • • V>(Xn) WM • • • WiVm) ^ l ) • • • ¿{*l) T
X yW) . . . f(x'n.) v(yi') ... f(y'm,) AM ... A(z'r) |0) in
= ¿ " ' « ' { - » r * ' ' 4 * ' G%mm,{xyz, x'y'z'). (98)
Note t h a t T-product acts both to the right and to the left. Green's functions (98) make
it possible to calculate mean values over the initial state. Consider, for example, the
number of photons created from vacuum state:
nmi = ¡„(0| S-â, (T0) C+i(out) c mi (out) S{a, a0) |0>

+
= - / do*(x) f daf(x') eUx) x') ^ f d j ^ ) . (99)
210 I. L. Buchbinder, E. S. Fbadkin, D. M. Gitman
To calculate generating functional (96) one can develop the perturbation theory. Using
known methods [48— 50] write the functional Zu in the form:
Z* = exp {» / d*x[Z™{ip, V> A) + X v . i)]} V
where
( f , <?, A) = a V>> = -înt (100)
6i7] 2 W ¡ill
5 6
V =Si-jz ¡'Vi
A= 6
6
HI ~ iU\
and
V = in<0| §0-Hh, Vm, Vt) $0(Ii, m, Vi) |0)i, (101)
The operators S0 have the same from as the operators (97) only they depend oh the
operators A, ip, \jj in interaction picture. Generating functional (101) has the same struc-
ture as generating functional mentioned in paper [19]. Using the result [19] one can
write:
Z0M = exp ilrjiS^ + ri2S~cr]2 — rkS{+)r]2 — tyi
+ J [I&I 1 + h&h + /,S<+>/2 - / 2 5 ( "»/I]

f (102)
Where it is denoted, for example: IiDI2 = f dx dylîx) D^x, y) I2'(y)

Here:
Sc(x, y) = iln<0| Ty>(x)y(y) |0)in, DcJx, y) = iin(0\ TAm(x) A,(y) |0>in
V) = «'in<0| f(x) y(y) T |0>In, D%(x, y) = ¿in<0| A„(x) A,(y) T |0>ir

(103)
S(~>(x, y) = ti„<0| y>(x) rp(y) |0)in, D(~)(x, y) = ¿¡„(01 A,(x) Av(y) |0>in
S(+)(x, y) = iia(0\ y(y) y»(x) |0)in, Dl+)(x, y) = - i i n ( 0 | A^y) A^x) |0>„
Let us consider in detail Green's functions which appeared. From definitions (103) it
follows that Sc, Sc satisfy equation (63a), S ( ± ) satisfy equation (10), D°, Dc satisfy equa-
tion (63b), Z) (± ' satisfy equation (21). According to definitions (103) one has also:
i S(-i(x,y),
8 if a(x) > a(y)
S'fc
Sl+)(x,y), if a{x) < a(y)
' y ) = \-St+)(x,y),
- s if a(x)>a(y)
S<-)(x,y), if a(x) < a(y)
(104)
' y ) = { _
D(-)(x,y), if a{x)>a{y)
Dc(x
Dl+)(x,y), if a(x)<o(y)
if a{x) > a(y)

(X'y) \ D(~)(x,y), iif a(x) < a(y).
Now consider the functions S(±\ D{ = ). According to the results of sections 2, 3 one can
write:
S<~)(x, y) = i £p +<Pp(%) +fp{y), Si+>{x, y) = pi £ -<pp{x)-fp(y)
D(->(x, y) = —i Z +eflnj(x) rjf -evnj{y) (105)

n,j
Dl+)(x, y)=%E +e*nj{y) •
n,j
The comparison of expressions (105) with functions S^, D(±) (62) one shows an impor-
tant difference of the expressions 8, D and S, D. It is interesting to find the connection
between these functions. For it note that the functions Sc and S° satisfy the same equa-
tions (63 a) and so they may differ only by the solution of homogeneous equations (10).
Write:
S'(z, y) = -§«(*, y) + Sa(x, y)
(106)
(iy»(x) DXfi - m) Sa(x, y) = 0.

Using expression (62) for $ ( ± ) and (105) for S ( ± ) one can find:
S°(x, y) = %Z _tp p (x) w[01 pp') +%{y). (107)
p.i
That is the function Sa is connected with electron-positron pair annihilation processes.
Analogously Green's function Dc, Dc satisfy the same equation (63b) and therefore:
D%{x, y) = D%{x, y) + D%(x, y)

(108)
[6/ Q,-•&•,(*)]-D^fo y) = 0.
From expressions (62) for Z>(±) and (105) for Z) (±) we obtain:
D%{x, y) = i £ -e,nj(x) w(0 | njn'j') - (109)

nj.n'j'
The function Da is connected with photon pair annihilation processes.
Expression (100) for the generating functional ZM is equivalent to perturbation theory
for Green's functions GM (98). The diagram technique for Green's function GM is obtained
by usual Wick's theorem. Write the function (98) by means of operators in the inter-
action picture:
Gnmi,n-m'i'{xyz), x'y'z') = ;„<0| Sif(x1) ... ip(xn) f (y^ ... f (ym) A(Zi) ... A(zi)T yifa') ...
X v>«') f(yi') • • • f a m • • • A(4) s |0) in . (HO)
and expand the operators S in a power series e. The obtained matrix elements are
given by the Feynman diagrams with modificated corresponding rules. Propagators are
given by the matrices Sab, Dab:
and vertex is defined by the expression:
r&dx) = ey^x) dobSac i-g{x). (112)

212 I. L. B u c h b i n d e r , E . S. F r a d k i n , D. M. Gitman
The rest of the correspondingly rules are general. Relation (111, 112) are obtained from
representation (100, 102) for the generating functional ZM.
For the generating functional ZM one can find the system of equations in functional deri-
vations in the same way as it is done for the functional Z in section 7. This system of
equations may be written in the form:
d Z M 6 2 Z M
-1)°
[ d , " • - B f , ( x ) ] + ( - 1 ) - 1 i e y - ( x ) — / . " ( « ) Z M
dl v a {x) d V a ( x ) d r j a ( x ) | / — g ( x )
(113)
d Z M
d 2 Z M
[ i y " ( x ) D p — m ] — — + ( — l ) ® " 1 i e y " { x ) = - ( - l r 1

V a ( x ) Z * ' .
6 r j a { x ) d f j a ( x ) d l a - ( x )
1 / - g ( x )
Denote:
In Z M <52 In Z M
( A ^ x ) ) , * , G o b ( x , x ' ) = - i —
fyafr) d r j b ( x ' ) 1 = i l = o
(114)
d 2 In Z M
Dâvbix, X') = — i
d I a H x ) d l b ' ( x ' ) r, = y = 0
The calculations analogous to those mentioned in section 7 lead to the following system
of equations:
[<5/ • - R \ { x ) ] < A ' { x ) ) a " - (-l)""1 i e Sp y - ( x ) G a a ( x , x ) = _ ( ~ 1 ) 0 * / . » ( » )
V - g ( x )
[ g » A x ) •- R ^ x ) ] D f b ( x , x ' ) - / d y y-fir(y) n ^ a c c ( x , y ) b % { y , x ' )
d ( x - x ' )
= (-lr^rtV (115)
[iy"(se) D X f l + (-1)"-1 e g " ( x ) ( A l l ( x ) ) a

l t - m ] G a b ( x , x ' )
- ¡ d y £ a c ( x , y ) G c b { y , x ' ) = - ( - l r 1 ¿at,
y - g { x )
Zabi.z> V) = ( — i ) ® " 1 i e 2 y * { x ) f d u ] / — g ( u ) J d v ] / — g ( v ) G a c ( x , u ) r c b f ( u , y , v ) D ^ x , v )
n u
a i { x , y ) = ( - 1 r 1 i e 2 S p y " ( x ) f d u ^ - g { u ) f d v ] / - g ( v ) G a c ( x , u ) r c f b ( u , v , y ) & f a ( v , x )
(116)
n b c ( x , y , z ) = y » ( x ) S a b S a c + ¿ a ^ x , y , z )
] / - g { x ) \ - g { x )
1 d £ a b ( x , y )
e * A £ b c ( x , y , z ) = - ( - l ) a
The function {A^x))™ = { A ^ x )I^Ml|l/«=o_—

, . _ 0 j = - { A ^ x ) ) ^ | / . = 0 J = m<0| ^l^(x) |0)in is the mean
field created by the vacuum current J ^ ( x ) = i e Sp y ^ i x ) G ( x , x ) \ . a a I a = 0
9. Representation of the Generating Functionals by Means of the Functional Integrals
The representation of Green's functions generating functional by means of functional

integral is very useful for the research of different problems in quantum field theory.
In this section we shall write the generating functionals Z(I, rj, ry), rj2,
rj t , ?7i) with the help of functional integrals.
Let us consider the generating functional (70)
Z(I, v. V) = out<0| S(I, rj, rj) |0) i n
and the generating functional Z

Z(l,v,v) = in<0| S ( I , rj, rj) |0>in. (117)
U
The generating functional Z (117) is the generating functional Z (I2, rj2, rj2, Iu rju rj^
(96) when I2 = rj2 — Vz — 0 a n ( i I\ — I> Vi> V, rjj = rj. This functional Z (117) one can
use for the calculation of mean values over the initial vacuum.
The general consideration leads to the same representation of the functionals Z, Z by
means of the functional integral:
I dA dxp dip e x p i'(<S(J, rp, xp) — (IA + xprj + rjip)}. (118)

•"0 J
(The action S contains the gauge term). On the other hand, it is clear that the functionals
Z and Z are different, generally speaking. Hence, they cannot have the same represen-
tation by means of functional integral.
The contradiction which appeared may be removed if one takes into account that for the
functional integral one must indicate the functional space of intergation. The general
perturbation consideration [50] shows that the integration functional spaces are different
for the functional Z and Z. The functional integral (118) for the functional Z goes over
the functions which can be represented in the form:
Am(X) = f D;v(x, X') I'(X') dx' =

(119)
tp = Scrj, ip = r]Sc.
As to the functional Z it can be represented by functional integral (118) where the inte-
gration goes over the functions which can be represented in the other form:
A = DCI, ip = Scrj, Tp = rjSc. (120)

c c c
The propagators D°, S and D , S do not coincide in general. Hence, functional integral
(118) contains different integration spaces for the functional Z and Z.
Now let us consider the functional integral representation for the generating functional
ZM. The expression for the functional ZM (96) may be noted in the form:
<5
ZM = exp Z0M. (121)
[H, °bcWb~àî?.
In accordance with the relations (102, 111) we can write for the functional T0M :
ZoM = Z^Z*
K W * , h ) = exp (122)
214 I. L. Buchbinder, E. S. Fradkin, D. M. GITMAN
m, m, m) = ex P [tfSy]
First of all let us consider the generating functional and represent it with the help of
the functional integral
KAh, A) = ^ JdA exp i { 1 AD-iA + ¿/j (123)

Ba
where EA is the integration functional space. If the function A f EA then A has the
form : A = 1)1.
The expression Z) _1 one can find:
= / V - » ( * ) M ® ) Ux - ¿ W * ) ] à{x, x') o \
\ o -1-g{x) igA*) •» - à(x - x')l
l i ^ i g n - R ) _ o \ (i24)
\ 0 - i - g (gn~ R)j
Now we transform fields Au A2: A rA where rab = (—1)® ôab. After it the integration
functional space is given by the conditions :
A1 = - S<+>/2, A2 = - £ < - > / „ + (125)
From relations (125) we have:
f—gig U — R)Al = —A, i = g { g n - B ) A t = - I i . (126)

Let us substitute the expressions for I I , I 2 (126) into equalities (125), then we obtain:
A, = i~-g(g n - R ) A , + S < + > ] n - R ) A 2
A, = D<-> i-g ( g U - R ) A x - D° i-g (g • - R) A2.
Relations (127) indicate in the explicit form that the integrations over the fields Ax and
A2 are not independent. It is convenient to introduce such new fields that in terms of
these new fields the integrations in the functional integral are independent. For this
aim let us do the fields transformation :
(128)
// 11 D^ i-g (g • - J2)\
Qa —
\fî<~> Y~-g (</ • — -R) 1 /'
As a result we shall have:
° »
z M h= dAl d A
E a , E4
>exp * A A a A + I t Q a A \
1 ' (129)
AA = { f ^ i g U - R ) ( U g - R ) f : i g B ^ 1 f I g { g n - R ) \
The integration, functional spaces E A l , E A i are given by the conditions:
A 1 = A2 = DiI2 € E A l . (130)
In the functional integral (129) the integration over the variables A1 and A2 are inde-
pendent.
The same consideration can be done for the functional Z t o o . We write only the final
result:
° W~ f dfl dy>2 drPl

Z l= 6XP
+ vQv* 1 + (131)
E-fl' ,E-
V>2
where :
V
W V
§(-) l/-gD 1 / V \Dl/-gS^) 1

/ _ s _ -i>y=7S(t>y=i5\ (132)
\bi~gSî-gS -D }
D = j [ f h D D = - m)
D = (iDrf« + »»).
The integrations spaces are given by the conditions :
Vi = -S'rii € EVJ, ft =• - V l S° € EVl

y>2 = € E vt , f2 = -rj2& e E^. (133)
Relations (129, 131, 132) permit to write the expression for the generating functional
ZM by means of functional integral in the form:
ZM = -i- J dAi dA2 df x d f 2 df t dyj2 e x p i(I0 + lj) (134)
E
where:
J 0 = j AAaA + + IXQaA + + rjQvy>
= wQ^Q v W Q a A (135)
E = EAl Ea, EVl U U u u E f l u E f t .
Equalities (134, 135) are the final result which expresses the generating functional ZM
by means of functional integral.
216 I. L. BUCHBINDEK, E. S. Feadkin, D. M. GITMAN
10. Some Consequences of Unitary Condition of the ¿S-Matrix
The unitary condition of scattering matrix

SS+ = S+S=1
leads in the curved space-time to some interesting consequences. Let us represent as
usual S = 1 + iT then T+T = —i(T — T+) let |in) is some initial state and {|out)y| is a
complete set of final states. From this we shall obtain:
£ |/out| T ]in)]2 = 2 Im (in| T |in). (136)

/
The perturbation consideration of equality (136) leads to some differences from the usual
relations of this type in the plane space-time. Similar differences exist in the quantum
electrodynamics with the external electromagnetic field [27—7,9]. The main point of these
differences is that for the calculation of some processes probabilities the propagators
8C, I)c are necessary.
Let us assume that the initial state |in) is the vacuum state |0)in. Equality (136) in the
second perturbation order has the form:
£
N.M
£
{q.q'.mi)
/ATM2
I)
Ml
Ml
|out ( 0 l M O U t ) * * * «^(Out) V ( ° u t ) ' ' ' b q A ° u i )
X cmii'J(out) ... c mM i M (out) [ - » / d*x f{x) A^x)} |0) |

1 / - g ( x ) in 2
= 2 Im / d«*, d*x2 y - ^ i ) i~g(x2) (0i Tf(xx) A^x,) f(x2) Av(x2) |0

in
The right side of this equality can be represented in the form
2 3m | -f-
(138)
where the following abbreviations are used:
•» = —iSc(x1,x2)
Here lJ '(x)
o.
is vacuum current.
= J¡'{x) = — sp yf{x) [<S (a; + 0, x) + Se(x, x +
c 0)]
Let us consider the left side of relation (137). The matrix element in this relation is not
zero for the odd M only. Hence in the lowest perturbation order the left side of relation
(137) is:
Z
N,K
X
{q.q'.mi}
(N\\z (91<r
(•«!) +
4- 1H lout^01 a « l ( O U t ) • • •
!
V(out) • • •
X bVNiout) c m i > u t ) ... c m2Jf+lWl (out) 8 |0>| . 2 (139)
Q u a n t u m Electrodynamics in Curved Space-Time 217
Relations (139) is the quantum processes probability when an arbitrary number of

electron-positron pairs and an odd number of photons are created from vacuum. Let us
denote such probability p. This process has the radiational nature only because in the
null perturbation order the gravitation field creates an even number of photons only.
Hence p is the full probability of creation an arbitrary number of electron-positron pairs
by gravitation field and radiation creation an arbitrary number of photons. Relations
(137—139) indicate that the probability p can be calculated in the following way:
P = 2 Jm 4-
Let us note that the diagrams in the right side of quality (140) contain the propagators
Sc, Dc which do not coincide with the propagators S°, Dc appearing under the direct
calculation of processes amplitudes.
Using in equalities (136) the different states |in) one can connect the full probabilities of
some quantum processes with the imaginary parts of the suitable diagrams and these
diagrams will contain the propagators Dc, Sc only.
We t h a n k I. V. Tuytin and V. P. Frolov for helpful discussions.
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Fortsehritte der Physik 29, 2 1 9 - 2 5 9 (1981)
Lattice Textures in Cholesteric Liquid Crystals
H. KLEINERT and K . MAKI
Institut für Theoretische Physik, FU Berlin, Berlin (West)1)
Abstract
Based on the Landau-De Gennes expansion of the free energy in powers of a symmetric traceless
order parameter we discuss the energetics of various phases as a function of temperature and cho-
lestericity.
1. Introduction
T h e blue phase, which appears in many liquid crystals within a narrow temperature
interval between normal and cholesteric phase, has recently attracted increasing interest
b o t on the experimental and theoretical side.
An excellent survey is available [7] which describes the data accumulated over the
years since the first observation b y REINITZER in 1888. I t also discusses the successes and
failures of existing model calculations which all have difficulties in explaining the observed
facts. At present, the most attractive candidate for the blue phase seems to be a body
centered cubic texture which was recently sugested b y HORNREICH and SHTRIKMAN [2]
(H.S.) in a generalization of an observation b y Brazovskii: This author noticed t h a t ,
within the Landau-De Gennes free energy expansion, a superposition of plane waves
with the momenta forming triangles enhances the cubic term. This leads to a phase
transition before the onset of the cholesteric phase. At lower temperatures, however, the
order parameter increases and the cubic piece looses importance. Ultimately, the cho-
lesteric phase does have the lowest energy because of its optimal ratio between quartic
and quadratic terms.
D u e to their precocious onset, such triangular textures could, in fact, be good candidates
for the blue phase. The simplest Ansatz [3], however, in which only a single triangle of
momenta is assumed, corresponding to a planar hexagonal texture, is not capable of
explaining the experimentally observed optical isotropy [I]. Moreover, it is known from
mean-field cosiderations of liquid solid transitions [4] t h a t a body centered cubic (bcc)
structure in space in which the momenta form a tetrahedron is favored energetically more
than a single triangle. This led H S to propose the bbc texture for the blue phase of
cholesteric liquid crystals. The optical isotropy would then be a direct consequence of
the cubic symmetry as will be seen below in more detail.
T h e main defect of the work of H S is t h a t the formalism employed is quite cumbersome.
T h i s is reflected in the complete change of most of their numbers in the free energy from
1 Berlin (West) 33, Arnimallee 3
3 Zeitschrift „Fortschritte der Physik", Bd. 29, Heft 5

220 H . KLEIÎTEET a n d K . M A K I
the first to the second edition of their preprint. Moreover, the existence of two blue phases
was not manifest at the time of their calculation. We therefore found it worthwile to
investigate systematically different possible non-uniform textures and to discuss their
physical properties. Employing the Landau-De Gennes free energy in the same way as
Refs. [3] we calculate a phase diagram for cholesteric, planar hexagonal, hexagonal close-
packed, bcc, distorted bcc, and icosahedraltextures. The relevant physical parameters are
two: The reduced temperature T measured from the point of local instability and the para-
meter a with r + 2<x determining the stability of the nematic component in the order para-
meter. The quantity OL may be called cholesteric strength, or cholestericity, of the liquid
crystal. Due to the analytic complexity we cannot give definite conclusions over the
whole range of parameters r and ex.. However, our analysis in some asymptotic regions,
T —^ — oo (low temperature) or <x oo (strongly cholesteric limit), makes distorted bcc
and hexagonal close-packed textures quite unlikely. We do not find any range of a. where
two optically isotropic phases follow each other shortly before the onset of the cholesteric
phase. Thus the recently observed second blue phase remains unexplained [2], So does
the experimental fact a Grandjean-Cano lines are found for the blue just as for the
cholesteric phase between that convex lens and a plane plate [J]. If glass faces orient
the helix orthogonal to it, it is hard to conceive how a bcc structure can exist between
two faces only a few pitches apart. In addition, no Bragg reflexes have been seen [J]
which would correspond to the 5 other momentum direction in the reciprocal lattice of
the bcc structure. 2 )
I t should be noted that the treatment of the Landau-De Gennes free energy a la Ref. [3]
does not have room for the temperature dependence of the wave length of the circularly
polarized light nor for the volume change at the phase transition [2]. The first defect can
be removed in principle by considering higher harmonics, i.e. by allowing for multiples
of the momenta in the standing waves, the second by including an order parameter for
the stress tensor of the liquid.
For the sake of completeness we give a translation of our methods based on Ref. [5] to
those of HS. This should facilitate comparison of the results.
II. Theoretical Framework
The basis of our discussion will be the Landau-De Gennes expansion of the free energy.
This consists of a quadratic piece
F2 = J J d3x[aQ% + UdQ^'f + c d.Q.r - 2deafvQab 8yQfii] (2.1)
with cubic and quartic interactions
= D 3 X Q Q
^ R * (2-2)
F ^ ^ h ^ j i J VxiQltf. (2.3)
As usual, the coefficient a of Q2^ contains a factor —(1 — T/Tc) causing a instability at a
critical temperature Tc.
The last term in F2 violates parity and is responsible for the formation of a helical ground
state.
2
) This situation has changed recently : See the note added in proof at the end of the paper.
Lattice Textures in Cholesteric Liquid Crystals 221
The order parameter Qap is a traceless symmetric tensor field. For this reason (2.3) is the
only quartic invariant. The other independent way of contracting the eight indices tr(Q 4 ),
turns out to be proportional to (2.2) :3)
2 tr (Q4) = (tr Q2)2. (2.4)
I n order to see this one only has to diagonalize Q via a rotation and finds
- 2 tr Qi + (tr <?)2 = - 2 ( < & + Q\2 + Q*33) + (Q2n + Q22 + Q\3)

= (On + Q22 + O33) ( - O n + Q22 + O33) ( O n - Q22 + O33)
X ( O n + Q22 ~ O33) = 0. (2.5)
For small oscillations above the phase transition, correlation functions
(Q.?{X) Qar{y)) = y (2.6)

Q
are obtained by inverting the functional matrix in the quadratic form F2 • I n momentum
space
Qa,(z) eigxQ«M) (2-7)
yV g
one may write
= 4-
2 E, QtM) «."(a) (2-8>
with
t/(9) = (o + bq2) dj + cq.r + 2 d S . ' q (2.9)
where
(5,).' = - 2 ie tay (2.10)
is the spin matrix for the tensor field Q„p. More symmetrically, can be replaced b y
T% = J W + W + V + w
- j + ha) - J (0* + fir) d., + i vd^3*. (2.11)
The inversion problem therefore reduces to the solution of
r$(q) G;i(q) = 1% (2.12)
where is the unit matrix in the space of symmetric traceless tensors:
m = j ( w + w ) - j • (2-i3)
I t is most convenient to construct G from polarization tensors e^(q) which diagonalize

m)
T$(q) 4T»(4) = (q) • (2.14)
3
) The same statement would be true for a purely antisymmetric Qap.
3*
222 H. K l e i n e b t and K. Maki
T h e labels m m a y be chosen to measure the helicity of the spin-two excitations, i.e. the
polarization along the momentum direction q = qjq:
= (2.15)
The solution of (2.15) is straight-forward in terms of a local orthonormal triplet of vec-

tors oriented along £ :
<pv(q), <p(2)(q), <pi3)(q) =
The spherical unit vectors
<p(+)(q) ^ l(q) = (yd) + ty»)/j/2
<p(-){q) = l*(q) = (yd) - icpW)/]/2 (2.16)
V (0)(4) = <pV){q) = g
are a natural representation of helicity ± 1 , 0, respectively. T h e coupling of two of these

tensors (2.15) is then trivial:
$'(4) = <P«i+W+) = U, =
*lM) = yf (<P«l+)<Plim + 9>«(0W+)) = p- (W, + W.) = tym* (2-17)
B y construction, these tensors are orthonormal
t r { e < » m * { " * * m ) = tm,' (2.18)
and automatically diagonalize (2.14).

I n fact, applying (2.9) we see
T(±«(g) = a + bq* ± 2dq
T (±D(g) = a + (6 + c/2) q2 ± 2 d q (2.19)
rO)(g) = a +
T h e correlation function G(q) can now immediately be written down as
(2.20)
T h e eigenvalues r (m> (g) are directly measurable b y the angular dependence of light
scattering : I f a photon of momentum k and polarization ea absorbs an oscillation quan-
tum of momentum q andreemerges with polarization e a ', the cross section is given b y
(2.21)
L e t the initial beam be polarized porthogonal to the scattering plane. I f d and <p denote
angle and polarization direction of the scattered beam, respectively, the cross section
becomes
da 1
j t^" cos 2 q> + j (z^-1 + t<"2>-1 |l - sin 2 <p sin 2
dQ 32ti 3
+ - 1 ( T (i)-' - t ( - « - ' ) sin 2 <p cos 2 (2.22)
T h e dominant contribution to light scattering is given by the mode of largest fluctuations,

i.e. of smallest rim)(q). The minima of (2.19) are found b y quadratic completion
r (±2)
(2.23)
¿2 rJ2 / /y \2 /„ \2
6 + c/2 6 + c/2 \d/(6 + c/2)
where
are the wave vectors at the minima and Zl(2> = d2/b, zl(1> = d2/(b + c/2) determine the
size of fluctuations a t these points, respectively.
F r o m an analysis of the experiments [6] one m a y conclude t h a t close to the critical
region r (±2) (g>), t(°>(0) carry the dominant fluctuations. Thus, t h e field may be decompo-
sed approximately as
« E e(0)(«i) <PiW + E («$(&) <Pi{2)eiq<x + h.c.). (2.25)
Here qfj are several vectors of length q [2] and different directions while nt- are some unit
vectors. Notice t h a t we m a y always assume <p(2) to be real by choosing appropriate di-
rections for (piX){q), <p{2)((l)- The components determine the optical unisotropy.
T h e components <pj<2> are measurable via the Bragg reflection of circularly polarized
light.
III. Free Energies of Most Important Phases
1. Cholesteric Phase
T h e cholesteric phase is characterized- by the presence of one component <pW for optical
unisotropy and another component <p(2> accounting for the selective reflection of circu-
larly polarized light. T h e quadratic free energy is easily calculated:
F2 = j [T<0)(0) 9><0)a + T<2>(<z<2>) 2<pW] = <pW + - j j (3.1)
I n the cubic invariant I 3 we have one contribution
I 3 : ®(°>3 tr (e(°)5) = ®<°>s (3.2)

1/6
224 H . KLEINERT a n d K . MAKI
and six of the type
¿3 : ^(oy2) 2 tr( £ (°)(n) e<2>(g) e<'2>(g)) = ç>(0y2>a j/-|- ||in|2 - i-j (3.3)
such that
1 . .„.
(3.4)
f 3 = 3!
The quartic invariant / 4 contains two parts: one in which each factor tr Q2 conserves
momenta separately:
/ 4 : [<p<°>2 tr (e<°>(n) £<°>(n)) + <pM2 tr (e<2>(g) e<"2'(g) + h.c.)]2 = (<p<°>2 + 2^ 2 > 2 ) 2 (3.5)
which is, of course, just the square of the quadratic invariant / 2 = Jdx tr (Q2) accom-
panying the coefficient a/2 in (3.1). The other consists of pieces where only the sum over
all four momenta vanishes with each Q2 factor having non-zero momentum which are
eight combinations of the type
q
J 4 : 9>«»y 2 ) 2 'tr (£<o)(w) e<2)(g))tr (s<°>(n) a^ 2 \q)) = <p<°>y2)2 — |Jn|4. (3.6)
Ai
Thus we have
F t = ^ [y°> 2 + %pV)2f + ,,«»y»>212|I»|«]. (3.7)
In order to simplify calculations it is convenient to introduce dimensionless quantities

(0) 6
x (21 3 y
9 = — n T ' <P{) = — " r 1 F"
2 ]/6 2 y6 K j/2
(3.8)
I T l\ "3
3 /
A 2 I o \
i/2 ;2
3
Then, after dividing out a common factor, the free energy may be written as
/CHOL = = (T + 2«) X2 + T + ^2(3 ¡in|2 - 1)
+ j K ^ + ^ + exVlinl2]- (3.9)
The discussion of this expression can follow [3]. For r large enough, the minimum at
x = 0, 9? = 0 is stable. As r decreases, the asymmetric fluctuations in x due to xy2 tend
to destabilize this minimum. The lowest energy can be achieved by maximizing the
coefficient of the cubic minimizing that of the quartic term. Both is true for4)
n || q, I•n = 0 (3.10)
Non-trivial extrema are found at
X2 - (1 - *) X + T = 0 (3.11)
4) The second statement follows form the first. Notice that for I || n, |In[2 = 1/2 such that the
coefficient of xy2 is only 1/2 as large, apart from the opposite sign.
i.e.
^ = (3.12)
and
if = 3a;2 + 4<xx. (3.13)
At the extremum, the energy is
/est = 2 ( x h - y + «T»j (3.14)
(1 - ")2
— rm
( l — a)^ — — Z^ ^ - « ) \ I1
1 4 8
= 2 ± (3.15)
' 3
from which we conclude the + sign to have the lower energy. This energy may vanish
before r reaches zero with x and y jumping to non-zero values, such that the system
undergoes a first order transition. Setting (3.14) equal to zero together with (3.11) one
finds once (eliminating the lowest powers of x)
T + <x — a 2
(3.16)
and once (eliminating the highest powers)
hi} (3.17)
T + - ! ( « - 1)
from which one obtains the boundary for a first order transition between normal and
cholesteric phase with x =j= 0, y 4= 0 as
9t 2 + 2(9« - 1) r - 3«(1 - oc)2 = 0 . (3.18)
For a. < 1, this happens precociously at r < 0 while for k > 1 the helical state is
reached continously at the second order transition line r = 0.
In the limit of large cholestericity a oo, the field component x is frozen and the energy
becomes simply
/cho! = Ty t + ^ - y * . (3.19)
-S O
This is minimal at y2 = — 4r with
/min=-2r2. (3.20)
The same behaviour is observed in the low-temperature limit at any oc as can be seen
from (3.9): For T -s- — oo, the cubic term can be dropped and the energy is, to leading order
in r, symmetric in x and y
f^r(x* +y*) + t/2)2. (3.21)

226 H. Kleinert and K. Maki
Notice that if we had started out with several components the energy (3.9) would
have turned each nf vector parallel to q such that, effectively, only a single field <p<°> sur-
vives.
It should be mentioned that the whole discussion based on truncating the free energy
after the quartic term is consistent only for sufficiently small A3
(3-22)
in which case the transition is almost of second order. For, consider some left-out terms
of fifth and higher order in the free energy:
Fs = ^ J dx tr m + ... i i J dx tr (Qn) + - . (3.23)
They would contribute, in the dimensionless form,
1 1 I I 4 K, to
Since X„ will, in general, be of the order of a 0 _ ( n " 4 ) / 2 î such higher terms can be neglected
only under the condition (3.22). Experimentally (3.22) does seem to be true since in the
transitions are very weakly of first order with all observed latent heats being extremely
small compared to the condensation energy away from the transition point. The lines
Fig. 1
of equal energy as a function of a, r and are shown in Fig. 1. Since <p<°> and <p<2> determine
optical anisotropy and reflection of circularly polarized light, respectively, we have also
displayed the corresponding contour plots for x and y (see Figs. 2 and 3).
a=cho/esfericity
Fig. 2
2. Hexagonal Phase
This phase is characterized by the presence of one 9?<°>(n) and three components <p{2)(qi)
with the momentum vectors ql3 q2, q3 forming a single triangle. I n order to calculate the
different contributions to the free energy we choose the directions
= &
¿ 2 = — | + (3.25)
* J p
2 :
The polarization vectors i; may then be taken as
J_
= _L (y + iz) e^ 1 ' 2 (3.26)
y!
228 H. Kleinert and K. Maki
10
a - cholestericity
Fig. 3
gin/2
1/2
= J _ / V i u _ i if + is I e^' 2
l/2 \ 2 2
Note that the chirality of all vectors has to be the same i.e. l r = Re I, V = Im I, and q
have to form a positively oriented triped.
The quadratic energy now reads
(3.27)
I n the cubic invariant there is again the term (3.2) plus six terms (3.3), one for each
momentum
(3.28)
In addition, there may be the six triangular contributions

< 3 )
h-cpi< W 3 tr (eW(qi) e (2, (9 2 ) «(2)(93) + o.c.)
= V i ^ W W ^ W i h ) (hh) (Ml) + 0.0.] (3.29)
coming from 3 ! permutations and a total reversal of all momentum lines. Let n have
the components
n = [nx, nv, n,) = sin 6 (cos ydb + sin <pij) + cos 6z. (3.30)
For symmetry reasons we shall assume all <pj<2> to be the same. Then the sum over i in
(3.28) can be performed
47 (llitil» - j j = | (n/ + V + 2n, s ) - 1 = J - J sin2 6. (3.31)
For the evaluation of (3.29) we notice that
(i ; i.) = - L e^'+rW (3.32)
such that (3.29) becomes
-Vi2)3 6 (I")3 2 • cos (yi + y * + n ) • (3-33)
Consider now the quartic invariant / 4 . There is again the square of / 2 :

I * = ^(0) 2 + 2 £ fo,«»2 + 6<p&2). (3.34)
The eight combinations (3.6) have to be taken now for each momentum qi resulting in
14, •
' i^ 0 ' 2 £ 9?i<2)2 ('¡w) 4 • (3.35)
Inserting the ij vectors we find
E I W = + j ( W + V n ** + n?n*2)
= + j sin 2 6 sin2 2<p sin 2 0 + cos 2 6»j. (3.36)
Contrary to the cholesteric phase there may now be contributions linear in <p<°> and cubic
in (p{2) with the three momenta forming a triangle. They are of the form
I i : < p < ° W 2 W 2 W 2 ) [ t r {e { 0 ) (n) s ( 2 , (9i)) tr ( e ' 2 ' ^ ) ^ ' ( « M + c.c. + 2 cyclic permutations].
(3.37)
There are eight of them corresponding to the 24 = 4 ! permutation of the four polari-
zation tensors, apart from the complex conjugate. Inserting the explicit forms we see that
tr ( e «>(») e <2 )( $.)) = j / | (J iW ) 2 e*»
tr (s<»>(&)*<*>(&)) = (Ifa) 2 e«* + »>.
With the symmetric Ansatz of all <p¿<2> being equal, (3.37) leads to
Z4: < y 2 > 3 (I")' J («x2 + V - 2w22) • 2 cos (y, + y 2 + y 3 ) (3.38)

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There are many features and incidents in Mr. Grady’s life that
cannot be properly treated in this hurriedly written and altogether
inadequate sketch. His versatility was such that it would be difficult,
even in a deliberately written biography, to deal with its
manifestations and results as they deserve to be dealt with. At the
North, the cry is, who shall take his place as a peacemaker? At the
South, who shall take his place as a leader, as an orator, and as a
peacemaker? In Atlanta, who shall take his place as all of these, and
as a builder-up of our interests, our enterprises, and our industries!
Who is to make for us the happy and timely suggestion? Who is to
speak the right word at the right time! The loss the country has
sustained in Mr. Grady’s death can only be measurably estimated
when we examine one by one the manifold relations he bore to the
people.
I have spoken of the power of organization that he possessed.
There is hardly a public enterprise in Georgia or in Atlanta—begun
and completed since 1880—that does not bear witness to his ability,
his energy, and his unselfishness. His busy brain and prompt hand
were behind the great cotton exposition held in Atlanta in 1881. Late
in the spring of 1887, one of the editorial writers of the Constitution
remarked that the next fair held in Atlanta should be called the
Piedmont Exposition. “That shall be its name,” said Mr. Grady, “and it
will be held this fall.” That was the origin of the Piedmont Exposition.
Within a month the exposition company had been organized, the
land bought, and work on the grounds begun. It seemed to be a
hopeless undertaking—there was so much to be done, and so little
time to do it in. But Mr, Grady was equal to the emergency. He so
infused the town with his own energy and enthusiasm that every
citizen came to regard the exposition as a personal matter, and the
Constitution hammered away at it with characteristic iteration. There
was not a detail of the great show from beginning to end that was not
of Mr. Grady’s suggestion. When it seemed to him that he was taking
too prominent a part in the management, he would send for other
members of the fair committee, pour his suggestions into their ears,
and thus evade the notoriety of introducing them himself and prevent
the possible friction that might be caused if he made himself too
prominent. He understood human nature perfectly, and knew how to
manage men.
The exposition was organized and the grounds made ready in an
incredibly short time, and the fair was the most successful in every
respect that has ever been held in the South. Its attractions, which
were all suggested by Mr. Grady, appealed either to the interest or
the curiosity of the people, and the result was something wonderful.
It is to be very much doubted whether any one in this country, in time
of peace, has seen an assemblage of such vast and overwhelming
proportions as that which gathered in Atlanta on the principal day of
the fair. Two years later, the Piedmont Exposition was reorganized,
and Mr. Grady once more had practical charge of all the details. The
result was an exhibition quite as attractive as the first, to which the
people responded as promptly as before. The Exposition Company
cleared something over $20,000, a result unprecedented in the
history of Southern fairs.
In the interval of the two fairs, Mr. Grady organized the Piedmont
Chautauqua at a little station on the Georgia Pacific road, twenty
miles from Atlanta. Beautiful grounds were laid out and commodious
buildings put up. In all this work Mr. Grady took the most profound
interest. The intellectual and educational features of such an
institution appealed strongly to his tastes and sympathies, and to
that active missionary spirit which impelled him to be continually on
the alert in behalf of humanity. He expended a good deal of energy
on the Chautauqua and on the programme of exercises, but the
people did not respond heartily, and the session was not a financial
success. And yet there never was a Chautauqua assembly that had
a richer and a more popular programme of exercises. The
conception was a success intellectually, and it will finally grow into a
success in other directions. Mr. Grady, with his usual unselfishness,
insisted on bearing the expenses of the lecturers and others, though
it crippled him financially to do so. He desired to protect the
capitalists who went into the enterprise on his account, and, as is
usual in such cases, the capitalists were perfectly willing to be
protected. Mr. Grady was of the opinion that his experience with the
Chautauqua business gave him a deeper and a richer knowledge of
human nature than he had ever had before.
One morning Mr. Grady saw in a New York newspaper that a
gentleman from Texas was in that city making a somewhat
unsuccessful effort to raise funds for a Confederate veterans’ home.
The comments of the newspaper were not wholly unfriendly, but
something in their tone stirred Mr. Grady’s blood. “I will show them,”
he said, “what can be done in Georgia,” and with that he turned to
his stenographer and dictated a double-leaded editorial that stirred
the State from one end to the other. He followed it up the next day,
and immediately subscriptions began to flow in. He never suffered
interest in the project to flag until sufficient funds for a comfortable
home for the Confederate veterans had been raised.
Previously, he had organized a movement for putting up a building
for the Young Men’s Christian Association, and that building now
stands a monument to his earnestness and unselfishness. Years
ago, shortly after he came to Atlanta, he took hold of the Young
Men’s Library, which was in a languishing condition, and put it on its
feet. It was hard work, for he was comparatively unknown then.
Among other things, he organized a lecture course for the benefit of
the library, and he brought some distinguished lecturers to Atlanta—
among others the late S. S. Cox. Mr. Cox telegraphed from New York
that he would come to Atlanta, and also the subject of the lecture, so
that it could be properly advertised. The telegram said that the title of
the lecture was “Just Human,” and large posters, bearing that title,
were placed on the bill-boards and distributed around town. As Mr.
Grady said, “the town broke into a profuse perspiration of placards
bearing the strange device, while wrinkles gathered on the brow of
the public intellect and knotted themselves hopelessly as it pondered
over what might be the elucidation of such a strangely-named
subject. At last,” Mr. Grady goes on to say, “the lecturer came, and a
pleasant little gentleman he was, who beguiled the walk to the hotel
with the airiest of jokes and the brightest of comment. At length,
when he had registered his name in the untutored chirography of the
great, he took me to one side, and asked in an undertone what those
placards meant.”
“That,” I replied, looking at him in astonishment, “is the subject of
your lecture.”
“‘My lecture!’ he shrieked, ‘whose lecture? What lecture? My
subject! Whose subject? Why, sir,’ said he, trying to control himself,
‘my subject is ‘Irish Humor,’ while this is ‘Just Human,’ and he put on
his spectacles and glared into space as if he were determined to
wring from that source some solution of this cruel joke.”
By an error of transmission, “Irish Humor” had become “Just
Human.” Mr. Grady does not relate the sequel, but what followed
was as characteristic of him as anything in his unique career.
“Well,” said he, turning to Mr. Cox, his bright eyes full of laughter,
“you stick to your subject, and I’ll take this ready-made one; you
lecture on ‘Irish Humor’ and I’ll lecture on ‘Just Human.’”
And he did. He took the telegraphic error for a subject, and
delivered in Atlanta one of the most beautiful lectures ever heard
here. There was humor in it and laughter, but he handled his theme
with such grace and tenderness that the vast audience that sat
entranced under his magnetic oratory went home in tears.
The lecture course that Mr. Grady instituted was never followed
up, although it was a successful one. It was his way, when he had
organized an enterprise and placed it on its feet, to turn his attention
to something else. Sometimes his successors were equal to the
emergency, and sometimes they were not. The Young Men’s Library
has been in good hands, and it is what may be termed a successful
institution, but it is not what it was when Mr. Grady was booming the
town in its behalf. When he put his hand to any enterprise or to any
movement the effect seemed to be magical. It was not his personal
influence, for there were some enterprises beyond the range of that,
that responded promptly to his touch. It was not his enthusiasm, for
there have been thousands of men quite as enthusiastic. Was it his
methods? Perhaps the secret lies hidden there; but I have often
thought, while witnessing the results he brought about, that he had at
his command some new element, or quality, or gift not vouchsafed to
other men. Whatever it was, he employed it only for the good of his
city, his State, his section, and his country. His patriotism was as
prominent and as permanent as his unselfishness. His public spirit
was unbounded, and, above all things, restless and eager.
I have mentioned only a few of the more important enterprises in
Atlanta that owe their success to Mr. Grady. He was identified with
every public movement that took shape in Atlanta, and the people
were always sure that his interest and his influence were on the side
of honesty and justice. But his energies took a wider range. He was
the very embodiment of the spirit that he aptly named “the New
South,”—the New South that, reverently remembering and emulating
the virtues of the old, and striving to forget the bitterness of the past,
turns its face to the future and seeks to adapt itself to the conditions
with which an unsuccessful struggle has environed it, and to turn
them to its profit. Of the New South Mr. Grady was the prophet, if not
the pioneer. He was never tired of preaching about the rehabilitation
of his section. Much of the marvelous development that has taken
place in the South during the past ten years has been due to his
eager and persistent efforts to call the attention of the world to her
vast resources. In his newspaper, in his speeches, in his
contributions to Northern periodicals, this was his theme. No industry
was too small to command his attention and his aid, and none were
larger than his expectations. His was the pen that first drew attention
to the iron fields of Alabama, and to the wonderful marble beds and
mineral wealth of Georgia. Other writers had preceded him, perhaps,
but it is due to his unique methods of advertising that the material
resources of the two States are in their present stage of
development. He had no individual interest in the development of the
material wealth of the South. During the past ten years there was not
a day when he was alive that he could not have made thousands of
dollars by placing his pen at the disposal of men interested in
speculative schemes. He had hundreds of opportunities to write
himself rich, but he never fell below the high level of unselfishness
that marked his career as boy and man.
There was no limit to his interest in Southern development. The
development of the hidden wealth of the hills and valleys, while it
appealed strongly to an imagination that had its practical and
common-sense side, but not more strongly than the desperate
struggle of the farmers of the South in their efforts to recover from
the disastrous results of the war while facing new problems of labor
and conditions wholly strange. Mr. Grady gave them the
encouragement of his voice and pen, striving to teach them the
lessons of hope and patience. He was something more than an
optimist. He was the embodiment, the very essence, as it seemed—
of that smiling faith in the future that brings happiness and
contentment, and he had the faculty of imparting his faith to other
people. For him the sun was always shining, and he tried to make it
shine for other men. At one period, when the farmers of Georgia
seemed to be in despair, and while there was a notable movement
from this State to Georgia, Mr. Grady caused the correspondents of
the Constitution to make an investigation into the agricultural
situation in Georgia. The result was highly gratifying in every respect.
The correspondents did their work well, as, indeed, they could hardly
fail to do under the instructions of Mr. Grady. The farmers who had
been despondent took heart, and from that time to the present there
has been a steady improvement in the status of agriculture in
Georgia.
It would be difficult to describe or to give an adequate idea of the
work—remarkable in its extent as well as in its character—that Mr.
Grady did for Georgia and for the South. It was his keen and hopeful
eyes that first saw the fortunes that were to be made in Florida
oranges. He wrote for the Constitution in 1877 a series of glowing
letters that were full of predictions and figures based on them. The
matter was so new at that time, and Mr. Grady’s predictions and
estimates seemed to be so extravagant, that some of the editors,
irritated by his optimism, as well as by his success as a journalist,
alluded to his figures as “Grady’s facts,” and this expression had
quite a vogue, even among those who were not unfriendly.
Nevertheless there is not a prediction to be found in Mr. Grady’s
Florida letters that has not been fulfilled, and his figures appear to be
tame enough when compared with the real results that have been
brought about by the orange-growers. Long afterwards he alluded
publicly to “Grady’s facts,” accepted its application, and said he was
proud that his facts always turned out to be facts.
It would be impossible to enumerate the practical subjects with
which Mr. Grady dealt in the Constitution. In the editorial rooms he
was continually suggesting the exhaustive treatment of some matter
of real public interest, and in the majority of instances, after making
the suggestion to one of his writers, he would treat the subject
himself in his own inimitable style. His pleasure trips were often
itineraries in behalf of the section he was visiting. He went on a
pleasure trip to Southern Georgia on one occasion, and here are the
headlines of a few of the letters he sent back: “Berries and Politics,”
“The Savings of the Georgia Farmers,” “The Largest Strawberry
Farm in the State,” “A Wandering Bee, and How it Made the LeConte
Pear,” “The Turpentine Industries.” All these are suggestive. Each
letter bore some definite relation to the development of the resources
of the State.
To Mr. Grady, more than to any other man, is due the development
of the truck gardens and watermelon farms of southern and
southwest Georgia. When he advised in the Constitution the planting
of watermelons for shipment to the North, the proposition was
hooted at by some of the rival editors, but he “boomed” the business,
as the phrase is, and to-day the watermelon business is an
established industry, and thousands of farmers are making money
during what would otherwise be a dull season of the year. And so
with hundreds of other things. His suggestions were always
practicable, though they were sometimes so unique as to invite the
criticism of the thoughtless, and they were always for the benefit of
others—for the benefit of the people. How few men, even though
they live to a ripe old age, leave behind them such a record of
usefulness and unselfish devotion as that of this man, who died
before his prime!
VII.
Mr. Grady’s editorial methods were as unique as all his other

methods. They can be described, but they cannot be explained. He
had an instinctive knowledge of news in its embryonic state; he
seemed to know just where and when a sensation or a startling
piece of information would develop itself, and he was always ready
for it. Sometimes it seemed to grow and develop under his hands,
and his insight and information were such that what appeared to be
an ordinary news item would suddenly become, under his
manipulation and interpretation, of the first importance. It was this
faculty that enabled him to make the Constitution one of the leading
journals of the country in its method of gathering and treating the
news.
Mr. Grady was not as fond of the editorial page as might be
supposed. Editorials were very well in their way—capital in an
emergency—admirable when a nail was to be clinched, so to speak
—but most important of all to his mind was the news and the
treatment of it. The whirl of events was never too rapid for him. The
most startling developments, the most unexpected happenings,
always found him ready to deal with them instantly and in just the
right way.
He magnified the office of reporting, and he had a great fancy for it
himself. There are hundreds of instances where he voluntarily
assumed the duties of a reporter after he became managing editor. A
case in point is the work he did on the occasion of the Charleston
earthquake. The morning after that catastrophe he was on his way to
Charleston. He took a reporter with him, but he preferred to do most
of the work. His graphic descriptions of the disaster in all its phases
—his picturesque grouping of all the details—were the perfection of
reporting, and were copied all over the country. The reporter who
accompanied Mr. Grady had a wonderful tale to tell on his return. To
the people of that desolate town, the young Georgian seemed to
carry light and hope. Hundreds of citizens were encamped on the
streets. Mr. Grady visited these camps, and his sympathetic humor
brought a smile to many a sad face. He went from house to house,
and from encampment to encampment, wrote two or three columns
of telegraphic matter on his knee, went to his room in the hotel in the
early hours of morning, fell on the bed with his clothes on, and in a
moment was sound asleep. The reporter never knew the amount of
work Mr. Grady had done until he saw it spread out in the columns of
the Constitution. Working at high-pressure there was hardly a limit to
the amount of copy Mr. Grady could produce in a given time, and it
sometimes happened that he dictated an editorial to his
stenographer while writing a news article.
He did a good deal of his more leisurely newspaper work at home,
with his wife and children around him. He never wrote on a table or
desk, but used a lapboard or a pad, leaning back in his chair with his
feet as high as his head. His house was always a centre of
attraction, and when visitors came in Mrs. Grady used to tell them
that they needn’t mind Henry. The only thing that disturbed him on
such occasions was when the people in the room conversed in a
tone so low that he failed to hear what they were saying. When this
happened he would look up from his writing with a quick “What’s
that?” This often happened in the editorial rooms, and he would
frequently write while taking part in a conversation, never losing the
thread of his article or of the talk.
As I have said, he reserved his editorials for occasions or
emergencies, and it was then that his luminous style showed at its
best. He employed always the apt phrase; he was, in fact a phrase-
builder. His gift of expression was something marvelous, and there
was something melodious and fluent about his more deliberate
editorials that suggested the movement of verse. I was reading
awhile ago his editorial appealing to the people of Atlanta on the cold
Christmas morning which has already been alluded to in this sketch.
It is short—not longer than the pencil with which he wrote it, but
there is that about it calculated to stir the blood, even now. Above
any other man I have ever known Mr. Grady possessed the faculty of
imparting his personal magnetism to cold type; and even such a
statement as this is an inadequate explanation of the swift and
powerful effect that his writings had on the public mind.
He had a keen eye for what, in a general way, may be called
climaxes. Thus he was content to see the daily Constitution run
soberly and sedately along during the week if it developed into a
great paper on Sunday. He did more editorial work for the Sunday
paper than for any other issue, and bent all his energies toward
making an impression on that day. There was nothing about the
details of the paper that he did not thoroughly understand. He knew
more about the effects of type combinations than the printers did; he
knew as much about the business department as the business
manager; and he could secure more advertisements in three hours
than his advertising clerks could solicit in a week. It used to be said
of him that he lacked the business faculty. I suppose the remark was
based on the fact that, in the midst of all the tremendous booms he
stirred up, and the enterprises he fostered, he remained
comparatively poor. I think he purposely neglected the opportunities
for private gain that were offered him. There can be no more doubt
of his business qualification than there can be of the fact that he
neglected opportunities for private gain; but his business faculties
were given to the service of the public—witness his faultless
management of two of the greatest expositions ever held in the
South. Had he served his own interests one-half as earnestly as he
served those of the people, he would have been a millionaire. As it
was, he died comparatively poor.
Mr. Grady took great pride in the Weekly Constitution, and that
paper stands to-day a monument to his business faculty and to his
wonderful methods of management. When Mr. Grady took hold of
the weekly edition, it had about seven thousand subscribers, and his
partners thought that the field would be covered when the list
reached ten thousand. To-day the list of subscribers is not far below
two hundred thousand, and is larger than that of the weekly edition
of any other American newspaper. Just how this result has been
brought about it is impossible to say. His methods were not
mysterious, perhaps, but they did not lie on the surface. The weekly
editions of newspapers that have reached large circulations depend
on some specialty—as, for instance, the Detroit Free Press with the
popular sketches of M. Quad, and the Toledo Blade, with the
rancorous, but still popular, letters of Petroleum V. Nasby. The
Weekly Constitution has never depended on such things. It has had,
and still has, the letters of Bill Arp, of Sarge Wier, and of Betsey
Hamilton, homely humorists all, but Mr. Grady took great pains never
to magnify these things into specialties. Contributions that his
assistants thought would do for the weekly, Mr. Grady would cut out
relentlessly.
It sometimes happened that subscribers would begin to fall off.
Then Mr. Grady would send for the manager of the weekly
department, and proceed to caucus with him, as the young men
around the office termed the conference. During the next few days
there would be a great stir in the weekly department, and in the
course of a fortnight the list of subscribers would begin to grow
again. Once, when talking about the weekly, Mr. Grady remarked in
a jocular way that when subscriptions began to flow in at the rate of
two thousand a day, he wanted to die. Singularly enough, when he
was returning from Boston, having been seized with the sickness
that was so soon to carry him off, the business manager telegraphed
him that more than two thousand subscribers had been received the
day before.
In the midst of the manifold duties and responsibilities that he had
cheerfully taken on his shoulders, there came to Mr. Grady an ardent
desire to aid in the reconciliation of the North and South, and to bring
about a better understanding between them. This desire rapidly grew
into a fixed and solemn purpose. His first opportunity was an
invitation to the banquet of the New England Society, which he
accepted with great hesitation. The wonderful effect of his speech at
that banquet, and the tremendous response of applause and
approval that came to him from all parts of the country, assured him
that he had touched the key-note of the situation, and he knew then
that his real mission was that of Pacificator. There was a change in
him from that time forth, though it was a change visible only to
friendly and watchful eyes. He put away something of his
boyishness, and became, as it seemed, a trifle more thoughtful. His
purpose developed into a mission, and grew in his mind, and shone
in his eyes, and remained with him day and night. He made many
speeches after that, frequently in little out-of-the-way country places,
but all of them had a national significance and national bearing. He
was preaching the sentiments of harmony, fraternity, and good will to
the South as well as to the North.
He prepared his Boston speech with great care, not merely to
perfect its form, but to make it worthy of the great cause he had at
heart, and in its preparation he departed widely from his usual
methods of composition. He sent his servants away, locked himself
in Mrs. Grady’s room, and would not tolerate interruptions from any
source. His memory was so prodigious that whatever he wrote was
fixed in his mind, so that when he had once written out a speech, he
needed the manuscript no more. Those who were with him say that
he did not confine himself to the printed text of the Boston speech,
but made little excursions suggested by his surroundings.
Nevertheless, that speech, as it stands, reaches the high-water mark
of modern oratory. It was his last, as it was his best, contribution to
the higher politics of the country—the politics that are above
partisanry and self-seeking.
VIII.
From Boston Mr. Grady came home to die. It was known that he
was critically ill, but his own life had been so hopeful and so bright,
that when the announcement of his death was made the people of
Atlanta were paralyzed, and the whole country shocked. It was a
catastrophe so sudden and so far-reaching that even sorrow stood
dumb for a while. The effects of such a calamity were greater than
sorrow could conceive or affection contemplate. Men who had only a
passing acquaintance with him wept when they heard of his death.
Laboring men spoke of him with trembling lips and tearful eyes, and
working-women went to their tasks in the morning crying bitterly.
Never again will there come to Atlanta a calamity that shall so
profoundly touch the hearts of the people—that shall so encompass
the town with the spirit of mourning.
I feel that I have been unable, in this hastily written sketch, to do
justice to the memory of this remarkable man. I have found it
impossible to describe his marvelous gifts, his wonderful versatility,
or the genius that set him apart from other men. The new
generations that arise will bring with them men who will be fitted to
meet the emergencies that may arise, men fitted to rule and capable
of touching the popular heart; but no generation will ever produce a
genius so versatile, a nature so rare and so sweet, a character so
perfect and beautiful, a heart so unselfish, and a mind of such power
and vigor, as those that combined to form the unique personality of
Henry W. Grady. Never again, it is to be feared, will the South have
such a wise and devoted leader, or sectional unity so brilliant a
champion, or the country so ardent a lover, or humanity so unselfish
a friend, or the cause of the people so eloquent an advocate.
MEMORIAL OF HENRY W. GRADY.
Prepared by Marion J. Verdery, at the Request of the New

York Southern Society.
H ENRY WOODFIN GRADY was born in Athens, Georgia, May 17,

1851, and died in Atlanta, Georgia, December 23, 1889.
His father, William S. Grady, was a native of North Carolina, and
lived in that State until about the year 1846, when he moved to
Athens, Georgia. He was a man of vigorous energy, sterling integrity,
and great independence of character. He was not literary by
profession, but devoted himself to mercantile pursuits, and
accumulated what was in those days considered a handsome
fortune. Soon after moving to Georgia to live, he married Miss
Gartrell, a woman of rare strength of character and deep religious
nature. Their married life was sanctified by love of God, and made
happy by a consistent devotion to each other.
They had three children, Henry Woodfin, William S., Jr., and
Martha. Henry Grady’s father was an early volunteer in the
Confederate Army. He organized and equipped a company, of which
he was unanimously elected captain, and went at once to Virginia,
where he continued in active service until he lost his life in one of the
battles before Petersburg. During his career as a soldier he bore
himself with such conspicuous valor, that he was accorded the rare
distinction of promotion on the field for gallantry.
He fought in defense of his convictions, and fell “a martyr for
conscience’ sake.”
His widow, bereft of her helpmate, faced alone the grave
responsibility of rearing her three young children.
She led them in the ways of righteousness and truth, and always
sweetened their lives with the tenderness of indulgence, and the
beauty of devotion. Two of them still live to call her blessed.
If memorials were meant only for the day and generation in which
they are written, who would venture upon the task of preparing one
to Henry W. Grady? His death occasioned such wide grief, and
induced such unprecedented demonstrations of sorrow, that nothing
can be commensurate with those impressive evidences of the
unrivaled place he held in the homage of his countrymen.
No written memorial can indicate the strong hold he had upon the
Southern people, nor portray that peerless personality which gave
him his marvelous power among men. He had a matchless grace of
soul that made him an unfailing winner of hearts. His translucent
mind pulsated with the light of truth and beautified all thought. He
grew flowers in the garden of his heart and sweetened the world with
the perfume of his spirit. His endowments were so superior, and his
purposes so unselfish, that he seemed to combine all the best
elements of genius, and live under the influence of Divine inspiration.
As both a writer and a speaker, he was phenomenally gifted.
There was no limit, either to the power or witchery of his pen. In his
masterful hand, it was as he chose, either the mighty instrument
which Richelieu described, or the light wand of a poet striking off the
melody of song, though not to the music of rhyme. In writing a
political editorial, or an article on the industrial development of the
South, or anything else to which he was moved by an inspiring
sense of patriotism or conviction of duty, he was logical, aggressive,
and unanswerable. When building an air-castle over the framework
of his fancy, or when pouring out his soul in some romantic dream, or
when sounding the depth of human feeling by an appeal for Charity’s
sake, his command of language was as boundless as the realm of
thought, his ideas as beautiful as pictures in the sky, and his pathos
as deep as the well of tears. As an orator, he had no equal in the
South. He literally mastered his audience regardless of their
character, chaining them to the train of his thought and carrying them
captive to conviction. He moved upon their souls like the Divine Spirit
upon the waters, either lashing them into storms of enthusiasm, or
stilling them into the restful quiet of sympathy. He was like no other
man—he was a veritable magician. He could invest the most trifling
thing with proportions of importance not at all its own. He could
transform a homely thought into an expression of beauty beneath his
wondrous touch. From earliest childhood he possessed that
indefinable quality which compels hero-worship.
In the untimely ending of his brilliant and useful career—an ending
too sudden to be called less than tragic—there came an affliction as
broad as the land he loved, and a grief well-nigh universal. Atlanta
lamented her foremost citizen; Georgia mourned her peerless son;
the New South agonized over the fall of her intrepid leader; and the
heart of the nation was athrob with sorrow when the announcement
went forth—“Henry W. Grady is dead.”
The power of his personality, the vital force of his energy, and the
scope of his genius, had always precluded the thought that death
could touch him, and hence, when he fell a victim to the dread
destroyer, there was a terrible shock felt, and sorrow rolled like a
tempest over the souls of the Southern people.
The swift race he ran, and the lofty heights he attained,
harmonized well with God’s munificent endowment of him. In every
field that he labored, his achievements were so wonderful, that a
faithful account of his career sounds more like the extravagance of
eulogy, than like a record of truth. Of his very early boyhood no
account is essential to the purposes of this sketch. It is unnecessary
to give any details of him prior to the time when he was a student in
the University of Georgia, at Athens. From that institution he was
graduated in 1868.
During his college days, he was a boy of bounding spirit, who, by
an inexplicable power over his associates, made for himself an
unchallenged leadership in all things with which he concerned
himself. He was not a close student. He never studied his text-books
more than was necessary to guarantee his rising from class to class,
and to finally secure his diploma. He had no fondness for any
department of learning except belles-lettres. In that branch of study
he stood well, simply because it was to his liking. The sciences,
especially mathematics, were really distasteful to him. He was an
omnivorous reader. Every character of Dickens was as familiar to
him as a personal friend. That great novelist was his favorite author.
He read widely of history, and had a great memory for dates and
events. He reveled in poetry as a pastime, but never found anything
that delighted him more than “Lucile.” He learned that love-song
literally by heart.
While at college his best intellectual efforts were made in his
literary and debating society. He aspired to be anniversarian of his
society, and his election seemed a foregone conclusion. He was,
however, over-confident of success in the last days of the canvass,
and when the election came off was beaten by one vote. This was
his first disappointment, and went hard with him. He could not bring
himself to understand how anything toward the accomplishment of
which he had bent his energy could fail. His defeat proved a blessing
in disguise, for the following year a place of higher honor, namely
that of “commencement orator” was instituted at the University, and
to that he was elected by acclamation. This was the year of his
graduation, and the speech he made was the sensation of
commencement. His subject was “Castles in Air,” and in the
treatment of his poetic theme he reveled in that wonderful power of
word painting for which he afterwards became so famous. Even in
those early days, he wrote and spoke with a fluency of expression,
and brilliancy of fancy, that were incomparable.
In all the relations of college life he was universally popular. He
had a real genius for putting himself en rapport with all sorts and
conditions of men. His sympathy was quick-flowing and kind. Any
sight or story of suffering would touch his heart and make the tears
come. His generosity, like a great river, ran in ceaseless flow and
broadening course toward the wide ocean of humanity. He lived in
the realization of its being “more blessed to give than to receive.” He
never stopped to consider the worthiness of an object, but insisted
that a man was entitled to some form of selfishness, and said his
was the self-indulgence which he experienced in giving.
There was an old woman in Athens, who was a typical
professional beggar. She wore out everybody’s charity except
Grady’s. He never tired helping her. One day he said, just after
giving her some money, “I do hope old Jane will not die as long as I
live in Athens. If she does, my most unfailing privilege of charity will
be cut off.” A princely liberality marked everything he did. His name
never reduced the average of a subscription list, but eight times out
of ten it was down for the largest amount.
By his marked individuality of character, and evidences of genius,
even as a boy he impressed himself upon all those with whom he
came in contact.
Immediately after his graduation at Athens, he went to the
University of Virginia, not so much with a determination to broaden
his scholastic attainments, as with the idea that in that famous
institution he would be inspired to a higher cultivation of his inborn
eloquence. From the day he entered the University of Virginia, he
had only one ambition, and that was to be “society orator.” He made
such a profound impression in the Washington Society that his right
to the honor he craved was scarcely disputed. In the public debates,
he swept all competitors before him. About two weeks before the
Society’s election of its orator, he had routed every other aspirant
from the field, and it seemed he would be unanimously chosen.
However, when election day came, that same over-confidence which
cost him defeat at Athens lost him victory at Charlottesville. This
disappointment nearly broke his heart. He came back home
crestfallen and dispirited, and but for the wonderful buoyancy of his
nature, he might have succumbed permanently to the severe blow
which had been struck at his youthful aspirations and hopes.
It was not long after his return to Georgia before he determined to
make journalism his life-work. At once he began writing newspaper
letters on all sorts of subjects, trusting to his genius to give interest to
purely fanciful topics, which had not the slightest flavor of news.
Having thus felt his way out into the field of his adoption, he soon
went regularly into newspaper business.
Just about this time, and before he had attained his majority, he
married Miss Julia King, of Athens. She was the first sweetheart of
his boyhood, and kept that hallowed place always. Her beauty and
grace of person, united to her charms of character, made her the
queen of his life and the idol of his love. She, with two children (a
boy and girl), survive him.
In his domestic life he was tender and indulgent to his family, and
generously hospitable to his friends. The very best side of him was
always turned toward his hearthstone, and there he dispensed the
richest treasures of his soul. His home was his castle, and in it his
friends were always made happy by the benediction of his welcome.
Soon after marriage he moved to Rome, Georgia, and established
himself in the joint ownership, and editorial management of the
Rome Commercial, which paper, instead of prospering, was soon
enveloped in bankruptcy, costing Mr. Grady many thousands of
dollars. Shortly after this he moved to Atlanta, and formed a
partnership with Col. Robert Alliston in founding the Atlanta Herald.
The conduct of that paper was a revelation in Georgia journalism.
Grady and Alliston combined probably more genius than any two
men who have ever owned a paper together in that State. They
made the columns of the Herald luminous. They also put into it more
push and enterprise than had ever been known in that section. They
sacrificed everything to daily triumph, regardless of cost or
consequences. They went so far as to charter an engine in order that
they might put their morning edition in Macon, Georgia, by breakfast
time. This was a feat never before dreamed of in Georgia. They
accomplished the unprecedented undertaking, but in doing that, and
other things of unwarranted extravagance, it was not long before the
Atlanta Herald went “lock, stock and barrel,” into the wide-open arms
of the Sheriff. In this venture Mr. Grady not only sunk all of his
personal fortune which remained after the Rome wreck, but involved
himself considerably in debt. Thus at twenty-three years of age, he
was a victim to disappointment in the only two pronounced ambitions

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Fortschritte der Physik Progress of

Physics Band 29 Heft 5

Fortschritte der Physik Progress of Physics Band 29

Fortschritte der Physik Progress of Physics Band 29

Fortschritte der Physik Progress of Physics Band 29

Fortschritte der Physik Progress of Physics Band 29

Fortschritte der Physik Progress of Physics Band 29

Albrecht Thaer Archiv Band 5 Heft 5

Archiv für Landtechnik Band 5 Heft 2

Albrecht Thaer Archiv Band 6 Heft 5

VON F. KASCHLUHN, A. LÖSCHE, R. RITSCHL UND R. ROMPE

31728 EVP 1 0 , - M ISSN 0 0 1 5 - 8 2 0 8

Bestellungen sind zu richten

Zeitschrift „Fortschritte der Physik 14

Quantum Electrodynamics in Curved Space-Time

1 Zeitschrift „Fortschritte der Physik", Bd. 29, Heft 5

1. Lagrangian and Representation Picture

Let us consider spinor electrodynamics in curved space-time.The Lagrangian fields

Here is Lagrangian of a free spinor field:

Jf 2 is Lagrangian of a free electromagnetic field in the Lorentz gauge:

The following equations of motion are taken from Lagrangian (1.4)

iy"(x) — mip(x) = ey^{x) f(x) A^x)

iD/Jji(x) y^(x) + myi(x) = —eyj(x) y^(x) A^x) (5)

ip(x) — S{a, <70) y>(x) S-^o, a0)

f {x) = S(a, a0) yi(x) S'^a, cr0)

8(a, <r0) = T exp j i f ^ i n t ( x ) d ' x J . (9)

2. Free Spinor Field

iy^x) D^ip{x) — mip(x) = 0

2 ) Let us give the definition of the derivative on the surface

8F\a] lim JK] - Fjal Av = i-g(x) Ax0 Ax1 Ax2 Ax3

(<Pi, <P2)c = / I a) y(x) <p2{x | a) dopipe), (12)

V(x I <*i) = L M i n ) +<Pp(x I + V ( i n ) -Vpi* I °i)l • (14)

(a p (in), «y (in)} = {«„(in), 6p-(in)) = {«„(in), 6;,(in)) = {¿„(in), &„<(in)} = 0.

{a,(out), «¿(out)} = {6?(out), 6+.(out)} = ôqq- (18)

{a,(out), gy(out)) = {«g(out), -(out)} = (a ? (out), 6+.(out)} == {6,(out), ¿y(out)} = 0.

«„(in) |0)in = 6„(in) |0>in = 0 V p,

the original Hilbert space have the form

(iyx(x) Dxm - m) G(x, x') = 0

G(x, x') y^(x') + mG{x, x') = 0 ,

and the boundary condition

(G(x, x') yl(x')) ab n^x') = idabda(x, x'),

G(x, x') = £ <pn(x) (pn(x').

Let in relations (21) be a; € a 2 and a = a l t then:

y){x | a2) = j G{x, x') yf{x') y{x' \ fft) da^x').

a(out) = G(+1+) a{in) + G(+|_) ¿>+(in)

6 + (out) = G("|+) « M + G("|_) 6 + (in)

a (out) = a (in) G( 1 ) + 6(in) £(_| )

6(out) = a+(in) G(+|-) + 6(in) 6?(_[~)

Analogously from relation (21) at x € au a = a2 we have

«(in) = G(+\+) a(out) + G(+\~) b+(out)

6+(in) = G(_|+) «(out) + G(_\~) 6+(out)

6(in) = a + (out) <?(+|_) + 6(out) G("|_).

G(±|+) G(+|±) +G(±|_) G(_|±) = 1

G(±|+) G ( + n +G(±|_) G(_|=F) = 0

£( ± | + )<?( + |±) + G ( ± | - ) £ ( - | ± ) = 1 (25)

M0\p'p) = C-V+I^Vp = - [ « " M l - ) G(~l+)]P> (26)

w{qq'\o) = [G~H+n G{+\~)\q. = -[0(+|.) ^(I-)]«,'-

formation is unitary. Then the operator F is such that :

F = cr exp [—a+(in) w( +~ \ 0) 6 + (in)] exp [a+(in) In w(+1+) a(in)]

S p [<?(+!_) G(_|+) + G(-| + ) G(+\-)] < OO. (29)

! V = in<0| < - ( o u t ) fl^(out) |0>in = [G(+1_) G(_| + )] m .

n+ = sp G( + |_) G(_|+), n~ = sp G(~| + ) G(+\~). (30)

3. Free Electromagnetic Field

V(x I <i) = L M i n ) +<Pp(x I + V ( i n ) -Vpi I °i)l • (14)