LESSON 7:

Entailment:
John killed Bob. => Bob died.
Entailment is a relational that applies between two sentences, where the truth of one implies the truth
of the other because of the meanings of the words involved.
Composition truth table for entailment:

EX:
1a. She loves flowers
1b. She loves roses.

⇨ If she loves flowers is true => It means that she loves roses.

⇨ If she loves roses is false => We are not sure if she loves flowers or not.

2a. She is my mother.

2b. I’m her daughter.

⇨ If she is my mother is true => I’m her daughter is always true.

⇨ If I’m her daughter is false => She is not my mother is true.

⮚ The source of entailment: lexical or syntactic.

+ lexical: hyponymy or antonymy

+ syntactic – paraphrases

⮚ No need to check any fact in the world.

Composition truth for paraphrases

1a. I bought a cat.
1b. I bought an animal.

2a. Some boys ran down the street.

2b. Some kids ran down the street.
2c. Some kids went down the street.

⇨ A entail B, B entail C, A entail C.

⮚ If X entails Y, and Y entails Z, then X entails Z. => Entailment applies cumulatively.

Types of entailment:
One-way entailment:
EX: John saw a bear. => John saw an animal.
Two-way entailment:

EX: The police chased the burglar. ↔️ The burglar was chased by the police.

Paraphrases:
+ Syntactic
+ Lexical: synonymy antonymy.

Relation between pair of Relation between pair of word

sentences
Not necessarily symmetric (one- Entailment Hyponymy
way)
Symmetric (two-way) Paraphrase Synonymy
Some dogs have fleas.
Cẩn thận với các từ some, all
Some countries have coastline.
 1. paraphrase
2. contradiction
3. entailment
4. entailment
5. entailment
6. entailment
7. paraphrase
8. paraphrase
9. contradiction
10. contradiction
INTRODUCTION TO SPEECH ACTS
What are speech acts?

⇨ Are actions performed via utterances.

EX: Jane is watching TV in the living room.

An act of assertion is carried out when:
- A speaker utters a declarative sentence (T/F)
- Undertakes a certain responsibility, commitment, to the hearer that a part, state of
affairs/situations exists in the world.
⇨ Descriptive fallacy: the act of describing

Would the main purpose of making these assertions be to describe some state of affairs?
There is a snake behind you. => Warning
This gun is loaded. => Threatening
Can acts be performed by physical means, such as gesture? Yes
1. I promise to repay you tomorrow.
2. John promised to repay me tomorrow.
Acts: referring, asserting: performative or constative
Khi phát ngôn và hành động được thực hiện đồng thời => performative

⇨ A performative utterance is one that actually describes the act that it performs. i.e. it performs
some act & simultaneously describes that act.
EX: Cha tuyên bố hai con là vợ chồng.
Khi phát ngôn nhưng hành động không được thực hiện => constative

⇨ A constative utterance is one which makes an assertion (i.e it is often the utterance of a
declarative sentence) but is not performative.
EX: The room is big.
1. I bet you six pence it will rain tomorrow. => Performative
2. I name this ship Queen Elizabeth. => Performative
3. I admit I was hasty. => Performative
4. I inform you that you are sacked. => Performative
Performative verbs: động từ mô tả hành động

Exceptions :
Để phát ngôn là một hành động thì nó phải ở hiện tại đơn, bị động nếu chủ ngữ k phải I, mình là a part
of a action (câu 3).
Explicit performatives:

⇨ EX: I order you that you clean up this mess.

Implicit performatives:

⇨ EX: Clean up this mess.

Characteristics:
- Beginning with the first person pronoun: I, we
- Verbs describing verbal activities: warn, bet...
- In simple present.

LESSON 8: PERLOCUTIONS & ILLOCUTIONS

1. Lady at ticket office in a bus station: I’d like a day return to London please.
⇨ Declarative
2. Biological teacher: Note that the female cell has two X-shaped chromosomes.
⇨ Imperative
3. Mother to her son: Is it right to throw trash here?
⇨ Imperative

Locutionary act:
Illocutionary act: the act of
Perlocutionary act: impact the utterance has on the hearer.
a. I’ll see you later. (=A)
b. I predict that A.
c. I promise you that A.
d. I warn you that A.
EX: I’m very grateful to you for all you have done for me.
2. The act of guiding + Causing the hearer to follow
3. The act of apologizing + Causing the hearer to accept
4. The act of giving permission + Causing the hearer to understand
5. The act of greeting + Causing the hearer to greet back
6. The act of saying good night + Causing the hearer to have a good night
Classification of speech act
Declaratives: kind of speech acts that change the world via their utterance.

⇨ Sentencing, dismissing, naming, announcing.

EX: I declare Donal Trump the president of US from now on.

Representatives: kinds of speech acts that sate what the speaker believes to be the case or not.

⇨ Asserting, stating, claiming, affirming, describing, predicting, reporting, making hypothesis.

EX: The earth is flat.

Chomsky didn’t write about peanuts.
It was a warm sunny day.
Expressives: kinds of speech acts that state what the speaker feels.

⇨ Greeting, apologizing, complaining, thanking.

EX: Congratulation!
- This beer is disgusting!
- Oh, yes, great!
Directives: kinds of speech acts that speakers use to get someone else to do something.

⇨ Commanding, requesting, begging, warning, challenging, inviting, suggesting giving advice,

ordering.
EX: Give me a cup of coffee.
Don’t touch that.
Could you lend me a pen, please?
Where are you from?
B: I’m from Canada.
The rogatives: the special kind of directives, dealing with request for information.
Commissives: kind of speech acts that speakers use to commit themselves to some future actions.

⇨ Promising, vowing, offering, refusing.

Direct & Indirect speech acts:

EX: It’s cold outside.

- You wear a seat belt.

⮚ Declarative => statement
- Do you wear a seat belt
⮚ Interrogative => question
 - Wear a seat belt!
⮚ Imperative => request command

⇨ YES

Different utterances => same function

Same utterance => different functions
LESSON 9:
Illocutionary force indicating devices: I Vp you that…
2. Felicity conditions:
I now pronounce you husband and wife.
=> Felicity conditions are the conditions which must be fulfilled for a speech act to be satisfactorily
performed on realized.
a. Y
b. N (not necessary)
c. Y
d. N
Sincerity condition:
A condition that must be fulfilled if the act is said to be carried out sincerely.
Cooperative principle:
Make your contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or
direction of the
Maxism:
- Quantity:
 + Be brief:
● Make your contribution ass informative as required
● Do not make your contribution more informative that is required.
EX:
A: Where is Jack?
B: He has gone to the library.
B: He said so when he left. (B not sure)
- Quality:
+ Be true:
● Do not say what you believe to be false
● Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence
EX:
● He is made of iron.
● Every nice girl loves a sailor.
- Relevance
+ Be relevant
EX:
Child: Mom, can I watch cartoon now?
Mom: Have you finished your homework?
- Manner:
+ Be perspicuous:
● Avoid obscurity of expression
● Avoid ambiguity
● Be brief
● Be orderly
Politeness:
LESSON 10:
- Deixis:
Person deixis (you, me, it)
Spatial deixis (here, there)
Temporal deixis (now, then)
=>
=> Presupposition is what a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the message already knows.

1a. Mary's dog is cute. (=p)

1b. Mary has a dog. 1c. (=q)
1c. P>> q
➖➖➖➖➖➖
2a. Mary's dog isn't cute. (= NOT p)
2b. Mary has a dog. (=q)
2c. NOT P >> q
=> Presupposition remains the same under its negation.
★ Types of presuppositions:
- The existential presupposition:
EX: I lost my watch yesterday.
They haven’t spoken to each other since their last week's quarrel.

A possessive NP. => X had/has/will have + an indefinite NP.

EX: The American girl next door is having a party.

A definite NP
There be + an indefinite NP
There exist/exisited + an indefinite NP

EX: The book you gave me is worth reading.

A definite NP => an infinite NP

- The factive presupposition

EX: She didn't realize he was ill.
I'm glad that it's over.
- The non-factive presupposition
EX: I dreamed that I was rich.
We imagined we were in Hawaii.
He pretends to be ill.
- The lexical presupposition
EX: She managed to accomplish the project.
You’re late again.
I’m going to change job.
- The structural presupposition
EX: When did he leave?
Where did you buy your bike?
I don’t know why I’ve got an average mark
- The counter-factual presupposition
EX: If you were my friend, you would have helped me.
I wish I could go on vacation now.
You could have talked to the dean.

She didn't feel regret at the over-cooked meat.

She didn't feel regret at the over-cooked meat because it was in fact well-done.
=> Factive
A: What's that guy doing in the parking lot?
B: He's looking for his car or something.
=> Existential

=> The presupposition of an utterance may be cancelled under its EXTENSION.

★ Implicature:
+ Conversational
● Generalized
EX:
A: I hope you brought the bread and cheese.
B: Ah, I brought the bread.
=> Quantity
Generalized Conversational Implicatures:
A: Did you invite Bella & Cathy? (b&c?)
B: I invited Bella. (b +> NOT c)
I was sitting in a garden one day. A child looked over the fence.

a/an X +> not speaker's X

It is when no special knowledge is required in the context to calculate the additional conveyed
meaning.
Ex: I'm studying linguistics and I've completed some of the required courses.

< all, most, many, some, few > always, often, sometimes>

When any form of a scale is asserted, the negative of all forms higher on the scale is implicated.

It’s possible that the flight was delayed.

=> The scale of likelihood.
This should be stored in a cool place.
=> The scale of obligation.
Some, in fact all, of my friends are linguists.
 ● Particularized

A: Will your brother go to the conference this afternoon?

B: He's gone to Hanoi.

Presuppositions Implicatures

- Anything the speaker assumes to be true - An inference/unstated meaning drawn from a

conversation
- Straightforward, more objective
- Less straightforward, more subjective

→ Unlike presuppositions & entailments, implicatures are inferences that cannot be made in
isolated utterances.

→ They are dependent on the context of the utterance & shared knowledge of the speaker &
hearer.

+ Conventional