Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology

School of Public Health, Biomedical Sciences and Technology

(SPHBST)

Department of Health Professions Education (Upgrading)

Portfolio of academic achievements in health professions education

Student name: Hillary Keya

Admission number: HPE/U/01-57072/2019

COURSE TITTLE: CLINICAL CONCENTRATION III

COURSE CODE: HPE 309

Lecturer: prof. Gladys Mengich

SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH PROFESSIONS

EDUCATION (UPGRADING) IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR
THE AWARD OF BACHELOR’S DEGREE IN HEALTH
PROFESSIONS EDUCATION
BIO DATA
My name is Hillary Keya. Am a Public Health Officer in Kakamega County and currently a student at
Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology. Am pursuing a Bachelor’s degree in Health
Professions Education (Medical Education) upgrading.
PREFESSIONAL PROSPECTS
I wish to secure a challenging vocational opportunity that would require constant application of my
acquired knowledge and skills as a health worker at the same time giving me an opportunity to learn and
develop professionally to fit in the modern world.
PERSONAL STRENGTHS
I am equipped with skills to accommodate and understand people of all kinds. I like associating with new
ventures, anytime they come across my way. I am a determined, ambitious person and can work under
minimal or no supervision.

During my attachment I managed to take students through a unit called DRAINAGE AND PLUMBING (
PUBLIC HEALTH TECHNICIANS)
Kindly go through the notes a made before I make the final copy.

DRAINAGE, PLUMBING AND CONSERVANCY

DPC 107
MODULE COMPETENCE
This module is designed to enable the learner inspect and supervise construction and maintenance of
drainage and conservancy systems
MODULE COMPETENCE
By the end of this module, the learner should be able to;
1. Explain basic concepts relating to drainage and conservancy
2. Identify various drainage, plumbing and conservancy systems
3. Explain proper excreta disposal
4. Identify various fittings and fitments used in drainage and conservancy
5. Identify different types of drainage and conservancy materials
6. Outline laying procedures and cleaning of drains
7. Test the drains using the appropriate methods and tools
8. Recognize the law relating to drainage, plumbing and conservancy
9. Embrace emerging technologies in drainage and conservancy

TEACHING STRATEGIES
Lecture, demonstrations, group work, assignments, case studies, problem based learning, self-directed
learning.
TEACHING RESOURCES:
Text books, white board marker, LCD, internet, charts, drainage tools,
Assessment Strategies:
Formative; continuous assessment tests, assignments, practical assessment
Summative; theory and practicals, end of semester and promotional exams, FQE.
 1. BASIC CONCEPTS RELATING TO DRAINAGE AND CONSERVANCY
Terminologies
i. Drain
ii. Sewer
iii. Drainage system
iv. Sewage
v. Soil water
vi. Waste water
vii. Storm water

2. Principles of a good drainage system

Drain: A pipe for draining one or more than one building within one unit or Drain (plumbing) is a
plumbing fixture that provides an exit-point for waste water or water that is to be re-circulated.

Drain may also refer to:

1. Drainage, the natural or artificial removal of surface and sub-surface water from a given area.
2. Storm drain, a system of collecting and disposing of rain water in an urban area.

Bathroom drain

Bathtub drain Used for slow or clogged drainage

Drainage System: An arrangement of pipes for the purpose of draining of a building or an area and
includes the final treatment units located within the premise. It belongs to the owner of the premise eg
Septic tank.

Classification: The function of the field drainage system is to control the water table, whereas
the function of the main drainage system is to collect, transport, and dispose of the water through
an outfall or outlet. In some instances one makes an additional distinction between collector and
main drainage systems.
Field drainage systems are differentiated in surface and subsurface field drainage systems.
Sometimes (e.g. in irrigated, submerged rice fields), a form of temporary drainage is required
whereby the drainage system is allowed to function on certain occasions only (e.g. during the
harvest period). If allowed to function continuously, excessive quantities of water would be lost.
Such a system is therefore called a checked, or controlled, drainage system. More usually,
however, the drainage system is meant to function as regularly as possible to prevent undue
water logging at any time and one employs a regular drainage system. In literature, this is
sometimes also called a "relief drainage system".

Surface drainage systems: The regular surface drainage systems, which start functioning as
soon as there is an excess of rainfall or irrigation, operate entirely by gravity. They consist
of reshaped or reformed land surfaces and can be divided into:

1. Bedded systems, used in flat lands for crops other than rice;
2. Graded systems, used in sloping land for crops other than rice.

The bedded and graded systems may have ridges and furrows.
The checked surface drainage systems consist of check gates placed in the embankments
surrounding flat basins, such as those used for rice fields in flat lands. These fields are usually
submerged and only need to be drained on certain occasions (e.g. at harvest time). Checked
surface drainage systems are also found in terraced lands used for rice.
In literature, not much information can be found on the relations between the various regular
surface field drainage systems, the reduction in the degree of water logging, and the agricultural
or environmental effects. It is therefore difficult to develop sound agricultural criteria for the
regular surface field drainage systems. Most of the known criteria for these systems concern the
efficiency of the techniques of land leveling and earthmoving.
Similarly, agricultural criteria for checked surface drainage systems are not very well known.

A plumber is someone who installs or repairs piping systems, plumbing fixtures and equipment
such as water heaters and backflow preventers. The plumbing industry is a basic and substantial
part of every developed economy due to the need for clean water, and sanitary collection and
transport of wastes.[1] The word "plumbing" comes from the Latin plumbum for lead, as pipes
were once made from lead.

Plumbing is usually distinguished from water supply and sewage systems, in that a plumbing
system serves one building, while water and sewage systems serve a group of buildings.[3]

Soil Water: Excreta removed by water or water in which excreta is carried.

Waste Water: All the waste from a building being removed by water or in water, but excluding excreta.
This waste is from:
1. Sinks.
2. Bathrooms.
3. Bath tubs.
4. Wash hand basins.
5. Kitchen sinks.

Sullage or Grey Water: Sullage is a term used to describe wastewater that arises as a byproduct
of daily human activities such as showering, washing dishes, and doing the laundry. It's also
commonly referred to as gray water. Much of this gray water can be recycled and reintroduced
into the environment instead of just being disposed of. Environmental experts have claimed that
reusing gray water will have a great beneficial impact on fresh water supply over time.

Wastewater is an umbrella term used to describe all liquid wastes, treated and untreated. The
term can be further broken down into the two categories of sullage, better known as gray water,
and effluent, better known as black water. Sullage, or gray water, is a mixture of water, soap,
detergent, bleach, dirt, and other compounds discarded after use. Effluent, or black water, is a
mixture of water and sewage undergoing a treatment process. In other words, sullage is any
leftover water from use in the home except for the toilet.

It's estimated that up to 80 percent of all household wastewater is sullage. Many see this as a
waste of water that could potentially be reused. Ecological experts claim reusing wastewater is
not only better for the environment, but will also be vital in solving the planet's predicted water
shortages. By reusing it, the population can lower the consumption of fresh water, replace vital
nutrients in the soil, promote plant growth, and lower the amount of chemicals used in treatment
plants.

Grey Water System: A greywater system is a plumbing system which is designed to enable
greywater recycling, the reuse of certain household waste water. A greywater system can vary
widely in scope and size; for example, some people simply divert greywater to a tank which is
used to water the garden, while others have more elaborate systems which permit the use of
greywater for things like flushing the toilet. Such systems can be custom-built for a home, or
purchased in kit form.

Greywater, or graywater, is waste water which does not contain hazardous components. As a
general rule, this includes all waste from a home except water from the toilet and kitchen sink.
Toilet and kitchen waste water are known as blackwater, because this water can potentially
house pathogens which could make reuse dangerous. Such water needs to be treated before it can
be reused or released.

The rest of the waste water from a home, however, is often perfectly usable, if a bit soapy.
People who use a greywater system may choose to use biodegradable soaps and to avoid harsh
chemicals so that their greywater is as harmless as possible.

Greywater systems include the connections to the various sources of greywater in a home, like
sinks, showers, and washing machines, along with a central holding tank for the greywater.
Along the way to the holding tank, the greywater usually passes through a filter which traps large
particulates, keeping the water relatively clear.

Storm Water: Storm water is water that originates during precipitation events. It may also be
used to apply to water that originates with snowmelt that enters the storm water system. Storm
water that does not soak into the ground becomes surface runoff, which either flows directly into
surface waterways or is channeled into storm sewers, which eventually discharge to surface
waters.

Storm water is of concern for two main issues: one related to the volume and timing of runoff
water (flooding) and the other related to potential contaminants that the water is carrying, i.e.
water pollution.

Storm water is also a resource and ever growing in importance as the world's human population
demand exceeds the availability of readily available water. Techniques of storm water harvesting
with point source water management and purification can potentially make urban environments
self-sustaining in terms of water.

Soil Pipe: A drainpipe that carries off wastes from a plumbing fixture, especially from a toilet.

A soil pipe is a PVC or cast iron pipe used in plumbing installations to remove soiled or
contaminated water from toilets. Soil pipes differ from normal waste water removal pipes in that
they are generally of a larger diameter and are designed specifically to remove solid waste from
toilets. Most plumbing installations consist of a combination of soil and waste water lines and
each has its own particular characteristics and requirements. Most of these involve pipe sizes,
fittings, and routing constraints specific to each type although they both eventually vent into a
common main sewerage line.

The nature of soil water waste makes its removal from any installation in a safe and completely
contained fashion technically tricky but critical from a health and safety viewpoint. Soil water
typically contains large quantities of paper and fecal solids which are introduced into the waste
removal system with fairly large amounts of flush water. Normal waste water from hand basins,
baths, and kitchen basins contain nowhere near these amounts of solids and are not subjected to
rapid water flow increases.

Oil water also requires that a soil pipe be substantially larger than a regular waste water pipe to
accommodate the larger volumes. The average inside diameter of a domestic soil pipe is around
four inches (about 10 cm) and that of a typical waste water pipe is 1½ inches (about 3.8 cm). Soil
pipe system fittings also need to offer as few internal obstructions or snags as possible to prevent
lint and paper build-up from blocking the pipes. Due to their size, soil pipe routings can present
problems when toilets are not placed in rooms bordering on the outside walls of the building.
Toilets in interior rooms may need specialist soil pipe assemblies that make use of smaller pipes
and specially designed flush systems.

Soil pipe layouts also need to adhere to strict installation parameters such as adequate venting,
correct falls, or inclinations of the pipes and the installation of traps to prevent sewer gas from
entering the building. In addition, pipe and joint materials should be of the correct grades. Soil
water stacks that accept several soil pipes also need to be correctly designed and installed to
prevent the soil water from backing up and flooding the toilets. The manner in which waste
water and soil pipes enter manifolds for introduction into sewer lines is also subject to strict
design restrictions for the same reason

Waste Water Pipe: A waste pipe is a pipe which is designed to carry away liquid waste, with
the exception of sewage, which is handled by different plumbing for reasons of environmental
health. In homes, waste pipes drain:

1. Washers,
2. Sinks,
3. Dishwashers, and
4. Other plumbed fixtures.

Soil pipe bend

 PRINCIPLES OF SANITARY DRAINAGE

The following are the main points which should be considered when designing a sanitary drainage
system:

1. The pipes to be of good quality, impervious, non-corrosive and strong.

2. Pipes to have water tight joints.
3. A drain pipe should be laid in such a manner as to be self cleansing velocity.
4. There should be adequate means of access.
5. The drain pipes should be as straight as possible.
6. All drain pipes should be ventilated.
7. The drain pies should be of sufficient size to be able to cope with maximum load to be carried.
8. All drain inlets should be effectively trapped.
9. Every part of the drainage system should be adequately supported.
10. Drain pipe should never be laid under a building unless unavoidable.
11. Drainage system to be properly connected to a sewer by means of an intercepting trap unless the
local regulations require omission of such traps.
12. The length of a branch drain should be kept as short as possible.
13. All branch drains should join the main drain [sewer] at an angle conforming to the direction of
the flow.
14. Drains should be not laid in proximity to trees owing to the possibility of damage by roots.
15. Drain pipes should be circular with a smooth, even inverts.
16. The relative levels of the sewers and the buildings to be drained should be accurately determined.
17. The lay out of the drainage system should be as simple as and direct possible.
18. The number of bends, traps, and man holes should be kept to a minimum.
19. Pipes and channels should be laid in straight lines from point to point or manhole to manhole or
inspection chamber to inspection chamber, or where there is change of direction or gradient.
20. Drain pipes should be of sound, non-absorbent materials.
 21. Manhole inspection chambers must be constructed be provided at change of direction and
convenient positions to receive the maximum number of branch drains.
22. The average velocity of flow should not be less than 0.8m/s in order to prevent settlement of
solids. [maximum acceptable velocity is 2m/s]
23. “Slow” bends should have a wide radius.
24. On ground floor of buildings, sinks, lavatory basins, bath wastes, and rain water down pipes must
discharge into gully traps outside the building.
25. Diameters of drains shall be proportionate to the capacity of its content.
26. WCs must be connected directly to the drains or via a soil ventilating pipe if on top floor.
27. Drains should not be laid close to building foundations.
28. Drains should never run at more than 90% bore.
29. Surface water drains may be designed to run at more than 90% [full-
bore].

CONSERVANCY
SUBJECT OUT-LINE
1. Define terms used in conservancy
2. Describe the importance of proper excreta disposal.
3. Out-line diseases associated with excreta.
4. Design conservancy systems.
5. Describe conservancy systems with the aid of sketches.
6. Prepare estimates for particular systems and supervise the construction of the same.
7. Discuss appropriateness of conservancy systems in different premises.
8. Explain the merits and demerits of each conservancy system.
9. Discuss legislations relevant to conservancy.

DEFINATION OF TERMS

1. Conservancy: It is a system where:

i. Excreta [waste matter (as urine or sweat but especially feces) discharged from the body] are
deposited directly to the earth.
ii. Water is not used as a conveyance for excreta.
iii. It is a method in which excreta is temporarily stored pending removal e.g. Bucket latrine and
Chemical closet.

N/B This system is mostly used in the rural areas where there is no piped water.

2. Sanitation: is the hygienic means of promoting health through prevention of human contact with
the hazards of wastes. Hazards can be either physical, micro-biological, biological or chemical
agents of disease. Wastes that can cause health problems are human and animal feaces, solid
 wastes, domestic waste water [sewage, sullage, and green water], industrial wastes, and
agricultural wastes. Hygienic means of prevention can be by using engineering solutions [e.g.
sewerage -Waste matter carried away in sewers or drains or a waste pipe that carries away sewage
or surface water and waste water treatment], simple technologies [e.g. latrines, septic tanks], or
even by personal hygiene practices [e.g. simple hand washing by soap].
The tem sanitation can be applied to a specific aspect, concept, location or strategy such as:
i. Basic Sanitation: refers to management of human feaces at the house-hold level. This
terminology is the indicator used to describe the target of the millennium Development Goal
on sanitation.

ii. On-Site sanitation: is the collection and treatment of waste, done where it is deposited.
Examples are the use of pit latrines, septic tanks, and imhoff tanks.

iii. Food Sanitation: refers to the hygienic measures for ensuring food safety.

iv. Environmental Sanitation: is the control of environmental factors that form links in disease
transmission. Subjects of this category are solid waste management, water and waste water
treatment, industrial waste treatment and noise pollution control.

v. Ecological Sanitation: is a concept and an approach of recycling to nature the nutrients from
human and animal waste.

3. Hygiene: refers to the set of practices associated with the preservation of health and healthy
living. Hygiene is also the name of a branch of science that deals with the promotion and
preservation of health, also called hygienics. Hygiene practices vary widely, and what is
considered acceptable in one culture might not be accepted in another.

4. Night Soil: is a euphemism - An inoffensive or indirect expression that is substituted for one that
is considered offensive or too harsh An inoffensive or indirect expression that is substituted for
one that is considered offensive or too harsh or a substitute description of something or someone
to avoid revealing secret or to obscure identity of the subject for human feaces.
“Night soil” is produced as a result of waste management systems in areas without community
infrastructure such as a sewage treatment facility, or individual septic disposal. In this system of
waste management, the human waste management, the human feaces is collected in solid form.

5. Excreta: refers to combined body excretion known as feaces, urine, and sweat. But in this
context excreta will refer to feaces and urine.

6. Feaces; is a waste product from animal’s digestive tract expelled through the anus [or cloca]
during defecation.

7. Urine: is a liquid product of the body that is secreted by the kidneys by the process called
urination and excreted through the urethra.
 UNIT 2

IMPORTANCE OF EXCRETA DISPOSAL

1. Man is the reservoir of most diseases that destroy or incapacitate him.

2. The feacal borne disease or infection and infestation are the cause of tremendous loses in death and
debility.
3. All these diseases are controllable though good sanitation [the use of measures that promote and
establish conditions favorable to health especially Public Health], especially through sanitary
[promoting or pertaining to conditions improving health] excreta disposal.

What to consider when conserving Excreta

1. Basic distinctions between people:

i. Some people are washers [Moslems].
ii. Others are wipers.

2. People’s culture in dealing with excreta.

3. Taboos surrounding defecation practices e.g. people who empty buckets and clean latrines [places
where there are no sewers-pit, trench e.g. to receive human urine or excrement [solid waste matter
discharged from bowels]] may be considered/regarded out casts, men, women and children or
adults may not be allowed to use the same latrine, your enemy may access your feaces and use it
to cause you harm, evil spirits may live in the latrine.

4. Religion may lay down strict rules for position and use of latrines and rules of cleaning after
defecation.

Relationship between Excreta disposal and Health

1. Human feaces contain harmful organisms.

2. Many diseases can be spread because people have come into contact with feaces.
3. Practices like defecating in bush, fields or in open pits may be alright I sparsely populated areas,
but dangerous in highly populated areas.
This relationship can be either direct or indirect.

Direct Relationship: This is exemplified by reduced incidence of feacal borne diseases when proper
excreta disposal is practiced.
The groups of diseases whose incidence can be reduced proper excreta disposal are:
a) cholera
b) typhoid and para-typhoid fevers
c) the dysenteries
d) infant diarrheas
e) hook worms diseases
f) ascariasis
g) bilharzias and other intestinal infections
h) parasitic infections

Indirect Relationship: The indirect relationship of excreta disposal to health is generally associated with
other components of environmental sanitation.
These components include:
a) The improvement of hygienic conditions which are conducive to social environment
improvement.
b) Improvement of environmental sanitation which diminishes incidences excremental and water
borne diseases accompanied by marked decrease in:
 Morbidity
 Other diseases whose causative organisms are not directly related to either excreta or
contaminated water supplies.
c) Implementation of sanitation programs results in various economic benefits such as increase in
life expectancy.
d) Reduction in morbidity and increase in people’s health.

Factors to consider in solving Excreta disposal Problem

i. Technical factors.
ii. Environmental factors.
iii. Human factors.

Technical Factors: There is no “best” technical solution for all situations all over the world.
Technical solutions therefore must be adapted to the local environment, the financial resources, the skills
and the traditional latrine behavior of users.

Human Factors: People need to choose a latrine that is best for their area and for their traditional culture
e.g. a pour flash latrine works well for those who use water for anal cleansing but will not for people
using solid materials like stones.
So when choosing a latrine we must consider such things as:
1. Are people washers or wipers?
2. climate
3. Type of soil.
4. Ground water level.
5. Materials and skills available locally.
Factors Guiding DisposaL Requirements: There should be no contamination of:
 Underground water that may contaminate springs and wells.
 Surface water.
 The surface soil should not be contaminated.
 Excreta should not create odor and unsightliness.
 The method should be simple and inexpensive in terms of construction and operation.
 There should be no handling of fresh feaces but when this is indispensable, it should be kept
to minimum.

Benefits of Excreta Disposal: To help:

 Life expectancy prolonged.
 Reduction of water-borne diseases.
 Improvement of Environmental sanitation.
 Improvement of economic status.
 Prevent gastro-intestinal infections and certain intestinal parasitism.
 Protect water sources by preventing the contamination of drinking water, both surface and
underground supply.
 Prevent excreta being accessible to flies and other insects and rodents.
 Prevent contamination of soil and there by minimize the spread of certain parasites.
 Stop nuisance resulting from foul odor and unsightly conditions.
 Promote health and well-being which are conducive to further social economic development.
 Keep houses and villages in the rural areas clean and healthy.

CONSERVANCY SYSTEMS
Conservancy systems have a number of limitations and rarely meet expected health criteria due to various
reasons. Often there are unsuitable soil conditions which determine depth and/or life span of the pit. The
situation of underground water may cause
1. Pit latrine.
2. Pail/Bucket latrine
3. Chemical closet.
4. Deep and shallow trench latrine.
5. Tube/Bore- hole latrine.
6. Earth closet.
7. Vault or compost latrine.

Pit Latrine: This is the commonest latrine used in the rural areas.

The word latrine can refer to a toilet or a simpler facility used as a toilet, generally without
bowl. It can be a communal trench in the earth in a camp, a simple pit, or more advanced
designs, including pour-flush systems or ecological latrines. The term is derived from the Latin
lavatrina meaning bath.
Roman public latrine found in the excavations of Ostia Antica. Unlike in the modern installations, the
Romans felt no need to provide privacy to each individual user.

Latrines of Krak des Chevaliers in Syria

Many forms of latrine technology have been used in the past, from utterly simple to more
sophisticated, while newer developments show promise using ecological sanitation (EcoSan).

Pit toilets are the simplest and cheapest type, minimally defined as a hole in the ground. More
sophisticated pit toilets may include a floor plate, a waterproof liner for the pit to avoid
contamination of the water table or ventilation to reduce odor and fly/mosquito breeding. Other
technologies may be used including Reed Odourless Earth Closet (ROEC) or Composting toilets,
Pour-Flush Latrine, popularized by Sulabh International, Cistern-Flush Toilet, Bucket Latrine or
Pour-Flush Toilet and Vault

In locations with no functioning toilets, latrines or trench toilets are typically set up for use by
groups of men and/or women. They typically consist of pits or trenches, 4 feet (1.2 m) to 5 feet
(1.5 m) deep and 4 feet (1.2 m) to 20 feet (6.1 m) long, dug into the ground. Many military units,
if they stayed in one location long, had primitive shelters and seating arrangements arranged over
the pits. The pits are typically kept well away from any water sources to minimize possible
disease transmission. After extended use the pits were typically filled in.

The use of latrines were a major advance in sanitation over more primitive "every man for
himself" sanitation practices and helped control the spread of many diseases. Up to about 1920,
when better sanitation practices were adopted, many more soldiers died of disease than from
wounds.

There are two types of pit larine:

1. Traditional [ordinary] pit latrine.
2. Ventilated improved pit latrine [modern pit latrine].

Traditional [Ordinary] Pit Latrine: Excreta is deposited into a pit where it is retained indefinitely.

Disadvantages of Traditional [Ordinary] Pit Latrine

a) Bad smell/odor
b) Fly breeding [vector].
c) Undurability.
N/B Because of the above reasons V.I.P. has gained popularity.

Ventilated Improved [Modern] Pit Latrine

The ventilated improved pit latrine was developed in Zimbabwe by Blair Research Laboratory in 1976
with the assistance of the World Bank. It was found that the ventilated improved pit latrine was the most
appropriate technology for a wide variety of conditions in low-income –urban-rural communities in
developing countries since it offers most of the health and convenience benefits of conventional water-
borne water disposal at a small fraction of its cost.

This type of latrine differs from the traditional [ordinary] type in that:
a) It has a vent pipe with a fly screen on top of the vent pipe. The pipe is so called because it is
meant to ventilate the pit as well as controlling flies.
b) It is free from smell/odor.
c) It is free from flies [fly proof].
d) It is easy to clean and maintain.
e) Its floor is durable.
f) It gives the user protection and comfort.
g) It is aesthetic.
The major nuisances that discourage the use of simple pit latrines - smell and flies - are reduced or
eliminated through the incorporation of a vertical vent pipe with a flyscreen at the top (Morgan, 1977).
Wind passing over the top of the vent pipe causes a flow of air from the pit through the vent pipe to the
atmosphere and a downdraught from the superstructure through the squat hole or seat into the pit. This
continuous flow of air removes smells resulting from the decomposing excreta in the pit and vents the
gases to the atmosphere at the top of the vent pipe rather than through the superstructure. The flow of air
is increased if the doorway of the superstructure faces the prevailing wind (Mara, 1984). If a door is fitted
it should be kept shut at all times (except when entering or leaving) to keep the inside of the latrine
reasonably dark, but there should be a gap, normally above the door, for air to enter. The area of this gap
should be at least three times the cross-sectional area of the vent pipe.
Upgrading Traditional Pit Latrines to Ventilated Improved Pit Latrines: This involves installation of
a ventilation pipe provided with wire gauze to eliminate fly and smell problems, reduction of sunlight
entering the super structure, and slanting the floor to provide a slope toward the squat hole providing the
floor with self draining ability during washing.
The following factors should be taken into account before one considers upgrading of a particular latrine:
1. Life span of the latrine.
2. Safety of the users
3. Fly and smell nuisance.
4. Number of compartments

Life span of the latrine: This depends on the capacity of the pit – how long it will take to fill. This
depends on the number of users, the pit filling rate, the depth and cross-sectional area of the pit and the
structural condition of the super structure.

Safety: To avoid pit collapse due to infiltration of rain water into the pit, the floor should be re-
enforced with concrete by concrete slam.

Smell and Fly Nuisance: These depend to a large extent on the depth of the pit, the structural
conditions and the cleaning and fouling of its floor.

Number of Compartments: Best results can be obtained from upgrading single compartment with single
pipes. For multi- compartments, each should be ventilated.

Procedure for upgrading an Ordinary Pit Latrine: Inspect the pit for the depth of the pit contents and
examine the condition of the pit walls and the super structure floor. This helps in assessing the stability of
the pit. A torch is used for the exercise.

1. Locate poles/beams supporting the slab by using a stick through the squat hole. This helps in
determining the best location for vent pipe and also where the edge of the pit is.
 2. Mark the location of vent pipe on the slab. A central position should be selected in case of two
compartment ventilated pit latrine.

3. Fix the vent pipe together with the fly screen attached to the exposed end on top of the roof.

4. The vent pipe is installed from above the roof (through the roof) and then wedge in the position in
the slab using stones. Then provide a polythene paper around the vent pipe between the
perforated edges of roof iron sheets to make the area water tight.

5. Improve on the floor using the standard mix of 1:3 cement mortar screed.fix foot rests. Finish the
floor to smooth cement slurry.

6. Darken the interior of the super structure by blocking the space over the door and any other
openings on the walls to reduce sunlight from entering the super structure. This is an effective fly
control.

7. Make the door to be self closing.

NB: Where possible eave –gutters should be provided to collect rain water which should collect in a pot/
half-drum fixed with a tap and raised to at least 3 feet above the ground level to provide after-toilet-hand
washing –water. Likewise appropriate plants/vegetation should be planted around the latrine to provide
anal cleansing material.

Advantage of up-grading ordinary Latrine to Ventilated Improved Latrine: The cost of up-grading
an ordinary latrine to Ventilated Improved Pit Latrine is less compared to building a new Ventilated
Improved Pit Latrine, therefore where this is feasible then, this should be done.

FITTINGS AND FITMENTS USED IN DRAINAGE AND PLUMBING

Fitments: (furniture) any of the items furnishing or equipping a room. In drainage and Plumbing fitments
refer to self-contained receptacles and conveniences eg water closets, pans, baths, sinks etc.
Self-Contained: Constituting a complete and independent unit in and of itself

Fittings: A fitting is used in pipe plumbing systems to connect straight pipe or tubing sections,
to adapt to different sizes or shapes, and for other purposes, such as regulating or measuring fluid
flow. The term plumbing is generally used to describe conveyance of water, gas, or liquid waste
in ordinary domestic or commercial environments, whereas piping is often used to describe high-
performance (e.g. high pressure, high flow, high temperature, hazardous materials) conveyance
of fluids in specialized applications. The term tubing is sometimes used for lighter-weight
piping, especially types that are flexible enough to be supplied in coiled form.

Common fittings for both piping and plumbing: While there are hundreds of specialized
fittings manufactured, some common types of fittings are used widely in piping and plumbing
systems.
Elbow

Short radius or regular 45° elbow (copper sweat)

Long radius or sweep 90° elbow (copper sweat)

An elbow is a pipe fitting installed between two lengths of pipe or tubing to allow a change of
direction, usually a 90° or 45° angle, though 22.5° elbows are also made. The ends may be
machined for butt welding, threaded (usually female), or socketed, etc. When the two ends differ
in size, the fitting is called a reducing elbow or reducer elbow.

Elbows are categorized based on various design features as below:

1. Long Radius (LR) Elbows – radius is 1.5 times the pipe diameter
2. Short Radius (SR) Elbows – radius is 1.0 times the pipe diameter
3. 90 Degree Elbow – where change in direction required is 90°
4. 45 Degree Elbow – where change in direction required is 45°

A 90 degree elbow is also called a "90 bend" or "90 ell". It is a fitting which is bent in such a
way to produce 90 degree change in the direction of flow in the pipe. It is used to change the
direction in piping and is also sometimes called a "quarter bend". A 90 degree elbow attaches
readily to plastic, copper, cast iron, steel and lead. It can also attach to rubber with stainless steel
clamps. It is available in many materials like silicone, rubber compounds, galvanized steel, etc.
The main application of an elbow (90 degree) is to connect hoses to valves, water pressure
pumps, and deck drains. These elbows can be made from tough nylon material or NPT thread.

A 45 degree elbow is also called a "45 bend" or "45 ell". It is commonly used in water supply
facilities, food industrial pipeline networks, chemical industrial pipeline networks, electronic
industrial pipeline networks, air conditioning facility pipeline, agriculture and garden production
transporting system, pipeline network for solar energy facility, etc.

Most elbows are available in short radius or long radius variants. The short radius elbows have a
center-to-end distance equal to the Nominal Pipe Size (NPS) in inches, while the long radius is
1.5 times the NPS in inches. Short elbows are widely available, and are typically used in
pressurized systems.

Long elbows are typically used in low-pressure gravity-fed systems and other applications where
low turbulence and minimum deposition of entrained solids are of concern. They are readily
available in acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS plastic), polyvinyl chloride (PVC) for DWV,
sewage and central vacuums, chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC) and copper for 1950s to
1960s houses with copper drains.

Coupling

Pipe coupling (copper sweat)

A coupling connects two pipes to each other. If the size of the pipe is not the same, the fitting
may be called a reducing coupling or reducer, or an adapter. By convention, the term
"expander" is not generally used for a coupler that increases pipe size; instead the term "reducer"
is used.
Union

A combination pipe union and reducer fitting (brass threaded)

A union is similar to a coupling, except it is designed to allow quick and convenient

disconnection of pipes for maintenance or fixture replacement. While a coupling would require
either solvent welding, soldering or being able to rotate with all the pipes adjacent as with a
threaded coupling, a union provides a simple transition, allowing easy connection or
disconnection at any future time. A standard union pipe is made in three parts consisting of a nut,
a female end, and a male end. When the female and male ends are joined, the nuts then provide
the necessary pressure to seal the joint. Since the mating ends of the union are interchangeable,
changing of a valve or other device can be achieved with a minimum loss of time. Pipe unions
are essentially a type of flange connector, as discussed further below.

Reducer

Reducer fittings, bronze threaded (left) and copper sweat (right)

A reducer allows for a change in pipe size to meet hydraulic flow requirements of the system, or to adapt
to existing piping of a different size. Reducers are usually concentric but eccentric reducers are used when
required to maintain the same top- or bottom-of-pipe level.
Olets: Whenever branch connections are required in size where reducing tees are not available
and/or when the branch connections are of smaller size as compared to header size, olets are
generally used The following are few configurations of olet connections:

1. Flanged Olet
2. Socket-Weld & Threaded Olet
3. Lateral & Elbow Olets
4. Nipple Olet
5. Butt-Weld Olet
6. Swage Nipples

Tee

Pipe tee (copper sweat)

A tee is the most common pipe fitting. It is available with all female thread sockets, all solvent
weld sockets, or with opposed solvent weld sockets and a side outlet with female threads. It is
used to either combine or split a fluid flow. It is a type of pipe fitting which is T-shaped having
two outlets, at 90° to the connection to the main line. It is a short piece of pipe with a lateral
outlet. A tee is used for connecting pipes of different diameters or for changing the direction of
pipe runs. They are made of various materials and available in various sizes and finishes. They
are extensively used in pipeline networks to transport two-phase fluid mixtures. They are
categorized as:

1. Equal
2. Unequal

When the size of the branch is same as header pipes, equal tee is used and when the branch size
is less than that of header size, reduced tee will be used. Most common are tees with the same
inlet and outlet sizes. Some of the industrial tees are Straight Tee, Reducing Tee, Double Branch
Tee, Double Branch Reducing Tee, Conical Tee, Double Branch Conical Tee, Bullhead Tee,
Conical Reducing Tee, Double Branch Conical Reducing Tee, Tangential Tee, and Double
Branch Tangential Tee.

The above tees are categorized on the basis of their shapes and structure. They can also be
classified on the basis of the application they are required to perform.
The three outlet sizes should be named in order (e.g. left, middle, right; measuring 15-22-15).
The three sizes of a tee are end x end x center. So if you want a tee that is 1" on both ends and
3/4" in the center it would be 1" x 1" x 3/4".

Cross: Cross fittings are also called 4-way fittings. If a branch line passes completely through a
tee, the fitting becomes a cross. A cross has one inlet and three outlets, or vice versa. They often
have solvent welded socket ends or female threaded ends.

Cross fittings can generate a huge amount of stress on pipe as temperature changes, because they
are at the center of four connection points. A tee is steadier than a cross, as a tee behaves like a
three-legged stool, while a cross behaves like a four-legged stool. (Geometrically, "any 3 non-
colinear points define a plane" thus 3 legs are inherently stable.) Crosses are common in fire
sprinkler systems, but not in plumbing, due to their extra cost as compared to using two tees.

Cap

Pipe cap (copper sweat)

A type of pipe fitting, usually liquid or gas tight, which covers the end of a pipe. A cap is used
like plug, except that the pipe cap screws or attaches on the male thread of a pipe. A cap may
have a solvent weld socket end or a female threaded end and the other end closed off. In
plumbing systems that use threads, the cap has female threads. Industrial caps can be round,
square, rectangular, U-shaped, I-shaped and may have a round hand grip or a flat hand grip.

If a solvent weld cap is used to provide for a future connection point, several inches of pipe must
be left before the cap. This is because when the cap is cut off for the future connection, enough
pipe must remain to allow a new fitting to be glued onto it.

Plug: A plug closes off the end of a pipe. It is similar to a cap but it fits inside the fitting it is
mated to. In a threaded iron pipe plumbing system, plugs have male threads. Some of the popular
types of plugs are:

1. Mechanical pipe plug

2. Pneumatic disk pipe plug
3. Single size pneumatic all rubber pipe plug
4. Multi-size pneumatic pipe plug
 5. Multi-size flow-through pipe plug
6. High pressure pipe plug

Nipple: A short stub of pipe usually threaded steel, brass, chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC)
or copper; occasionally just bare copper. A nipple is defined as being a short stub of pipe which
has external male pipe threads at each end, for connecting two other fittings. Nipples are
commonly used for plumbing and hoses, and second as valves for funnels and pipes.

Barb (A plastic elbow fitting with a hose barb at the top and male pipe threads at the bottom)

A barb is used to connect flexible hoses to pipes. A barb clamp fitting has a male-threaded end
used to mate with the female threads. The other end of the fitting has either a single or multiple
barbed tube having a tapered stub with ridges, which is inserted into the flexible hose to secure
it. An adjustable worm drive screw clamp helps to keep the hose from slipping off the barbed
tube. Barb fittings can be made of plastic or brass. Brass is used for hot water applications while
plastic is used for cold. The barb fitting can be either elbow-shaped or straight.

Valves: Valves are equipment designed to stop or regulate flow of any fluid (liquid, gas,
condensate, stem, slurry, etc.) in its path. Valves are categorized depending on their applications
like isolation, throttling, and non-return. Various type of valves are available depending upon the
type of construction as follows:

1. Gate valve - used for isolation only

2. Plug valve - used for isolation only
3. Globe valve - used for throttling
4. Butterfly valve - used for isolation as well as throttling
5. Check valve - used for preventing reverse flow (non-return)
6. Diaphragm valve - used for isolation as well as throttling
7. Ball valve - used for isolation only

Sanitary Fitments and Appliances

1. Flushing cisterns, troughs and valves

2. Water closets
3. Bidets (A basin for washing genitals and anal area)
4. Showers
5. Baths
6. Sinks
7. Wash basins and troughs
8. Urinals
9. Sanitary conveniences and building regulations
10. Single stack system and variations
11. One‐ and two‐pipe systems
12. Pumped waste system
13. Wash basins † waste arrangement

DRAIN PIPE MATERIALS

1. Asbestos Cement.
2. Earthenware.
3. Fire Clay.
4. Concrete.
5. Cast iron.
6. Glazed stoneware.
7. Pitch fiber.
8. PVC [Poly-Vinyl-Chloride]
9. Lead.
10. Copper.
11. Steel.
 STONEWARE PIPES
These are made from a mixture of:
1. flint,
2. clay and,
3. Sand.
Well mixed then burnt.
Stoneware pipes may be salt glazed by introducing salt when burning the pipe and salt volatilizes. It
combines with alumina and silt present in the raw material forming a coating of glass.
The pipes are made in lengths of two feet.
The following compare stoneware and cast iron pipes:

Asbestos Cement Pipes: These are made of Portland cement and asbestos fibers mixed into slur
[to pass over light] and the deposited layer upon layer on cylindrical mandrel which is a casting rotating
rod up to a required thickness.
They are extremely resistant to corrosion but are brittle and liable to damage easily by shock.
They are supplied in lengths of 10 feet pieces.
Pitch Fiber: They are made wood cellulose which is mixed in water then placed into a beating machine
which beats the stuff into a mass then it is pressed by a machine which makes joitless pipes.
The pipe is then oven-dried after which it is impregnated in hot coal tar pitch by a vacuum process.
It is solidified by immersing in cold water.
The ends of the pipes are finished at 2º taper.
 N/B: Pitch is a black shiny substance obtained by distilling call tar or wo

Couplings are also internally beveled so that when jointing the couplings are hammered into the pipe
using a mallet hammer. At the end of the coupling the next pipe is hammered in making the joint water
tight.
The pipe is in corrodible and is resistant to root penetration. It is strong, flexible and tough.
P.V.C. Pipes: They are made of synthetic polyurethane materials. They are light, strong, easily cut and
resistant to attacks from the soil.
Due to the low melting point, and the fact that it progressively softens when under heat, it is not suitable
to be used above the ground where it is exposed to sun rays.
It is supplied in lengths of 9meter pieces.
Earthenware Pipes: They are made from synthetic or ordinary brick earth such as that used in the
manufacture of bricks. It is weak and porous and liable to damage frost if made of natural earth.

Copper Pipes: They are tough but malleable [able to be beaten or rolled into shape] pipes. They are used
for roof works, boiler cylinders for hot water, Pipes for waste water etc. They are resistant to corrosion.
Zinc Pipes: They are very malleable and non-corrosive. They are unaffected by dry moist air but are
destroyed by acid laden atmosphere eg smoky towns.
Zink is commonly mixed with copper to produce brass is widely used for plumbing and fittings due to its
very tough qualities.
Zinc is also used to galvanize steel and other iron metals.
Lead Pipes: They are soft, heavy, and very malleable easily cut materials.
They are highly resistant to corrosion but should never be used in soft water due the water’s plumbo-
solvent capability. It may be combined with copper to form an alloy of lead and copper which has a better
fatigue resistance, greater tensile strength etc. It is used for sheets and on rare occasions.
Alluminium Pipes: These obtained from purified bauxite. They are light and their strength varies. They
are harder than lead and can be cast into any shape.

REFERENCES:
1. Afubwa SO. & Mwanthi AM (2014). Environmental Health and Occupational Health and
Safety. Nairobi: Acrodile Publishing Ltd.
2. Edwin Holmer Blake.(2009) Drainage and Sanitation: A practical exposition of the conditions
vital to healthy buildings, their sorroundings and construction, their ventilation, healing of the
various professional institutions. Sheffied UK: BT Batsford.
3. NETWAS. (2008) Participants manual on the site sanitation. Nairobi. NETWAS
4. Rukunga G.K (2007) Environmental Health for East Africa. Nairobi. Amref Publishers