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Dark Energy Cosmological Model in a Modified Theory of Gravity

Article in Astrophysics · March 2015

DOI: 10.1007/s10511-015-9369-6

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J. Astrophys. Astr. (2016) 37:15

Plane Symmetric Dark Energy Models in the Form of Wet Dark

Fluid in f(R, T ) Gravity

V. R. Chirde1,∗ & S. H. Shekh2,†

1 Department of Mathematics, G. S. G. Mahavidyalaya, Umarkhed 445 206, India.
2 Department of Mathematics, Dr. B. N. College of Engineering & Technology,
Yavatmal 445 001, India.
e-mail: ∗ vrchirde333@rediffmail.com
† da_salim@rediff.com

Received 8 November 2015; accepted 28 April 2016

DOI: 10.1007/s12036-016-9391-z

Abstract. In this paper, we have investigated the plane symmetric space-

time with wet dark fluid (WDF), which is a candidate for dark energy,
in the framework of f(R, T ) gravity Harko et al. 2011, Phys. Rev. D,
84, 024020), where R and T denote the Ricci scalar and the trace of
the energy–momentum tensor respectively. We have used the equation of
state in the form of WDF for the dark energy component of the Universe.
It is modeled on the equation of state p = ω(ρ − ρ ∗ ). The exact solutions
to the corresponding field equations are obtained for power-law and expo-
nential volumetric expansion. The geometrical and physical parameters
for both the models are studied. Also, we have discussed the well-known
astrophysical phenomena, namely the look-back time, proper distance,
the luminosity distance and angular diameter distance with red shift.

Key words. Plane symmetric space-time—dark energy—wet dark fluid—

f(R,T) gravity.

1. Introduction
Recent observations indicate that our Universe is currently undergoing a phase of
accelerated expansion (Riess et al. 1998; Perlmutter et al. 1999, 2003; De Bernardis
et al. 2000). Basically, two kinds of alternative explanations have been proposed
for this unexpected observational phenomenon. One is, the problem lies in detect-
ing an exotic type of unknown repulsive force, termed as Dark Energy (DE) which
is responsible for the accelerating phase of the Universe. The detection of DE would
be a new clue to an old puzzle: the gravitational effect of the zero-point energies of
particles and fields (Zel’dovich 1968). The total with other energies, that are close
to homogeneous and nearly independent of time, acts as DE. The paramount char-
acteristic of the DE is a constant or slightly changing energy density as the Universe
expands, but we do not know the nature of DE very well (Turner & Huterer 2007;


c Indian Academy of Sciences 1
15 Page 2 of 16 J. Astrophys. Astr. (2016) 37:15

Padmanabhan 2008; Bartelmann 2010). DE has been conventionally characterized

by the Equation of State (EoS) parameter ω = p/ρ which is not necessarily con-
stant and other, by modifying the Einstein equation (Capozziello & Faraoni 2011).
Modified gravity is of great importance because it can successfully explain the rota-
tion curve of galaxies and the motion of galaxy clusters in the universe. There are
various modified gravity namely f (R), f (G), f (R, G) and f(R, T ). One of the
interesting and prospective versions of modified gravity is f(R, T ) gravity proposed
by Harko et al. (2011) (in which the gravitational Lagrangian is given by an arbi-
trary function of the Ricci scalar R and of the trace of the stress-energy tensor T ).
The models in this gravity can explain the late-time cosmic accelerated expansion of
the Universe. Collins & Hawkings (1973) studied different cosmological models in
f(R, T ) gravity. Mishra and Sahoo (2014a, b) have investigated Bianchi type-VIh
cosmological model filled with perfect fluid in the framework of f(R, T ) gravity.
Several authors such as Babichev et al. (2004), Pawar et al. (2009), Singh & Chaubey
(2008), Chaubey (2009), Akarsu & Kilinc (2010), Katore et al. (2011), Katore &
Shaikh (2012), Jain et al. (2012), Chaubey & Shukla (2013), Rao & Neelima (2013a,
b), Ram & Priyanka (2013a, b), Samanta (2013a, b, c), Yadav (2013), Samanta &
Dhal (2013), Sharif & Zubair (2013a, b), Sahoo et al. (2014a, b), Rani et al. (2014),
Ahmed & Pradhan (2014), Katore & Shaikh (2014), Mishra & Sahoo (2014a, b) and
Chirde & Shekh (2015a, b) had discussed the cosmological models with this gravity
for different context of use. Motivated by the above discussions and investigations in
modified theories, we have taken up the study of the plane symmetric perfect fluid
cosmological model in f(R, T ) gravity. The present paper is organized as follows. A
brief discussion about Wet Dark Fluid (WDF) is given in section 2. In section 3, the
field equations in the metric version of f(R, T ) gravity are given. In section 4, grav-
itational field equation in f(R, T ) gravity is established with the aid of the plane
symmetric metric in the presence of WDF. A general discussion on the isotropization
is given in section 5. Section 6 deals with the cosmological model for the power-
law. In section 7, the cosmological model is discussed with the exponential law. In
section 8, some observational constraints are also discussed. Finally, in section 9,
conclusions are summarized.

2. Wet dark fluid

WDF is a new candidate for DE in the script of generalized chaplygin gas, where
a physically motivated equation of state is offered with the properties relevant for a
DE problem. The equation of state for WDF is
pWDF
+ ρ ∗ = ρWDF . (1)
ω
Equation (1) is the good approximation for many fluids, including water. The param-
eters ω and ρ ∗ are taken to be positive and we restrict ourselves to 0 ≤ ω ≤ 1. Note
that if cs denotes the adiabatic sound speed in WDF, then cs2 = ∂p/∂ρ ≥ 0 (Babichev
et al. 2004). To find the WDF energy density, we use the energy conservation
equation
∗
ρWDF + 3H (pWDF + ρWDF ) = 0. (2)
J. Astrophys. Astr. (2016) 37:15 Page 3 of 16 15

From equation of state (1) and using 3H = V̇

V in equation (2), we get
 
ω c
pWDF = ρ ∗ + (1+ω) , (3)
1+ω V

where c is the constant of integration and V is the volume expansion. WDF naturally
includes these components, a piece that behaves as a cosmological constant as well
as a standard fluid with an equation of state p = ωρ. We can show that if we take
c > 0, this fluid will not violate the strong energy condition p +ρ ≥ 0. Thus, we get
 
∗ c
pWDF + ρWDF = (1 + ω) ρWDF − ωρ = (1 + ω) ≥ 0. (4)
V (1+ω)

Singh & Chaubey (2008) studied the Bianchi Type-I Universe with WDF. The
Bianchi Type-V Universe filled with DE from a WDF has been studied by Chaubey
(2009). Plane symmetric and Bianchi Type-VI0 Universes filled with DE from a
WDF have been considered by Katore et al. (2011). Jain et al. (2012) studied the
axially symmetric cosmological model with WDF in the bimetric theory of gravita-
tion. Mishra & Sahoo (2014a, b) studied the Bianchi Type-VI1 cosmological model
in the presence of WDF in scale-invariant theory. Samanta & Dhal (2013) studied the
Bianchi Type-V Universe filled with DE from a WDF in f(R, T ) gravity. Sahoo &
Mishra (2014) have investigated the five-dimensional Kaluza–Klein space-time with
WDF, which is a candidate for DE, in the framework of f(R, T ) gravity.

3. Gravitational field equations of f(R, T ) gravity

The f(R, T ) gravity is a generalization of General Relativity (GR). In this theory, the
field equations are derived from a variation, Hilbert–Einstein type principle which is
given as
 
1 √ √
S= −gf (R, T )d 4 x + −gLm d 4 x, (5)
16π

where f(R, T ) is an arbitrary function of the Ricci scalar (R) and trace of the stress-
energy tensor (T ) of the matter Tij (T = g ij Tij ) and Lm is the matter Lagrangian
density.
The stress-energy tensor of matter is defined as
√
2 δ( −gLm )
Tij = − √ . (6)
−g δg ij
Assuming that the Lagrangian density Lm of matter depends only on the metric
tensor components gij and not on its derivatives, in this case, we obtain

δ(Lm )
Tij = gij Lm − . (7)
δg ij
15 Page 4 of 16 J. Astrophys. Astr. (2016) 37:15

The field equation of f(R, T ) gravity is obtained by varying the action S with respect
to the metric tensor components gij ,
1  
fR (R, T )Rij − f (R, T ) gij + fR (R, T ) gij ∇ i ∇i − ∇i ∇j = 8πTij
2
− fT (R, T ) Tij −fT (R, T ) ij , (8)
where

∂ 2 Lm
ij = −2Tij + gij Lm − 2g αβ . (9)
∂g ij ∂g αβ

δTαβ
Here fR = δf (R,T )
δR , fT =
δf (R,T )
δT , ij = g αβ δg ij
and ∇i is the covariant derivative.
The contraction of equation (8) yields
fR (R, T )R + 3 fR (R, T ) − 2f (R, T ) = (8π − fT (R, T )) T
− fT (R, T ) with  = g ij ij . (10)
Equation (10) gives a relation between Ricci scalar and the trace of energy-
momentum tensor. Using matter Lagrangian Lm , the stress-energy tensor of the
matter is given by
Tij = (pWDF + ρWDF )ui uj − pWDF gij , (11)

where ui = (0, 0, 0, 1) denotes the four-velocity vector in co-moving coordinates

which satisfies the condition ui ui = 1. ρ and p are the energy density and pressure of
the fluid respectively. The variation of stress energy of perfect fluid has the following
expression

ij = −2Tij − pgij . (12)

On the physical nature of the matter field, the field equations also depend through
the tensor ij . Several theoretical models corresponding to different matter contri-
butions for f(R, T ) gravity are possible. However, Harko et al. (2011) gave three
classes of these models
⎧
⎨ R + 2f (T )
f (R, T ) = f1 (R) + f2 (T ) . (13)
⎩ f (R) + f (R) f (T )
1 2 3

In this paper, we have focused on the first class f (R, T ) = R + 2f (T ), where f (T )

is an arbitrary function of tress energy tensor of the form f (T ) = λT where λ is
constant. In this class, cosmic acceleration may result not only due to geometrical
contribution to the total cosmic energy density but it also depends on matter contents.
This class can be applied to explore several issues of current interest and may lead
to some major differences (Sharif & Zubair 2012).
For this choice the gravitational field equations of f(R, T ) gravity become
1
Rij − Rgij = 8πTij + 2f  (T ) Tij + 2f  (T ) ij + f (T ) gij , (14)
2
J. Astrophys. Astr. (2016) 37:15 Page 5 of 16 15

where the prime denotes differentiation with respect to the argument. If the matter
source is a perfect fluid then the field equations (in view of equation (12)) become
1
Rij − Rgij = 8πTij + 2f  (T ) Tij + [2pWDF f  (T ) + f (T )]gij . (15)
2

4. Field equations of plane symmetric metric

In recent years Bianchi universes have gained increasing interest in observational
cosmology. According to the WMAP data, the Universe should achieve a slightly
anisotropic special geometry in spite of the inflation, contrary to generic inflationary
models and this might indicate a non-trivial isotropization history of the Universe
due to the presence of an anisotropic energy source. Thus, the Bianchi models that
remain anisotropic are of rather academic interest.
The theory of an inhomogeneous anisotropic universe has two main directions,
which are characterized as follows: (a) the search for exact particular solutions of the
equations of gravitation, and the consideration of such models that bear the proper-
ties of symmetry; (b) as common as possible, the qualitative study of the behavior
(evolution) of matter and the metric under different physical assumptions. The mod-
els comprise those that are spherically symmetric under the vanishing of the pressure,
viscosity, and flow of energy, and models with a spherically symmetric distribution
of matter concentrated in a center (core).
The Universe is spherically symmetric and the matter distribution is isotropic and
homogeneous. But during the early stages of evaluation, it is unlikely that it could
have had such a smoothed-out picture. Hence, we consider a plane symmetric model
of the form (which provides an opportunity for the study of inhomogeneity)
ds 2 = dt 2 − A2 (dX2 + dY 2 ) − B 2 dZ 2 , (16)
where A, B are the functions of t only.
Pradhan & Pandey (2003, 2005), Pradhan et al. (2003, 2007), Pradhan & Kumhar
(2009) and Pradhan & Ram (2009) investigated plane-symmetric cosmological mod-
els for different context of use in general relativity and Lyra geometry, along with
Pawar et al. (2009) investigated tilted plane symmetric cosmological models of a
perfect fluid with heat conduction and disordered radiation. Katore & Shaikh (2014)
have investigated the plane symmetric cosmological models in the presence of cos-
mic string and bulk viscosity in Saez–Ballester scalar-tensor theory of gravitation
and very recently, Chirde & Shekh (2015a, b) investigated plane symmetric Bianchi
Type-I Universe with both deceleration and acceleration in f(R, T ) gravity. Bhoyar
et al. (2015) studied non-static plane symmetric cosmological models with magne-
tized anisotropic DE by hybrid expansion law in f(R, T ) gravity.
We choose the function f (T ) of the trace of the stress–energy tensor of the matter
so that

f (T ) = λT , (17)

where λ is a constant.
15 Page 6 of 16 J. Astrophys. Astr. (2016) 37:15

Using comoving coordinates and equations (11) and (17), the f(R, T ) gravity field
equations, (15), for metric (16) can be written as
Ä B̈ Ȧ Ḃ
+ + = (8π + 3λ) pWDF − ρWDF λ, (18)
A B AB
 2
Ä Ȧ
2 + = (8π + 3λ) pWDF − ρWDF λ, (19)
A A
 2
Ȧ Ȧ Ḃ
+2 = − (8π + 3λ) ρWDF + pWDF λ, (20)
A AB
where a dot hereinafter denotes ordinary differentiation with respect to cosmic time
t only.

5. Isotropization and the solution

The isotropy of the expansion can be parametrized after defining the directional
Hubble’s parameters and the average Hubble’s parameter of the expansion. The
directional Hubble parameters in the directions X, Y, Z for the plane symmetric
metric defined in (16) may be defined as follows:
Ȧ Ḃ
HX = HY = and HZ = . (21)
A B
The mean Hubble parameter, H , is given by
 
Ṙ 1 V̇ 1 Ȧ Ḃ
H = = = 2 + , (22)
R 3V 3 A B
where R is the mean scale factor and V = R 3 = A2 B is the spatial volume of the
Universe.
The anisotropy parameter of the expansion is defined as
3  2
1 Hi − H
= (23)
3 H
i=1

in the X, Y, Z directions, respectively. = 0 corresponds to isotropic expansion.

Let us introduce the dynamical scalars, such as expansion parameter (θ) and the
shear (σ 2 ) as usual
θ = 3H, (24)

3
σ2 = H 2. (25)
2
Now subtracting (18) from (19), we get
   
d Ȧ Ḃ Ȧ Ḃ V̇
− + − =0 (26)
dt A B A B V
J. Astrophys. Astr. (2016) 37:15 Page 7 of 16 15

which on integration gives


A dt
= k2 exp k1 , (27)
B V
where k1 and k2 are constants of integration.
In view of V = A2 B, we write A, B in the explicit form
  
1 1
A = D1 V exp χ1
3 dt , (28)
V
  
1 1
B = D2 V 3 exp χ2 dt , (29)
V
where Di (i = 1, 2) and χi (i = 1, 2) satisfy the relation D12 D2 = 1 and 2χ1 +χ2 =
0. Since field equations (18)–(20) are three equations having four unknowns and are
highly nonlinear, an extra condition is needed to solve the system completely. Here
we have used two different volumetric expansion laws (Akarsu & Kilinc 2010)
V = at b (30)
and
V = αeβt , (31)
where a, b, α, β are constants. In this way, all possible expansion histories, the
power-law expansion, (30), and the exponential expansion, (31), have been covered.

6. Model for power law

Using (30) in (28) and (29), we obtain the scale factors as follows:

1 b χ1
A = D1 a 3 t 3 exp t 1−b (32)
a(1 − b)
and 
1 b χ2
B = D2 a t exp
3 3 t 1−b
. (33)
a(1 − b)
It reveals that near t = 0, both the scale factor vanishes. Therefore, the model has an
initial singularity. Metric (16) with the help of (32) and (33) can be written as

χ1
ds = dt − D1 a t
2 2 2 2/3 2b/3
exp 2 t 1−b
(dX2 + dY 2 )
a(1 − b) 
χ2
−D22 a 2/3 t 2b/3 exp 2 t 1−b dZ 2 . (34)
a(1 − b)
From (3) and (1) with the help of (30), the energy density (ρWDF ) and pressure
(pWDF ) of the WDF are obtained as
 
ω c
ρWDF = ρ∗ + (35)
1+ω (at b )1+ω
15 Page 8 of 16 J. Astrophys. Astr. (2016) 37:15

and  
c ω ω
pWDF =  1+ω − ρ∗. (36)
at b 1+ω
The matter pressure (pWDF ) and energy density (ρWDF ) of WDF are infinity at t = 0
which is shown in Figure 1.
The directional Hubble parameters as defined in (21) are found as
b χ1
H X = HY = + b, (37)
3t at
b χ2
+ b. HZ = (38)
3t at
From equation (22), the mean Hubble’s parameter, H , is given by
b
H = . (39)
3t
Using the directional and mean Hubble’s parameter in (23), we obtain
3χ 2
= . (40)
a 2 b2 t 2(b−1)
From (24) and (25), the dynamical scalars are given by
b
θ= . (41)
t
At the initial epoch, the Hubble parameter and the shear scalar are infinitely large.
The directional Hubble parameters are dynamical. These are diverse at t = 0 and
approach zero monotonically at t → ∞ which is shown in Figure 2.

1.6

1.4

1.2
Energy density

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time

Figure 1. Energy density versus time t for the particular choice of constants a = 1, b = 3.5,
c = 1, ρ ∗ = 1 and ω = 0.5 in power law model.
J. Astrophys. Astr. (2016) 37:15 Page 9 of 16 15

35
Hubble parameter
Expansion scalar
30

25

20

15

10

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Time

Figure 2. Hubble parameter and expansion scalar versus time t for the particular choice of
constants a = 1, b = 3.5, c = 1, ρ ∗ = 1 and ω = 0.5 in power law model.

χ2
σ2 = , (42)
2a 2 t 2b
where χ 2 = 2χ12 + χ22 = constant.
It is observed that the volume of the Universe expands indefinitely for all pos-
itive values of b. For model (34), the spatial volume, V , is zero at t = 0. Thus,
the Universe starts evolving with zero volume at t = 0 and expands with cosmic
time. Anisotropy of expansion ( ) is not promoted by the WDF. It behaves as a
monotonically decreasing function. The deceleration parameter
3
q= − 1. (43)
b
For large t, the model tends to be isotropic. For b > 3 the deceleration parameter
is negative. The model (34) represents an accelerated Universe. Therefore, the model
is consistent with the cosmological observations.

7. Model for exponential law

Using (31) in (28) and (29), we obtain the scale factors as follows:

1 βt −χ1 −βt
A = D1 α e exp
3 3 e (44)
αβ
and 
1 βt −χ2 −βt
B = D2 α e3 3 exp e , (45)
αβ
15 Page 10 of 16 J. Astrophys. Astr. (2016) 37:15

where Di (i = 1, 2) and χi (i = 1, 2) satisfy the relation D12 D2 = 1 and 2χ1 +

χ2 = 0.
It is clear that the scale factor admit constant values at initial epoch, afterward they
evolve with time without any type of singularity and finally diverge to infinity. This
is consistent with big bang scenario which resembles the study of Katore & Shaikh
(2015).
Metric (16) with the help of (44) and (45) can be written as

2 23 βt χ1 −βt
ds = dt − D1 α e exp −2
2 2 3 e (dX 2 + dY 2 )
αβ 
2 βt χ2 −βt
−D22 α 3 e 3 exp −2 e dZ 2 . (46)
αβ
From (3) and (1) with the help of (31), the energy density (ρWDF ) and pressure
(pWDF ) of the WDF are obtained as
 
ω c
ρWDF = ρ∗ + (47)
1+ω (αeβt )1+ω
and
 
c ω ω
pWDF = − ρ∗. (48)
(αeβt )1+ω 1+ω

From equations (47) and (48) we observe that p > 0, ρ > 0 for specific constant.
It is clear that the energy density is a decreasing function of time which is shown in
Figure 3. At t = 0, it was infinite and as t → ∞, it tends to be a constant. The model
behaves like a steady-state model of the universe.

1.3

1.2

1.1

1
Energy density

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Tme

Figure 3. Energy density versus time t for the particular choice of constants a = 1, b = 3.5,
c = 1, ρ ∗ = 1 and ω = 0.5 in an exponential model.
J. Astrophys. Astr. (2016) 37:15 Page 11 of 16 15

The directional Hubble parameters as defined in (21) are found as

β χ1
HX = HY = + βt , (49)
3 αe

β χ2
HZ = + βt . (50)
3 αe

The directional Hubble parameters, HX , HY , HZ are finite at t = 0. They deviate

from the mean Hubble parameter because of β.
From (22), the mean Hubble’s parameter, H , is given by
β
H = . (51)
3
If time tends to infinity, the directional Hubble parameter tends to a constant value
and the universe asymptotically approaches the de Sitter space.
The anisotropy parameter of the expansion, , is
3χ 2 e−2βt
= . (52)
α2β 2
The value of the anisotropy parameter shows that as time tends to infinity the
anisotropy parameter tends to zero, i.e. the Universe tends to isotropy. At large time
shear becomes insignificant. As t increases, the anisotropy of the expansion ( )
decreases exponentially to null. Thus, the space approaches isotropy in this model.
The expansion scalar, θ, is found to be
θ = β. (53)
The shear scalar, σ 2 , is found to be
χ 2 e−2βt
σ2 = . (54)
2α 2
The expansion scalar, (θ) is constant throughout the evolution of the Universe. The
shear scalar is also finite at t = 0 and becomes zero as t → ∞. The spatial volume
is finite at t = 0. It expands exponentially as t increases and becomes infinitely large
as t → ∞. The deceleration parameter
q = −1. (55)
For large t, the model tends to be isotropic. The deceleration parameter from equa-
tion (55) shows that the universe is accelerating. The value of expansion scalar is
constant i.e. the rate of expansion of the Universe is constant. The ratio of shear
scalar to expansion scalar is non-zero, i.e. the universes are anisotropic and as time
increases it tends to zero, i.e. at the late time the Universe tending to isotropy. The
condition formulated by Collins & Hawkings (1973) of homogeneity and isotropy
i.e. limt→∞ σθ = 0 is satisfied in the present model. We have obtained the deceler-
ation parameter q = −1 and dH /dt = 0 for this model. Hence, it gives the largest
value of the Hubble parameter and the fastest rate of expansion of the Universe. The
15 Page 12 of 16 J. Astrophys. Astr. (2016) 37:15

model may represent the inflationary era in the early universe and the very late time
of the Universe.

8. Some observational constraints

We investigate the consistency of our model (46) with the observational parame-
ters. We measure the physical parameters such as red shift, look-back time, proper
distance, luminosity distance, angular distance etc.

8.1 Exponential law model

8.1.1 Look-back time. The look-back time tL is defined as the elapsed time between
the present age of the Universe t0 and the time t when the light from a cosmic source
at a particular red shift z was emitted. In the context of our model (46) it is given by
R0
dR
tL = t0 − t = , (56)
R
R

where R0 is the present day scale factor of the Universe and

R0
= 1 + z. (57)
R
For the model (46), we have
  3l
R0 e t0
=1+z= , (58)
R et

H0 (t0 − t) = ln(1 + z), (59)

ln(1 + z)
t = t0 − , (60)
H0
where H0 is the present Hubble’s parameter.

8.1.2 Proper distance. The proper distance d(z) is defined as the distance between
a cosmic source emitting light at any instant t = t1 located at r = r1 with red shift z
and an observer at r = 0 and t = t0 receiving the light from the source emitted i.e.
d(z) = r1 R0 , (61)
where
t0
dt
r1 = = H0−1 R0−1 z, (62)
R
t

d(z) = H0−1 z. (63)

The proper distance d(z) is linear with red shift z. From (63), we observe that
d(z = ∞) is always infinite.
J. Astrophys. Astr. (2016) 37:15 Page 13 of 16 15

8.1.3 Luminosity distance. We may define the luminosity distance dL of a light

source as
 1
L 2
dL = r1 R0 (1 + z), (64)
4πl∗
where L is the absolute luminosity and l∗ is the apparent luminosity source. From
(61) and (64), we get
dL = d(z)(1 + z), (65)
which together with (63) gives

dL = H0−1 z(1 + z). (66)

8.1.4 Angular diameter. The angular diameter of a light source of diameter D at

r = r1 and t = t1 observed at r = 0 and t = t0 is given by
D D(1 + z)2
δ= = . (67)
r1 R(t1 ) dL
The angular distance dA is defined as the ratio of the source diameter to its angular
diameter
D
dA = = dL (1 + z)2 . (68)
δ
Using (66), we get
dA = H0−1 z(1 + z)3 . (69)
The proper distance, luminosity distance and angular distance increase with increase
in time which is shown in Figure 4.

20
Proper distance
18 Luminosity distance
Angular distance
16

14

12

10

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Time

Figure 4. Proper distance, luminosity distance and angular distance versus time t for an
exponential model.
15 Page 14 of 16 J. Astrophys. Astr. (2016) 37:15

8.2 Power law model

To investigate the consistency of the model (34), we measure the physical parame-
ters such as red shift, look-back time, proper distance, luminosity distance, angular
diameter etc. as we have obtained for the model (46).

8.2.1 Look-back time.

b −3
H0 (t0 − t) = [1 − (1 + z) b ]. (70)
3
For small z, we have
H0 (t0 − t) ≈ 0. (71)

For large z, we have

H0 (t0 − t) ≈ b/3. (72)
8.2.2 Proper distance.

d(z) = a1 H0−1 [1 − (1 + z)1− b ].

3
(73)

8.2.3 Luminosity distance.

dL = a1 H0−1 [1 − (1 + z)1− b ](1 + z).

3
(74)

8.2.4 Angular diameter.

dA = dL (1 + z)−2 = a1 H0−1 [1 − (1 + z)1− b ](1 + z)−1 .

3
(75)

3
Proper distance
Luminosity distance
Angular distance
2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5
redshif t

Figure 5. Proper distance, luminosity distance and angular distance versus red shift for power
law model.
J. Astrophys. Astr. (2016) 37:15 Page 15 of 16 15

The luminosity distance is linear with respect to red shift, while proper distance and
angular distance attains some constant value with the increment in the red shift (see
Figure 5).

9. Conclusion
Evolution of plane symmetric cosmological model is studied in the presence of Dark
Energy (DE) from a Wet Dark Fluid (WDF) in f(R, T ) gravity. The exact solu-
tions of the field equations have been obtained by assuming two different volumetric
expansion laws in a way to cover all possible expansions: namely, exponential expan-
sion and power-law expansion. In the power law solution, as scale factors diverge to
infinity at the large time there will be big-rip at least as far in the future. For b > 3
the deceleration parameter is negative. The model (34) represents an accelerated
Universe; hence, the model is consistent with the cosmological observations.
In the exponential volumetric expansion, the scale factors attain constant values
at an initial time. This is consistent with the big bang scenario which resembles the
study of Katore & Shaikh (2015). The value of the anisotropy parameter shows that
as time tends to infinity the anisotropy parameter tends to zero, i.e. the Universe tends
to isotropy. The deceleration parameter for this model is q = −1 and it predicts an
accelerated expansion which resembles with Sahoo et al. (2014a, b).
We have also discussed the well-known astrophysical phenomena, namely, look-
back time, proper distance, luminosity distance, angular diameter distance with red
shift. The proper distance d(z) is linear with red shift z which resembles with the
investigations of Samanta (2013c).

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