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that period the same succession may begin again with great
exactness.
22 Ideler, Hist. Unters. p. 208.
The near coincidence of the solar and lunar periods in this cycle of
19 years, was undoubtedly a considerable discovery at the time
when it was first accomplished. It is not easy to trace the way in
which such a discovery was made at that time; for we do not even
know the manner in which men then recorded the agreement or
difference between the calendar day and the celestial phenomenon
which ought to correspond to it. It is most probable that the length of
the month was obtained with some exactness by the observation of
eclipses, at considerable intervals of time from each other; for
eclipses are very noticeable phenomena, and must have been very
soon observed to occur only at new and full moon. 23
23 Thucyd. vii. 50. Ἡ σελήνη ἐκλείπει· ἐτύγχανε γὰρ
π α ν σ έ λ η ν ο ς οὖσα. iv. 52, Τοῦ ἡλίου ἐκλιπές τι ἐγένετο π ε ρ ὶ
ν ο υ μ η ν ί α ν. ii. 28. Νουμηνίᾳ κατὰ σ ε λ ή ν η ν (ὥσπερ καὶ
μόνον δοκεῖ εἶναι γίγνεσθαι δυνατὸν) ὁ ἡλίος ἐξέλιπε μετὰ
μεσημβρίαν καὶ πάλιν ἀν ἐπληρώθη, γενόμενος μηνοειδὴς καὶ
ἀστέρων τινῶν ἐκφανέντων.
While men were becoming familiar with the fixed stars, the
planets must have attracted their notice. Venus, from her brightness,
and 127 from her accompanying the sun at no great distance, and
thus appearing as the morning and evening star, was very
conspicuous. Pythagoras is said to have maintained that the evening
and morning star are the same body, which certainly must have been
one of the earliest discoveries on this subject; and indeed we can
hardly conceive men noticing the stars for a year or two without
coming to this conclusion.
Jupiter and Mars, sometimes still brighter than Venus, were also
very noticeable. Saturn and Mercury were less so, but in fine
climates they and their motion would soon be detected by persons
observant of the heavens. To reduce to any rule the movements of
these luminaries must have taken time and thought; probably before
this was done, certainly very early, these heavenly bodies were
brought more peculiarly under those views which we have noticed as
leading to astrology.
At a time beyond the reach of certain history, the planets, along
with the sun and moon, had been arranged in a certain recognized
order by the Egyptians or some other ancient nation. Probably this
arrangement had been made according to the slowness of their
motions among the stars; for though the motion of each is very
variable, the gradation of their velocities is, on the whole, very
manifest; and the different rate of travelling of the different planets,
and probably other circumstances of difference, led, in the ready
fancy of early times, to the attribution of a peculiar character to each
luminary. Thus Saturn was held to be of a cold and gelid nature;
Jupiter, who, from his more rapid motion, was supposed to be lower
in place, was temperate; Mars, fiery, and the like. 34
34Achilles Tatius (Uranol. pp. 135, 136), gives the Grecian and
Egyptian names of the planets.
Egyptian. Greek.
Saturn Νεμεσέως Κρόνου ἀστὴρ φαίνων
Jupiter Ὀσίριδος Δῖος φαέθων
Mars Ἡρακλεοῦς Ἀρέος πυρόεις
Venus Ἀφροδίτης ἑώσφορος
Mercury Ἀπόλλωνος Ἑρμοῦ στίλβων
The notion which led to the usual designations of the days of the
week is not easily unravelled. The days each correspond to one of
the heavenly bodies, which were, in the earliest systems of the
world, conceived to be the following, enumerating them in the order
of their remoteness from the earth: 36 Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Sun,
Venus, Mercury, the Moon. At a later period, the received systems
placed the seven luminaries in the seven spheres. The knowledge
which was implied in this view, and the time when it was obtained,
we must consider hereafter. The order in which the names are
assigned to the days of the week (beginning with Saturday) is,
Saturn, the Sun, the Moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus; and
various accounts are given of the manner in which one of these
orders is obtained from the other; all the methods proceeding upon
certain arbitrary arithmetical processes, connected in some way with
astrological views. It is perhaps not worth our while here to examine
further the steps of this process; it would be difficult to determine
with certainty why the former order of the planets was adopted, and
how and why the latter was deduced from it. But there is something
very remarkable in the universality of the notions, apparently so
fantastic, which have produced this result; and we may probably
consider the Week, with Laplace, 37 as “the most ancient monument
of astronomical knowledge.” This period has gone on without
interruption or irregularity from the earliest recorded times to our own
days, traversing the extent of ages and the revolutions of empires;
the names of the ancient deities which were associated with the
stars have been replaced by those of the objects of the worship of
our Teutonic ancestors, according to their views of the
correspondence of the two mythologies; and the Quakers, in
rejecting these names of days, have cast aside the most ancient
existing relic of astrological as well as idolatrous superstition.
36 Philol. Mus. No. 1.
It is not easy to say with whom this notion originated. Some parts
of it are obvious. The appearance of the sky naturally suggests the
idea of a concave Sphere, with the stars fixed on its surface. Their
motions during any one night, it would be readily seen, might be
represented by supposing this Sphere to turn round a Pole or Axis;
for there is a conspicuous star in the heavens which apparently
stands still (the Pole-star); all the others travel round this in circles,
and keep the same positions with respect to each other. This
stationary star is every night the same, and in the same place; the
other stars also have the same relative position; but their general
position at the same time of night varies gradually from night to night,
so as to go through its cycle of appearances once a year. All this
would obviously agree with the supposition that the sky is a concave
sphere or dome, that the stars have fixed places on this sphere, and
that it revolves perpetually and uniformly about the Pole or fixed
point.
But this supposition does not at all explain the way in which the
appearances of different nights succeed each other. This, however,
may be explained, it appears, by supposing the sun also to move
among the stars on the surface of the concave sphere. The sun by
his brightness makes the stars invisible which are on his side of the
heavens: this we can easily believe; for the moon, when bright, also
puts out all but the largest stars; and we see the stars appearing in
the evening, each in its place, according to their degree of splendor,
as fast as the declining light of day allows them to become visible.
And as the sun brings day, and his absence night, if he move
through the circuit of the stars in a year, we shall have, in the course
of that time, every part of the starry sphere in succession presented
to us as our nocturnal sky.
This notion, that the sun moves round among the stars in a year,
is the basis of astronomy, and a considerable part of the science is
only the development and particularization of this general
conception. It is not easy to ascertain either the exact method by
which the path of the sun among the stars was determined, or the
author and date of the discovery. That there is some difficulty in
tracing the course of the sun among the stars will be clearly seen,
when it is considered that no 130 star can ever be seen at the same
time with the sun. If the whole circuit of the sky be divided into twelve
parts or signs, it is estimated by Autolycus, the oldest writer on these
subjects whose works remain to us, 38 that the stars which occupy
one of these parts are absorbed by the solar rays, so that they
cannot be seen. Hence the stars which are seen nearest to the place
of the setting and the rising sun in the evening and in the morning,
are distant from him by the half of a sign: the evening stars being to
the west, and the morning stars to the east of him. If the observer
had previously obtained a knowledge of the places of all the principal
stars, he might in this way determine the position of the sun each
night, and thus trace his path in a year.
38 Delamb. A. A. p. xiii.
In this, or some such way, the sun’s path was determined by the
early astronomers of Egypt. Thales, who is mentioned as the father
of Greek astronomy, probably learnt among the Egyptians the results
of such speculations, and introduced them into his own country. His
knowledge, indeed, must have been a great deal more advanced
than that which we are now describing, if it be true, as is asserted,
that he predicted an eclipse. But his having done so is not very
consistent with what we are told of the steps which his successors
had still to make.
The Circle of the Signs, in which the sun moves among the stars,
is obliquely situated with regard to the circles in which the stars
move about the poles. Pliny 39 states that Anaximander, 40 a scholar
of Thales, was the first person who pointed out this obliquity, and
thus, as he says, “opened the gate of nature.” Certainly, the person
who first had a clear view of the nature of the sun’s path in the
celestial sphere, made that step which led to all the rest; but it is
difficult to conceive that the Egyptians and Chaldeans had not
already advanced so far.
39 Lib. ii. c. (viii.)
40 Plutarch, De Plac. Phil. lib. ii. cap. xii. says Pythagoras was the
author of this discovery.
The diurnal motion of the celestial sphere, and the motion of the
moon in the circle of the signs, gave rise to a mathematical science,
the Doctrine of the Sphere, which was one of the earliest branches
of applied mathematics. A number of technical conceptions and
terms were soon introduced. The Sphere of the heavens was
conceived to be complete, though we see but a part of it; it was
supposed to turn about the visible pole and another pole opposite to
this, and these poles were connected by an imaginary Axis. The
circle which divided the sphere exactly midway between these poles
was called the Equator (ἰσημέρινος). 131 The two circles parallel to
this which bounded the sun’s path among the stars were called
Tropics (τροπικαί), because the sun turns back again towards the
equator when he reaches them. The stars which never set are
bounded by a circle called the Arctic Circle (ἄρκτικος, from ἄρκτος,
the Bear, the constellation to which some of the principal stars within
that circle belong.) A circle about the opposite pole is called
Antarctic, and the stars which are within it can never rise to us. 41
The sun’s path or circle of the signs is called the Zodiac, or circle of
animals; the points where this circle meets the equator are the
Equinoctial Points, the days and nights being equal when the sun is
in them; the Solstitial Points are those where the sun’s path touches
the tropics; his motion to the south or to the north ceases when he is
there, and he appears in that respect to stand still. The Colures
(κόλουροι, mutilated) are circles which pass through the poles and
through the equinoctial and solstitial points; they have their name
because they are only visible in part, a portion of them being below
the horizon.
41 The Arctic and Antarctic Circles of modern astronomers are
different from these.
We may here remark the first instance of that which we shall find
abundantly illustrated in every part of the history of science; that man
is prone to become a deductive reasoner;—that as soon as he
obtains principles which can be traced to details by logical
consequence, he sets about forming a body of science, by making a
system of such reasonings. Geometry has always been a favorite
mode of exercising this propensity: and that science, along with
Trigonometry, Plane and Spherical, to which the early problems of
astronomy gave rise, have, up to the present day, been a constant
field for the exercise of mathematical ingenuity; a few simple
astronomical truths being assumed as the basis of the reasoning.
Sect. 11.—Eclipses.
Eclipses of the sun and moon were from the earliest tunes
regarded with a peculiar interest. The notions of superhuman
influences and relations, which, as we have seen, were associated
with the luminaries of the sky, made men look with alarm at any
sudden and striking change in those objects; and as the constant
and steady course of the celestial revolutions was contemplated with
a feeling of admiration and awe, any marked interruption and
deviation in this course, was regarded with surprise and terror. This
appears to be the case with all nations at an early stage of their
civilization.