Reinforced Concrete Basics Analysis and Design of ... - (CHAPTER 6 Footings and Retaining Walls)

Footings and retaining walls
where δ is the angle of (external) friction that is frequently taken as two-

thirds to three-quarters of φ. The bearing pressure is distributed over the
length a, which cannot exceed the base length L.
s
h
S W4
W1 PA2
H
PAV
W3 PA1
weep holes at
(H+D)/2
(H+h+D)/3
regular intervals
D
A
W2 F
Copyright © 2021. Pearson Education Australia. All rights reserved.
q R
a/3
a
L
Figure 6.14 Forces on a cantilever retaining wall
6.3.3 Design and construction considerations

Retaining walls and other earth retaining structures up to 15 metres in height
must satisfy the requirements of AS 4678. This standard specifies the require-
ments for site investigation and testing, structure design and construction.
Amongst other limitations, the standard does not cover retaining structures
418 Reinforced concrete basics

Foster, S., Kilpatrick, A., & Warner, R. (2021). Reinforced concrete basics : Analysis and design of reinforced concrete structures, pearson original edition. Pearson Education Australia.
Created from uow on 2024-05-22 09:30:26.
Copyright © 2021 Pearson Australia (a division of Pearson Australia Group Pty Ltd) 9780655703662 Reinforced Concrete Basics 3e
Retaining walls
founded in unusual conditions such as soft ground or land slip areas. For wall
heights greater than 1.5 metres, earth retaining structures are classified as A,
B or C according to the consequences of failure if it were to occur.
For cantilever retaining walls, the following should be considered at the ulti-
mate limit state: global failure (Figure 6.11(a)), sliding (Figure 6.11(b)), over-
turning (Figure 6.11(c)), and failure of components of the structure
(Figure 6.11(d)). Serviceability considerations include rotation, translation
and settlement of the structure. The requirements for overall stability − partic-
ularly overturning and sliding − are defined in AS/NZS 1170.0.
Actions are divided into two groups: those that produce net stabilising effects
and those that cause net destabilising effects. When assessing overturning and
sliding, the combinations that should be considered are:
0.9 G d,stb + φR d ≥ 1.2 G d,dst + W u + ψ c Q d,dst (6.17)
0.9 G d,stb + φR d ≥ G d,dst + E u + ψ c Q d,dst (6.18)
0.9 G d,stb + φR d ≥ 1.2 G d,dst + 1.2 F gw + 1.5 F e + ψ c Q d,dst (6.19)
The terms in these equations are as follows:

Gd.stb is the permanent action (dead load) assisting stability and
includes the self-weight of the wall and any soil above its base.
φRd is the design resistance of any part of the wall assisting stability (in
this instance φ is the capacity reduction factor, not the friction angle of
the soil).
Gd.dst is the permanent action causing instability.
Fe is the effect of the lateral pressure from the soil at the service condi-
tion (not ultimate).
ψc is a combination factor specified in AS/NZS 1170.0 Table 4.1 and
is typically 0.4.
Reinforced concrete basics 419

Qd.dst is the imposed action (live load) causing instability. The mini-
mum surcharge (AS 4678), which depends on the classification of the
wall and the slope of the backfill, varies between 1.5 kPa and 5.0 kPa.
Wu is the ultimate wind load.
Eu is the part of any earthquake load causing instability.
Fgw is the groundwater pressure (if any), where the groundwater level
is given in AS/NZS 1170.1.
For many isolated cantilever retaining walls built in low-risk earthquake

areas and with no ground water pressure, the critical action combination is
usually a simplified version of Equation 6.19:
0.9 G d,stb ≥ 1.2 G d,dst + 1.5 F e + ψ c Q d,dst (6.20)
When considering the overturning limit state, the resultant of the bearing
pressure R approaches the toe as the base loses contact with the soil, and thus
any moment of R about the toe is ignored.
A suggested design procedure for a cantilever wall is as follows:

1. After an appropriate site investigation, identify and consider all
constraints (such as property boundaries) and the influence of the
site conditions upon the wall design. The aggressive properties of
the soil and environmental conditions should be established and

used to determine the concrete strength and cover to the reinforce-
ment. If necessary, a slope stability analysis should be undertaken to
ensure that a global failure (Figure 6.11(a)) does not take place.
Consideration should also be given to the construction of the wall
and its drainage.
2. Select trial dimensions of the wall and base. Typically, the thick-
nesses of the wall and the base of a cantilever retaining wall are of
the order of H/14. Depending on the quality of the soil under the
base and its allowable bearing pressure, the length L of the base is
usually in the range 0.5H−0.7H.

Retaining walls
3. Using the formulae appropriate to the soil being retained and that
under the base, determine the service forces acting on the wall, as
shown in Figure 6.14.
4. Calculate the service bearing pressures under the base using Equa-
tions 6.3 to 6.6, as appropriate. If the maximum pressure exceeds
the allowable pressure, revise the length of the base and return to
step 2.
5. Check the stability of the wall. Using the stability criterion given in
Equation 6.20, check the wall for adequacy against overturning and
sliding. If one or other is not satisfied, or if the left-hand side of the
equation exceeds but is not sufficiently close to the right-hand side,
then revise the dimensions of the wall and base and return to step 2.
Consider also the provision of a shear key if sliding resistance needs
to be improved.
6. Design and detail the reinforcement. Since the flexural reinforce-
ment in the wall and in the base is designed at the strength limit
state, all service pressures calculated previously are multiplied by
1.5 to determine the design stress resultants. Transverse shear is
checked and longitudinal reinforcement is provided to control
cracking. All reinforcement is detailed to ensure adequate anchor-
age and crack control.
Additional design guidelines and useful construction details are provided in

CMAA (2013) and CC&AA (2008). The design of a simple cantilever retain-
ing wall is illustrated in the following example.
EXAMPLE 6.3
DESIGN OF A CANTILEVER RETAINING WALL
A retaining wall is to be designed to support a 4.0 metre high step change in

the surface of a gravelly clay deposit, as shown in Figure 6.15. The backfill
will be crushed gravel whose horizontal surface is to support a service
imposed load of 5 kPa for which ψc = 1.0. Considering stability and strength
criteria only, design a suitable cantilever wall. For durability, covers of

50 mm and 75 mm are required for the wall and base respectively, and
f c' = 25 MPa .
The allowable bearing pressure of the foundation has been assessed by a geo-
technical investigation to be qa = 250 kPa and the design properties of the
soils are taken as:
Gravelly clay: φ = 30o, c = 5 kPa, γ = 18 kN/m3
Crushed gravel: φ = 30o, c = 0 kPa, γ = 17 kN/m3
s = 5 kPa
backfill-
crushed gravel
4000
600
gravelly
clay
Figure 6.15 Retaining wall: Example 6.3
SOLUTION
Soil properties: Taking the angle of external friction as δ = 0.75 φ , then:

o o
Base: δ = 0.75 × 30 = 22
o 2
1 – 1 – ( cos 30 )
Backfill: β = 0 and k a = ----------------------------------------------- = 0.33 (Equation 6.9)
o 2
1 + 1 – ( cos 30 )

Retaining walls
Trial wall dimensions and forces:

Total height = H + base thickness = H + H ⁄ 14
= 4000 ( 1 + 1 ⁄ 14 ) = 4300 mm, say
Wall and base thickness = 300 mm, say
Base width L = 0.7H = 0.7 × 4300 = 3000 mm
In Figure 6.14 for a one metre length of wall:
W 1 = 0.3 × 4.0 × 25 = 30.0 kN
W 2 = 3.0 × 0.3 × 25 = 22.5 kN
W 3 = 2.1 × 4.0 × 17 = 142.8 kN
S = 5 × 2.1 = 10.5 kN
∴ R = 30.0 + 22.5 + 142.8 + 10.5 = 205.8 kN
1 2 1 2
P A1 = --- k a γ ( H + D ) = --- × 0.33 × 17 × ( 4.0 + 0.3 ) = 51.9 kN
2 2
P A2 = 0.33 × 5 × 4.3 = 7.1 kN P AV = 0
Bearing pressures (service):

For a one metre length of wall, W = 1, and the largest and smallest bearing
pressures are (Equation 6.4):
N 6M
q max,min = -------- ± -----------
WL WL 2
where N = R and M is the moment of the forces about an axis through the cen-
troid of the footing.
Taking anti-clockwise as positive:
M = 30.0 ( 1.5 – 0.75 ) + 22.5 × 0 – 142.8 ( 1.5 – 1.05 )
– 10.5 ( 1.5 – 1.05 ) + 51.9 × 4.3 ⁄ 3 + 7.1 × 4.3 ⁄ 2
= 43.2 kNm

e = M ⁄ N = 43.2 ⁄ 205.8 = 0.21 m = 210 mm
L ⁄ 6 = 3000 ⁄ 6 = 500 mm
As e < L ⁄ 6 , then from Equation 6.4:
205.8 6 × 43.2
q max = ------------- + ------------------- = 97 kPa and
1×3 1 × 32
205.8 6 × 43.2
q min = ------------- – ------------------- = 40 kPa
1×3 1 × 32
Since the maximum applied bearing pressure at the base (97 kPa) is less than
the allowable pressure (250 kPa), bearing is OK.
Overturning about the toe:

The stabilising moment is calculated as:
M d,stb = 30.0 × 0.75 + 22.5 × 1.5 + 142.8 × 1.95 + 10.5 × 1.95
= 355 kNm
The destabilising moments are:

MG d,dst = 0, M e = 51.9 × 4.3 ⁄ 3 = 74.4 kNm
MQ d,dst = 7.1 × 4.3 ⁄ 2 = 15.3 kNm

In Equation 6.20:
LHS = 0.9 × 355 = 319 kNm
RHS = 1.5 × 74.4 + 1.0 × 15.3 = 127 kNm

and since LHS > RHS the overturning requirement is satisfied.
Sliding failure:
The stabilising frictional force is (Equation 6.16):
o
F d,stb = 205.8 tan 22 + 5 × 3.0 = 98.1 kN

Retaining walls
The destabilising frictional forces are:

FG d,dst = 0, Fe = 51.9 kN and FQ d,dst = 7.1 kN
In Equation 6.20:
LHS = 0.9 × 98.1 = 88.3 kN and
RHS = 1.5 × 51.9 + 1.0 × 7.1 = 85.0 kN
Since LHS > RHS, then the wall has a sufficient factor of safety against slid-
ing along its base and the sliding requirement is satisfied.
Proportioning of wall reinforcement:

For the strength limit state, multiply all earth pressures by 1.5.
At the base of the wall:

1 2
P A1 = --- k a γH = 44.9 kN P A2 = k a sH = 6.6 kN
2
4.0 4.0
M∗ = 1.5 × § 44.9 × ------- + 6.6 × -------· = 110 kNm
© 3 2¹
which produces tension on the retained (inside) face of the wall. For an effec-
tive depth d = 300 – 50 – 20 ⁄ 2 = 240 mm, this requires a steel proportion of:
2
p = 2.5 × 110 ⁄ 240 = 0.0048
and, as this is greater than the minimum for a one-way slab:
2 2
p min = 0.20 ( D s ⁄ d ) ( f ct.f
' ⁄ f sy ) = 0.20 ( 300 ⁄ 240 ) ( 3.0 ⁄ 500 )
= 0.0019
then:
2
A st = 0.0048 × 1000 × 240 = 1150 mm /m width
and we will provide vertical reinforcement of N20 bars at 260 mm centres to

meet this requirement.

For shrinkage in the longitudinal direction of the wall, use p = 0.0035bD for a
moderate degree of crack control (partially restrained – exposure classifica-
tion B1, B2 or C). Hence:
2
A s = 0.0035 × 1000 × 300 = 1050 mm /m width
and we will provide horizontal reinforcement of N16 bars at 250 mm centres

(800 mm2) at the back face and N10 at 200 mm centres (400 mm2) at the
front face.
Proportioning of heel reinforcement:

As the bending moment in the heel, which produces tension in the top of the
base, is slightly smaller than that in the wall, the same reinforcement as that
used in the wall will be adopted: N20 bars at 260 mm centres.
As for the wall we shall adopt p = 0.0035bD for a moderate degree of crack
control which requires As = 1050 mm2/m width. Provide two layers of longi-
tudinal N12 bars at 200 mm centres (giving 1100 mm2/m).
Proportioning of toe reinforcement:

For the toe, the cover is 75 mm and, assuming 16 mm diameter bars, the
effective depth to the reinforcing steel is:
d = 300 – 75 – 16 ⁄ 2 = 217 mm
The (service) bearing pressure at the face of the wall is 86 kPa and the design
bending moment there is approximately:
97 + 86 0.6
M∗ ≈ 1.5 × ------------------ × 0.6 × ------- = 24.7 kNm/m width
2 2
for which:
2
p = 2.5 × 24.7 ⁄ 217 = 0.0013
but not less than pmin = 0.0023. The steel reinforcement area is thus:
2
A st = 0.0023 × 1000 × 217 = 500 mm /m width

Retaining walls
and we require N16 bars at 300 centres (670 mm2/m). Note that the final bar
spacing of N16 at 260 mm is selected to match the top bars to make it easier
to tie together the two reinforcement layers to form a stiff cage.
Again for a moderate degree of crack control we shall provide two layers of
N12 bars at 200 mm centres longitudinally.
Design for shear:

A check of the transverse shear in the wall shows that the wall has adequate
capacity without the need for fitments.
The reinforcement details for the retaining wall are presented in Figure 6.16.
N16 @ 260 - 50cover

- 600 lap
N10 @ 200
each way
N16 @ 250
4000
- 50 cover
N20 @ 260 - 50cover

1200
N20 @ 260 - 75cover

N12 @ 200
300
N16 @ 260 - 75cover N12 @ 200
600 300
3000
Figure 6.16 Reinforcement details: Example 6.3


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Footings and retaining walls

where δ is the angle of (external) friction that is frequently taken as two-

Figure 6.14 Forces on a cantilever retaining wall

6.3.3 Design and construction considerations

418 Reinforced concrete basics

0.9 G d,stb + φR d ≥ 1.2 G d,dst + W u + ψ c Q d,dst (6.17)

0.9 G d,stb + φR d ≥ G d,dst + E u + ψ c Q d,dst (6.18)

0.9 G d,stb + φR d ≥ 1.2 G d,dst + 1.2 F gw + 1.5 F e + ψ c Q d,dst (6.19)

The terms in these equations are as follows:

Reinforced concrete basics 419

For many isolated cantilever retaining walls built in low-risk earthquake

0.9 G d,stb ≥ 1.2 G d,dst + 1.5 F e + ψ c Q d,dst (6.20)

A suggested design procedure for a cantilever wall is as follows:

the soil and environmental conditions should be established and

420 Reinforced concrete basics

Additional design guidelines and useful construction details are provided in

A retaining wall is to be designed to support a 4.0 metre high step change in

Reinforced concrete basics 421

Gravelly clay: φ = 30o, c = 5 kPa, γ = 18 kN/m3

Crushed gravel: φ = 30o, c = 0 kPa, γ = 17 kN/m3

Figure 6.15 Retaining wall: Example 6.3

Soil properties: Taking the angle of external friction as δ = 0.75 φ , then:

422 Reinforced concrete basics

Trial wall dimensions and forces:

W 2 = 3.0 × 0.3 × 25 = 22.5 kN

W 3 = 2.1 × 4.0 × 17 = 142.8 kN

Bearing pressures (service):

Reinforced concrete basics 423

e = M ⁄ N = 43.2 ⁄ 205.8 = 0.21 m = 210 mm

As e < L ⁄ 6 , then from Equation 6.4:

Overturning about the toe:

The destabilising moments are:

MQ d,dst = 7.1 × 4.3 ⁄ 2 = 15.3 kNm

RHS = 1.5 × 74.4 + 1.0 × 15.3 = 127 kNm

424 Reinforced concrete basics

The destabilising frictional forces are:

RHS = 1.5 × 51.9 + 1.0 × 7.1 = 85.0 kN

Proportioning of wall reinforcement:

At the base of the wall:

and we will provide vertical reinforcement of N20 bars at 260 mm centres to

Reinforced concrete basics 425

and we will provide horizontal reinforcement of N16 bars at 250 mm centres

Proportioning of heel reinforcement:

Proportioning of toe reinforcement:

426 Reinforced concrete basics

Design for shear:

N16 @ 260 - 50cover

N20 @ 260 - 50cover

N20 @ 260 - 75cover

N16 @ 260 - 75cover N12 @ 200

Figure 6.16 Reinforcement details: Example 6.3

Reinforced concrete basics 427

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