1.2 Supporting systems and movement in animals Almost all animals and plants are held in shape or supported in some way. In animals, support systems usually take the form of a skeleton which not only supports the animal but protects it and enables it to move, Movement is a characteristic of all living organisms. Types of skeletons Skeletal systems can be divided into three types: A. Hydrostatic skeletons - consist of fluid- filled, closed chambers within an organism B. Exoskeletons — surround the body of an organism €. Endoskeletons ~ occur within the body of an organism. A. Hydrostatic Skeletons A hydrostatic skeleton consist of fluid-filled, closed chamber/s inside the body, that provide support against which muscles can contract to bring about movement, Similar to a water-filled balloon. Hydrostatic skeletons also help to cushion internal parts from shock. Which animals. have _ hydrostatic skeletons? Hydrostatic skeletons occur in soft-bodied invertebrates, such as: © coelenterates, e.g jellyfish, anemones + annelids, e.g. earthworms + nematodes, e.g, roundworms. How do these animals move? Contracting the muscles surrounding the fuid-filled cavity creates pressure that causes a change in shape of the animal. This causes movement such as burrowing, crawling or swimming, e.g. + jellyfish move by contracting their bell-shaped form, forcing water out of the bell, which propels the jellyfish forward. This type of skeleton is well suited for aquatic animals. * earthworms use their hydrostatic skeletons to change their body shape as they move forward by peristalsis. Circular and longitudinal muscles produce movement through waves of contraction and relaxation, When lengthwise muscles contract, segments of the body shorten; when circular muscles contract, a7 segments of the body elongate. Chaetae (bristles) press into the ground to ensure that the earthworm moves forward. What are the disadvantages of hydrostatic skeletons? ‘These mainly soft bodied animals: + lack well developed skeletal defense mechanisms + havea restricted range of movement «are confined to areas near or in water as they lose water so readily + cannot reach any great size, whether they live on land or in the water. B. Exoskeletons Although exoskeletons are found in many groups of animals such as tortoises, corals, star fish, molluses ‘with shells and diatoms, arthropods form the main group of animals that have exoskeletons. In arthropods the exoskeleton is made from the polysaccharide, chitin ~ a substance similar to cellulose found in the cell walls of plants. It isa light and quite strong compound. What are the advantages of an arthropod exoskeleton? ‘An arthropod exoskeleton: + is an external structure that supports the animal and protects its internal organs from injury. + has muscles attached to knobs and plates so it allows for movement. + has joints where the exoskeleton is thin and flexible, enabling the animals to move more easily. + is often covered with a layer of wax called a cuticle that reduces loss of water from the body, preventing the animal from drying out. Did you know? Exoskeletons first appeared in the fossil record about 550 million years ago.= See ee ee ee What are the exoskeletons? + Because of their rigidity, exoskeletons Ii mobility. + They also limit growth, A large animal would need a large exoskeleton that would be very heavy and restrict movement. disadvantages of How can these overcome? Growth limitations are overcome in the following ways: + Arthropods shed their exoskeletons to enable them to grow ~ a process called moulting or ecdysis. A new exoskeleton is regenerated by the underlying epidermis. After the exoskeleton is shed, the arthropod pumps up its body by the intake ‘of air or water to expand the new exoskeleton to a larger size. Dehydration of the cuticle then takes place which causes it to harden into an exoskeleton. Animals become easy prey to predators when they are moulting, + Many molluses have calcareous shells and, as they grow, the diameter of the shell is added to and enlarged without altering its shape. disadvantages be Movement limitations can be overcome by allowing flexibility in the following ways: 2 * The arthropod exoskeleton is divided into different functional units, e.g. the head, thorax and abdomen of insects. f + Arthropods have jointed limbs where the exoskeleton is thin at the joints, enabling the leg to a Jointed leg of an insect C. Endoskeletons Endoskeletons are found within the body of an animal. All vertebrates possess an endoskeleton. Some, such as turtles, terrapins and tortoises also have an exoskeleton. Vertebrate skeletons are made of either bone and/or cartilage. Sharks and rays have skeletons made of cartilage which is softer and lighter than bone, What are the endoskeleton? An endoskeleton: ‘+ supports the body, giving it shape. + is made up of living tissue that can grow as the animal increases in size. + protects the internal organs such as the brain, Jungs and heart. * provides anchors for muscles which work with bones to allow movement. advantages of an Learning activity 1 Skeletons Question 1 Study the following drawings. In the spaces provided, name each animal and state what kind of skeleton it has. Drawings of animals {16}Question 2 Answer the following questions: 1. Do you think animals living on land or in the water need more support? Explain your answer. 2) 2. Do you think that the following statement is correct? ‘Exoskeletons are a defensive adaptation.’ (2) _ [41 Question 3 ‘The diagram below is of a cuttlefish, probably best known for its cuttlebone, usually found at the bottom of a bird cage. It is a unique cephalopod, belonging to the phylum Mollusca. It has green blood, three hearts, and an ability to change colour ina flash to mimic its environment. Study the diagram carefully and answer the questions that follow. 1. What type of skeleton does a cuttlefish have? (1) 2. How would a cuttlefish propel itself forwards? (2) 3. Besides support, what do you think the function of the cuttlebone is? (2) 4, Can you think of any other defence mechanism exhibited by a cuttlefish? (2) 5. Name an example of animal that belongs to the same group as the cuttlefish. (1) ee ee cas-iled cutlebone inside marie lage eye tend 8 suckerned arms and? tentacles surtoundoa mouth undulating fin funnel Total [28] Learning activity 2 Advantages and different skoletons disadvantages of On an A4 sheet of paper, draw up a table to illustrate the advantages and disadvantages of the three types of skeletons; hydrostatic skeletons, exoskeletons and endoskeletons. What tissues endoskeleton? 1. Cartilage 2, Bone Ligaments and tendons will be discussed on page 63. make up an 1. Cartilage Cartilage occurs in isolated areas in the body such as in part of the ribs, the nose, pinna of the ear, between vertebrae and in the lining of joints. Cartilage is much softer than bone because it contains less minerals. 1a few blood vessels anid no nerves. How is cartilage made up? ‘There are three types of cartilage - hyaline, elastic and fibrous cartilage. All three types have the same basic components: + chondrocytes (mature cartilage cells) in lacunae (cavities) surrounded by + a matrix made up of a jelly-like substance in which both collagen fibres (for flexibility and strength) and elastic fibres (for elasticity) are deposited + a large amount of tissue fluid. In fact, cartilage is up to 80% water!Why is cartilage important? Cartilage’ + lines many joints, facilitating smooth movement acts as a shock absorber between vertebrae # forms flexible structures such as the epiglottis and pinna of the ear. 2. Bone Bone makes up the bulk of the skeleton. It is the hardest tissue in the body but it needs to be as light as possible to reduce the weight that an animal must move about. Bone tissue is supplied with blood vessels, nerves and lymph vessels, How is bone tissue made up? Bone tissue is made up of osteocytes in lacunae set in a matrix made up of the following: + collagen fibres (made up of complex proteins) that stick to each other in a criss-cross, pattern, giving bone its flexibility, making it strong and durable. They have a glistening white appearance, and are also called white fibres. Collagen fibres are stronger than steel fibres of the same size. + minerals, including calcium salts, that are incorporated into the matrix in a process called mineralization, account for the extreme hardness of bone. See diagram on next page. How is bone tissue classified? ‘There are two types of bone tissue: 1. Compact bone 2. Spongy (cancellous) bone 1. Compact bone is: * found on the surface of hones and the shafts of the limb bones + very hard and dense and looks smooth and homogeneous + made up of many Haversian systems or osteons # provides strength and support to the body. osteocjtein lacuna vein canalcul anery rats, coining calcium salts and colagen fires AHaversian system 2. Spongy bone (cancellous bone) is: + lighter in weight and has a more open structure + made up of small thin plates of bone called trabeculae which form an irregular network + able to resist stress as the plates of trabeculae are precisely arranged along lines of stress + able to form red (erythrocytes) and white (eucocytes) blood cells in the red marrow found in the spaces between the trabeculae. Note: Osteocytes are inactive mature bone cells. If more bone is needed they are stimulated and form ‘osteoblasts which lay down new bone tissue. If bone tissue needs to be broken down osteoclasts are formed in the lacunae to do this. To sum up Bone is very important because: + Compact bone in the limbs and other parts of the skeleton gives strength and support to the body. + Spongy bone helps the skeleton to resist stress and to manufacture red and white blood cells. How are bones classified? Bones come in many different sizes and shapes and are divided into four groups according to their tee Long, short, Irregular and flat bones. 1. Long bones ‘These bones are not necessarily long but, as the name suggests, they are much longer than they are wide. They are made up of a shaft, the diaphysis, and two heads, the epiphyses. Except for the patella (knee cap) and the bones of the wrist and ankles, all the bones of the limbs, are long bones. The phalanges in the fingers and toes are long bones even though they are very small. ‘These bones provide support for the limbs and for the attachment of muscles, enabling the limbs to bring about movement.© study the diagram of a section through a tong bone very well, taking note of the labels and the functions of the parts. You can learn so much from this single drawing. hyaline ariculcatlage ~ preven fiction epiphysis (head) = ‘made up manny of spongy Bone surounded bby compact bone ‘spongy bone wth red marrow ~ ‘made up of rabecuae aranged to withstand stress; Red mart produces red (erythrocytes) and whe leacoyies) blood cals compact bone ~ gives strength and support marrow cavty in aduts it contains faty yellow marrow petiasteum ~ tough membrane Surrounds and protec the bone blood vessel - brings nutrients and removes waste daphysis (shat) ~ made up of ‘a cylinder of compact bone wich ‘sigh but song ‘The structure of a typical long bone 2. Short bones Short bones are cube-shaped bones which are nearly equal in length and width. They are made up of spongy bone except at the surface where there is a thin layer of compact bone. Examples are the carpals of the wrist and the tarsals of the ankle, The movement of these bones enables the wrists and ankles to rotate and move in many directions. 3. Flat bones Flat bones are thin, flattened and usually slightly curved bones. They are made up of two parallel layers of compact bone with a layer of spongy bone between. Flat bones effectively protect parts of the body and provide large areas for the attachment of muscles. Examples are the cranial bones (brain box), the sternum (breastbone), ribs and scapulae (shoulder blades). Note that the plural of scapula is scapulae as it is a Latin word. Sa eee | ee 4, Irregular bones Bones that cannot fit into any of the other three classes are called irregular bones. They have complicated shapes and are mainly made up of spongy bone enclosed by thin layers of compact done. Examples are the vertebrae and the hip bones. Learning activity 3 Mix and match Match each description in Column A with a corresponding item in Column B and write the correct letter in the space provided. Column A Column B 1. regular bone A. trabeculae 2. compact bone B. bone tissue 3. cranial bones ©. bone heads 4, flat bone D. carpal 5. spongy bone E. scopula 6. mineralization F. vertebra 7. elastic and collagen fibres | G. cartilage 8. epiohyses. H. Haversian system 9. diaphyses |. brain box 10. short bone J. bone shafts, Total [10] Assessment activity 1 Structure of a long bone Practical Investigation — Group Work LOM (AS2, AS9), LOZ (AST, AS2) ‘Skills: following instructions, making observations, identifying, organizing, presenting data, recording information What must the educator bring? Bones! Decide how many long bones are needed! one bone for four or five learners works well. Order ox or sheep femurs from the local butcher. Do this well in advance so there is time to collect the correct number of bones. Ask the butcher to saw the= NS Rea mane ee bones lengthwise into two. If they are ox femurs, each half can be sawn again horizontally into two, Ifpossible, try to find a number of dry femurs which can be compared with the fresh ones. Instructions * Work in groups ~ the size will depend on the number of bones and the number of learners in the class. + Supply each group with a fresh femur of an ox ora sheep. * Groups to study the appearance of the femur, noting the size, colour and external covering. + Each leamer to draw and label a longitudinal section through a long bone. + Each Jleamer to answer the following questions. * Complete and supmit a record of the investigation by end of session. © Enjoy this activity, help each other and discuss “your answers to the questions betow. Question 1 1.1, What colour is the bone? (1) _ 1.2. What colour do you think a dry bone would be? (1) 2. The ends of the epiphyses are covered by a different tissue, 2.1 Whats this tissue called? (1) _ 2.2 What is the function of this tissue? (1) 3. Describe exactly where the following are found in the fern 3.1, compact bone (2) 3.2. spongy (cancellous) bone. (1) 4. Where are the following found in the femur? 4.1. yellow marrow (2)_ 4.2.1ed marrow (2) _ 5. Mention a function of red marrow. (2) 6. Pull some of the periosteum away from the bone. 6.1, What can you see? (1) 6.2. What could cause this phenomenon? (2) 7.1 Describe the pattern of the trabeculae (bony plates) in the heads of the femur. (2) 7.2 What is the purpose of such an arrangement? (2)Question 2 In the space provided draw a clear, labelled diagram of the longitudinal section through the bone you have studied. Draw the bone horizontally. Can you see where the ligaments of the muscles were attached to the femur? Ifso, show these areas on your drawing. Supply a suitable heading Assessment criteria Achievement levels Total 1 2 3 5 6 1. Question 1: (rats) v2 | as | 6-8 | 9-1 | 12-146 | 5-17 | 18-20 No.of teria met 1 2 3 Question 2: No.oferieiamet | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Comment: a7 Criteria for Question 1: Evaluating data for Question 2 ‘+ for made to answer al questons ‘+ Accuracy of diagram - size, shape and proportions ‘+ Valé observations made where apoicabie ‘+ Pencil used for drain and label nes ‘© Valé conclusions craw where applicable ‘+ Diagram neat and clear wth a descriptive heading ‘+ Label ines drawn wit ruler and not crossed ‘+ Labels leary ten in ink ‘+ Viste pas labeled corecty ‘+ Aachen points for tendons drawn in ery Learning activity 4 Demonstration 1 ‘A demonstration to determine the * Place asmall length of bone, such as the shaft characte s of the inorganic and of a chop bone, in a glass beaker. Cover with organic components of bone The following demonstration will show the characteristics that the two main components give to bone. This can be demonstrated by the educator. Ailute hydrochloric acid (3%. Leave for three days. Use tongs to remove the bone and rinse under cold water Bend the bone and note what happens.= ee eT Demonstration 2 Use tongs to hold a small length of bone in the flame of a Bunsen burner for three to five minutes. Ifyou place the bone in a tin tray above the bumer it will take about 15 minutes to burn * Letthebone cool. © Crush the bone and note its texture and appearance. testtube ue He! piece of bone tin tray Ploce of bone Bunsen burner Apparatus to investigate the characteristics of the components of bone Questions Answer the following questions on Demonstration 1. 1, Describe the appearance of the bone after it was removed from the HCl. 2. What component do you think the HCI reacted on? 3. Did the bone bend easily? _ 4, What can you demonstration? deduce from — this 5. What characteristic of which component of bone does this demonstrate? Answer the following questions on Demonstration 2. 1. Describe the appearance of the bone after it was crushed. 2. What component do you think the heat acted on? deduce from this 3. What can you demonstration? 4, What characteristic of which component of bone does this demonstrate? Bone injuries + A bone fracture is a break or crack in a bone. + Asstress fracture is a small crack in a bone that occurs as a result of repeated pressure on the bone due to prolonged activities such as walking or running, + A greenstick fracture is an incomplete break of the bone. As the bone bends, it cracks ‘on one side, This type of fracture is common in children as their bones are softer. What causes a fracture? Fractures occur when a bone cannot withstand the physical force exerted on it. This is usually caused by some sort of trauma such as: ‘+ injuries from falls, sport or vehicle accidents ‘+ physical abuse ‘+ diseases that weaken bone, e.g. osteoporosis. Adults and children who play a lot of contact sport are more likely to break a bone. After middle age, women are more likely than men to break a bone because they suffer from osteoporosis (a disease that affects bone strength) more than men,How are different fractures described? A fracture may be: complete when the bone has broken into two pieces incomplete - greenstick when bone cracks but does not break simple fracture when the bone breaks cleanly but does not penetrate the skin compound or open fracture when the broken ends of the bone stick through the skin comminuted fracture when the bone fragments into many pieces. complete, comminuted incomplete, ——_compaund, simple fracture greenstck ‘open fracture frecure Different kinds of fractures How cana fracture be treated? A stress fracture usually only needs rest, ice packs, anti-inflammatories and to stop doing the activity that caused the injury. To treat a broken bone: An X-ray may be necessary to see what type of fracture it is. The broken pieces may need to be put back in place (realigned). The bone must be immobilized by a cast or by pins until they heal, as new bone forms around the break. Sepeeree See ee ‘An X-ray showing a compound fractured femur Human skeleton What are the functions of the skeleton? ‘The bones of the skeleton provide the body with: 1. Support ~ enabling the body to stay upright and keep its shape. 2. Protection - for the internal organs and tissues of the body such as the heart, lungs and brain 3. Movement ~ by the muscles that are attached to the bones. 4, Blood cells ~ formed in the red marrow of bones. 5. Mineral salts ~ calcium and phosphates form part of bones and are stored in them. 6. Hearing - the ossicles in the middle ear transmit sound waves to the inner ear and enable us to hear. How is the skeleton made up? ‘The 206 named hanes making wp the human skeleton can be grouped into two divisions: A. Axial skeleton which forms the long axis of the body and is made up of the bones of the skull, the vertebral column and the rib cage and sternum, B. Appendicular skeleton which is made up of the upper and lower limbs and the limb girdles which attach the limbs to the axial skeleton.= RES RE SR a ( cranium Skull facial bones z 3 5 civ stemum sectoral ge 3 | tonyitorer C theaye seapula ) q i hues verbal — 33 vetebrae aS om upper int pele ore patela tibia fule lower ind key B- aval skeleton G.- anpendiuir skeleton Axial and appendicular skeletons No1a7aMS NVTNOIGNaddy¥L)Learning activity 5 Axial and Appendicular skeleton Re ROE eRe ee = Study the diagram of the human skeleton very closely. Now design a mind map, horizontally in the space below, to show what groups of bones make up the axial skeleton and what groups the appendicular skeleton. A. Axial skeleton ‘The axial skeleton provides the central support for the body, It also protects the internal organs such as the brain, spinal cord and the organs in the thorax. This part of the skeleton is made up of three regions: 1. skull 2. vertebral column (spine or spinal column) 3. bony thorax (rib cage and sternum). 1. The structure of the skull Most skull bones are flat bones which are immovably joined together. The mandible (lower jaw) is an exception in that it can move. ‘The skull is formed by two sets of bones: a. Cranial bones form the cranium (brain box) b, Facial bones form the face. ‘eg fo bones souhoe eye socket ~ protects eyes mandible ~ movable bwer ja with (ner rowafteah The human skull chek bone “arteuates vit tbe mand le Total [8] a. Cranial bones ‘The cranium is made up of eight flat bones which form a helmet-shaped structure. The immovable fibrous joints between the bones are called sutures and are dove-tailed together. Like an eggshell, the curved upper part is self- bracing which allows the bones to be thin and very strong so they can protect the brain. At birth, membrane-filled spaces __ called fontanelles, exist between the bones of the cranium. The fontanelles allow the: ‘baby’s head to be slightly compressed during birth «size of the brain to grow rapidly during infancy. ‘The bones grow gradually and all the fontanelles should be replaced by bone by the age of two years, Note: ‘A severe bump on the head may cause concussion; a condition causing loss of balance, dizziness and vomiting. After a bad knock on the head, a doctor should examine the patient. wa The cranium protects [( @ tne rage ort x What are the functions of the cranium? ‘The cranium: 1, Protects the fragile brain. 2, Protects the sense organs of smell, sight and hearing 3. Provides attachment for the muscles of the head. Wun= SUPPOMING Systems {At the base of the skull there is a large opening, the foramen magnum, through which the medulla oblongata (lowest part of the brain) connects with the spinal cord. On either side of this opening are two ‘bumps’, the occipital condyles. These articulate with the first vertebra, the atlas of the vertebral column in such a way that a nodding movement is possible. Did you know? ‘A gruesome thought. The odontoid process (peg) of the second vertebra, the axis, allows rotational movement and destroys the base of the brain as it exits through the foramen magnum when a person is hanged. b. Facial bones ‘There are 14 bones, mainly paired, making up this, part of the skull. ‘The facial bones: 1, Form the structure of the face. 2, Protect the sense organs of smell, sight and taste, 3. Provide openings for the passage of food and air. 4, Provide attachment for the facial muscles which give rise to various expressions. 5. Secure the teeth. Learning activity 6 Comparative questions on skulls and teeth Question 1: What is the role of the teeth and jaws? The teeth lie in sockets in the gum-covered jaws. The role of the teeth is obvious —together with the action of the jaws, they masticate or chew food. As the jaws are opened and closed and moved from side to side, the teeth tear and grind the food, breaking it down into smaller fragments. During chewing, the upper and lower molars lock together; the cusps of the upper teeth fitting into the hollows in the lower teeth and vice versa. This action generates tremendous crushing force. © Make sure you remember all you learnt about teeth in Grade 10, ie. the names and shapes of the different kinds of teeth, their functions and how a typical tooth is made up. You will need this information for the following learning actvity. Did you know? Sinuses are mucous membrane-lined spaces in certain skull bones that are connected to the nasal cavity. An inflammation of these membranes, due to an allergic reaction or infection is called sinusitis. If the membranes swell enough to block drainage into the nasal cavity, fluid pressure builds up in the sinuses and a sinus headache results. Study the diagrams below which represent the skull and upper jaw of an ape and of a human. (Extract from Biology 10 Kuun and Nortje) ape human1. Complete the comparative table below by filling in two differences for each comparison. © Think carefully and try to describe exactly what you see. ‘Ape Human (Overall shape of the skull ‘Shape of the frontal bone (font part of eranium) Size and shape of the lower Jaws Dental_make-up of each upper jaw 2, Why do you think the lower jaw of an Ape is the size and shape it is? (4) 4x4 (16) 4, Mention two properties of this type of tissue. 2 3, Explain the reason for the differences in the dental make-up of the two diagrams. (2) {22} Question 2 1. Place a finger in tront of your ear and press gently. Describe the different directions the lower jaw can move in. (2) 5. What supporting tissue makes up the upper part of the nose? (1) 6. Mention two characteristics of this type of tissue, (2) 7. What is the complete dental formula for a human? (2) 8. Open your mouth wide and feel the different teeth with a finger. Now write down your own dental formula. (2) 2, Touch the tip of your nose and move it from side to side. Describe which part of the nose moves. @ 3, What supporting tissue makes up the lower part of your nose? (1) 113] Total [35] © Did this exercise make you more aware of how ‘your head, teeth and jaws function?PEER ese 2. The structure of the column ‘The vertebral column is a strong, flexible chain of 33 small bones, the vertebrae, that runs down the middle of the body from the skull to the coceyx. It is often called the spine, spinal column or backbone. ‘The vertebrae are held in place by ligaments, which allow some movement but prevent dislocation. ‘The vertebral column surrounds the spinal cord which is made up of nervous tissue. The spinal cord connects the brain to the rest of the body. vertebral rut fcete -for he aration of bone such the ext vrtotra rsd ‘areulte = fo move aa fit What are the functions of the vertebral column? ‘The vertebral column: 1. Supports the head. 2. Encloses and protects the spinal cord. 3. Serves as a point of attachment for the ribs. 4, Allows spinal nerves to pass through openings between the vertebrae, 5. Serves as a point of attachment for the muscles ofthe back. 6. S-shape absorbs jolts and aids in balancing, sina preessinewal se vertebral arch forms the vertebra cana! transverse process forthe atsctment ofa muscle wetebra canal (etre foramen ote taugh whet to spat ord passes body. entum) suppons weight of te body Atypical vertebra Intervertebral discs occur between vertebrae. ‘These have a jelly-like centre covered by fibrous cartilage. The discs act as shock absorbers during walking, jumping and running and they also allow the spine to flex and extend and even to bend sideways. © Note how the spinal cord fits into the vertebral canal. spinal cord veriebra disc of cartilage spinal nerve \Vertebrae and an intervertebral disc Can the vertebral column bend? Each joint between consecutive vertebrae allows for a small amount of movement but, as a unit, a far greater degree of movement is allowed (the chainlink principle). This enables the vertebral column to bend forwards, backwards and sideways as well as rotating. Seen from the side, the backbone has four curves (two convex and two concave) forming an S-shape. ‘This is very important and helps to: + strengthens the backbone + balance the body + absorb jolts during movement. Did you know? Almost 3 million years ago our Mi iB ancestors first stood upright on ae \ their hind legs. This erect stance 4 helps skeletal muscles to resist Vy Y gravity, however the S-shaped 2, curvature of the spine can cause lower back pain. © Take note of the four curves in the following diagram.POSTERIOR: bod These are smal and igh or exit large vertebral cana- bid (forked) spina process. Fst wo, the atlas and axis, ere specially shaped to alow the shu to cerical vertebrae (7) ‘rotate and move up and down, The atlas lacks a centrum and 2 spina process -has large arteuating surfaces. The axis has a spinal process anda pegike odontoid process which {dls as & pivot on which the alas and head can rotate has large articulating surfaces to arcuate wth the alas. thoracic vertebrae (12) | They have long transverse processes forthe attachment of thers They are the largest and strongest verebae 0 suppor the weigh of tun jhe vento (3) te body and provide aachment forthe song muses inthe ner back They are fused to form ariangular bone atthe base ofthe backbone sacral verebree (6) ——| !9p°0vde a stong anchorage forthe pelvic ge. coceygelvtebrae (4) {They are also tsed and reduced wi no uncon. Vertebral column Assessment activity 2 Identifying vertebrae by interpreting data LO1 (AS3}; LOZ (AS2 & ASS) SKiUs: observational skilis, making deductions, uuerprering data, communtcatung findings Adapted from Biology 10, Kuun and Nortje. Study the diagram of the vertebral column very well, noting the different vertebrae and their characteristics. The following diagrams show six different vertebrae. Study these equally well, noting the size of the centrum, the size of the vertebral canal, the length of the transverse processes and the position and size of the articulating surfaces. The challenge is to identify each type of vertebra/e and to give two reasons to support your answer.= SOR AOR Cee 4, “ 2: e wy Ci ‘Type ofvertebra: Type of vertebra: Reason: Reason: 3, 4. ‘Type ofvertebra; ___________________Type of vertebra: Reason: Reason’ Typeofvertebra; Type of vertebra: Reason: pain Assessment criteria Levels of achievement Total 7 2 3 4 5 6 (Observational sl, 1 ie comectidentficaton . a 4 5 6 hiking kis, cee ee ee a Comment: Te © this was a testing test! Did you enjoy working out which was which vertebra?Spinal injuries What is meant by a slipped disc? If the backbone is put under a lot of pressure, the outer cartilage of the disc may rupture and the soft inner centre is forced through the surrounding cartilage. This bulge is what is called a ‘slipped disc’ If this presses on the spinal cord or on a spinal nerve, it can be very painful and numbness in the limbs may occur. If this condition cannot be cured by resting, traction, anti-inflammatories or painkillers, surgery to repair the damage may be necessary. ‘What is meant bby a slipped disc What causes paralysis’ An injury can crush or dislocate vertebrae, damaging the spinal cord or even causing it to break. This in turn will damage nerves leading to muscles and other organs of the body resulting in paralysis. If muscles are not stimulated by nerve impulses, they cannot function. If the spinal cord is damaged in the neck (cervical) region, the whole body below the neck may be paralysed. Such a person is a quadriplegic. If the spinal cord in the lumbar region is damaged, the legs may be paralysed and the person is known as a paraplegic. As nerve tissue cannot regenerat these patients may have to spend the rest of their lives being dependent on a wheelchair to get around. How can back ache be prevented? You all know that a good posture means holding your body in such a way that no strain is brought to bear on your back or muscles. Back ache is very common ~ 80% of adults suffer from it sometime in their lives and 20% of these will be permanently affected. Humans were designed to be hunter- gatherers, walking and running for 2 to 4 hours every day. Compare this to present-day lifestyles - sitting in front of a desk or a computer or a television screen for hours on end. _ Ue ee Note the following diagrams illustrating various everyday activities. Decide which of each pair will cause the least strain on the back and tick it. Now you know how to prevent back ache ~ make sure that you put as little strain on your back as possible when carrying out your daily activities.3. The structure of the bony thorax The term thorax refers to the whole chest. The bony thorax is a framework formed by the sternum in the front (anteriorly), the ribs and the rib cartilage on the sides (laterally), and the thoracic vertebrae at the back (posteriorly). How are the ribs made up? ‘There are 12 pairs of ribs which are flat, curved bones, extending from the thoracic vertebra at the back to the sternum in the front. In the front the: ‘© upper seven pairs, the true ribs, are attached to the sternum (breast bone) by flexible strips of cartilage. + next three pairs, called false ribs, are connected to the rib above by cartilage. lowest two pairs, called floating ribs are only attached to the vertebral column. Intercostal muscles (external and internal) occur between the ribs. On contraction of the external intercostals muscles, the ribcage moves upwards and outwards which results in inhalation (breathing in). Exhalation (breathing out) takes place when these muscles relax. ‘The internal intercostal muscles contract to force air out of the lungs, eg. when coughing or sneezing. What are the functions of the bony thorax? ‘The bony thorax: 1, Protects the vital organs of the thoracic cavity = the lungs, heart and major blood vessels. 2, Supports the shoulder girdles and upper limbs (arms). 3, Provides attachment points for muscles of the back, chest and shoulders. 4, Aids in breathing, Learning activity 7 Bony thorax Having learnt all about the make-up of a typical vertebra and the bony thorax, can you put it all together and label the following diagram in the spaces provided? Attachment of a rib sternum avait | spaisor | Number Label canage tuerbs 1 2 3 parsof 4 fc nbs vital ohare = + 2paisot featng ros 6 The bony thorax 7 8 © Note how the ribs are attached to the sternum. Total: [8] © hat was an easy test! Don't forget to correct any wrong answers before you continue.B. The Appendicular Skeleton ‘The appendicular skeleton is made up of all the hones of the limbs, together with the bony girdles that anchor them to the axial skeleton, 1, The pectoral girdles are quite mobile and attach the upper limbs (arms) to the axial skeleton, 2, Upper limbs 3, The sturdy pelvic girdles are more rigid and secure the lower limbs (legs) to the axial skeleton. 4, Lower limbs This part of the skeleton enables us to carry out all the movements we make during our very busy lifestyles — walking, playing sport, popping sweets into our mouths, brushing our hair, etc. 1. Pectoral girdle Each pectoral girdle is made up of two bones, the: + clavicle or collar bone is a long, slender S- shaped bone. One end articulates with the sternum and the other end with the acromium of the scapula (see diagram on following age). This is the only attachment of the pectoral girdle to the axial skeleton, + scapula or shoulder blade is a triangular bone that is not attached to the axial skeleton but moves over the ribs at the back (posteriorly). What are the functions of the pectoral girdle? The pectoral girdles: 1. Attach the upper limbs to the axial skeleton, 2. Provide attachment points for many of the ‘muscles that move the upper limbs. ‘They are very light and allow the upper limbs to ‘move more freely than any other part of the body. SIE Sede eee le 2. Upper limbs ‘Thirty separate bones make up each upper limb. ‘+ The upper arm is made up of a typical long hone, the humerus. The head of the humerus fits into the glenoid cavity of the scapula at the shoulder, forming a ball-and-socket joint. + The forearm is made up of two parallel long bones, the radius and the ulna. Both these bones articulate with the humerus to form the elbow joint (hinge joint) and with the carpal bones of the wrist. The ulna and humerus form the major part of the elbow joint, whereas the radius articulates more with the carpal bones to move the hand. Why do the upper limbs move so freely? ‘Only Ue clavicle is attaclied (v Ute axial skeleton. ‘The scapula can move quite freely across the thorax, allowing the arm to move with it The socket of the shoulder joint, the glenoid cavity, {s shallow, so it does not restrict the movement of the upper limb. This arrangement is very good for flexibility but is bad for stability. This is why itis so easy to dislocate a shoulder. Look at your own arm and find which part of the lower arm is the inner part (ulna) and which is the outer part (radius). Rotate the carpal, feel the ‘metacarpals and flex the phalanges. Did you know? The clavicle is broken more often than any other bone in the body. © why do we call the elbow the funny bone? Think of the name of the bones that make up the elbow joint.= FREE ee eee How is the pectoral girdle attached to the upper limb? — see diagram below. dlavicle - colar bone ‘acromiu - part of scapula which aniculates withthe clavicle ball and socket joint - head of humerus its into lend caviy humerus ~ longest bane in arm, aricultes th the cap, metacarpal bones cone a ‘inthe paim of the flat triangular bone fend. nia socket for mee capals@)- thumb made up of came wit bones eaten reds fingers -madeup of cuter bone ream nga os A ‘ elbow joint - ‘yl hnge int ier bone of forearm Pectoral girdle and upper limb How is the hand made up? ‘This part of the arm is used for gripping and manipulating. The hand is made up of 27 bones which are divided into three groups ~ the carpals in the wrist, the metacarpals in the palm and the phalanges in the fingers and thumb. 3. Pelvic girdle During childhood, the girdle is made up of three bones, the: + ilium (the hip bone) + ischium (the sitting bones) + pubis (the two bones which join in the front by means of the pubic symphysis. (This is a semi movable cartilaginous joint). In adults these bones become fused for strength and are called the coxal bones although they may still be referred to by their individual names. ‘The deep basin-like structure formed by these bones, together with the sacrum and the coceyx of, the vertebral column forms the bony pelvis. ‘The pelvic girdle is attached to the axial skeleton (sacrum) by some of the strongest ligaments in the body, forming a very secure and strong base for the articulation of the legs. ‘The hip joint is formed by the head of the femur articulating within a deep, cup-like socket, the acetabulum, formed at the point of fusion ‘between the three hip bones. What are the functions of the pelvic girdle? ‘The pelvic girdle: 1. Attaches the lower limbs to the axial skeleton. 2. Transmits the weight of the upper body to the ower limbs. 3. Supports and protects the organs wi pelvic area. 4, Provides attachment points for the muscles that move the lower limbs. in the © As you study the diagram, try to pinpoint each bone in your own body. Feel your hip bones, swing “your legs so that you become aware of where your hip joint is and of how important it is to have a strong and stable pelvic girdle. Touch your patella «and try to visualize the two bones in the lower part ofyour leg. Now think about your ankles and your ankle bone. Which bone forms your ankle bone? Look at yourfeet. How many bones make up your foot? How ‘many joints in each toe? © can you see that the acetabulum is a much deeper socket than the glenoid cavity? This is one of the reasons why the movement of the leg is more restricted than that of the arm. 4. Lower limbs ‘The lower limb carries the weight of the whole erect body, which is why the bones are so thick and strong. * The femur that makes up the thigh, is the largest, longest, strongest bone in the body. The ‘ip joint, a ball-and-socket joint, has already been described. + The tibia and fibula are two parallel long ‘bones that form the lower part of the leg. The larger tibia articulates with the femur to form ‘the knee joint and with a large tarsal bone (talus) at the ankle. The fibula does not form part of the knee joint and merely helps to stabilize the ankle joint. How is the foot made up? ‘This part of the leg is used for support, balance and movement. It is made up of 26 bones which are divided into three groups - the tarsals make up the ankle, the metatarsals, the body of the foot and the phalanges the toes. I ium ip bone <= sacnm- 5 fused vertebrae covape fed verebroe ‘pubis -with pubic symphysis (taht morale pin) ischium -‘stting bones’ (eocket) head of femur bel and socket ont femur largest bone in boty knee joint ‘typical hinge ont patela nee cap) - ‘bony coverto protect the knee tibia (hnbone) ‘bua -a thin bone which alps to sia th fot Informs te knob ofthe ankle tarsal ()-bonesot the anke metatarsals (5)- bones of the foot phalanges -fom the foes [2 phatanges fom the bg toe ‘and 3 fom the otter oes) Pelvic girdle and lower limbLearning activity 8 Photographs Here is the genuine article - a photograph of the joints. 1, Label the bones and sockets (from 1-5 and 7-10). 0) 2. For numbers 6 and 12, name the joint and class to which each joint belongs in diagrams A and B.(4) Duy 7 8. | @caviy) 9. 10. "1 ‘ 12 Total [14] 1 2 Did you know? A woman's pelvis is shallower and broader than a 3 ‘man’s and has a wider pelvic inlet. The value of this 4. is that during birth, a baby’s head can just squeeze through this inlet. 5. 6.Learning activity 9 ‘A comparative study Study the diagrams below of the pelvic girdle of a male and a female and answer the questions. Female and Male pelvic girdles Question 1 ‘Name the bones, 1, 2 and 3. (3) Name the part labelled C. (1) _ Which bone fits into cavity C? (1)_ ‘Name the type of joint that is formed in Question 3. (2) 5, Name the parts of the vertebral column represented by A and B, (2) 6.1 How many vertebrae make up each of the parts A and B respectively? (2) 6.2 What are the characteristics of the vertebrae that make up each of these parts? (2) As 7.1 What tissue makes up the joint at D? (1). _ 7.2. What is a characteristic of the joint at D? (2)_ 7.3 Why is this important? (2) _ Question 2 1. Note the differences between the shape and size of every bone in the diagrams of the male and female pelvic girdles. In tabular form, compare the shape of the male and female pelvic girdles. Describe at least five differences between the two pelvic girdles that are visible on the diagrams. (10) 2, Why do you think these differences are necessary? (4) __. (14) Total: [32]SE Mae: Diseases of the skeletal system 1, Rickets Rickets, a disease that affects the developing skeletal system of children and other young animals, is the result of the body's inability to absorb : calcium salts. This is mainly due to a lack of vitamin D which is necessary for the absorption of calcium and phosphorus. Why are calcium salts important? Calcium is the mineral needed to build strong, hard bones in children. Lower levels of calcium in the blood result in these elements being withdrawn from the bones. This results in the bones becoming soft, weak and therefore unable to support the weight of the body. This causes skeletal deformities. Where does vitamin D come from? ‘The sources of vitamin D are: + Sunlight - Vitamin D may be produced by the skin when the skin is exposed to sunlight. This is how most vitamin D is produced, + Food - Vitamin D in food and in supplements of multivitamins is absorbed from the small intestines. What causes rickets? + Malnutrition is a major cause of rickets at any time of life. This can lead to a lack of vitamin D and calcium saits in the diet. + Perpetual lack of sunlight results in the skin producing less vitamin D. This may occur in people who must stay indoors, work indoors during the daylight hours, or live in climates where there is very little sunlight. * The inability to absorb vitamin D. As vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin, disorders that reduce the absorption of fats will decrease the ability to absorb vitamin D into the body. What are the signs and symptoms of rickets? Vitamin D deficiency begins months before physical signs and symptoms of rickets appear. These includ + skeletal deformities such as malformed skull, bowed legs, knock knees, abnormal curvature of the spine, pelvic deformities and. breastbone projection in the chest (pigeon chest) + stunted growth + dental problems ~ defects in tooth structure, e.g. poor enamel. How can rickets be treated? * When rickets is caused by malnutrition foods rich in vitamin D should be eaten. These include foods such as oily fish (salmon, mackerel, and sardines) and egg yolks. Vitamin D supplements can be taken and vegetarians should look for foods that are fortified with vitamin D, such as cereal, bread, milk and yoghurt. + When rickets is caused by lack of sunlight, it can be treated with sun exposure. Infants under 6 months should not be exposed to direct sunlight. * If deficiencies in calcium or vitamin D are (replaced) while the child is young, skeletal deformities often diminish or disappear with time. ‘+ Forsome cases of bowlegs or spinal deformities, special bracing may be needed to position the child's body correctly as the bones grow. + More severe skeletal deformities may need surgery. Does rickets occur in South Africa? ‘There are so many hours of sunshine in this country, that sufficient vitamin D can be made in the skin from the pro-vitamin ergosterol. Caleium can be obtained from milk or powdered milk, so there are very few, if any, cases of rickets in South Africa, 2. Osteomalacia Osteomalacia is the adult form of rickets. It has very similar causes and treatment. What are the main osteomalacia? * Bone pain ~ dull aching pain in the lower back, pelvis, legs and feet is experienced. + Muscle weakness ~ decreased muscle tone leads to loss of muscle strength, mainly in arms and legs. + Bone fractures - bones tend to break more easily, symptoms of Note: ‘Weight-bearing exercise, such as walking, helps to strengthen bones and should be encouraged.Note: Osteomalacia and osteoporosis are both bone disorders. Osteomalacia results from a defect in the bone-building process. whereas osteoporosis develops because of a weakening of previously constructed bone. High risk of osteoporosis - dn old marathon runner who smokes and eats junk Food Learning activity 10 Bone disorders 2. How would you suggest these infants be treated. 1. Study the picture at the top of the previous page toremedy their defects? (5) and explain the possible reasons why the legs of the two infants have developed the way they have. (8) Total [13] Learning activity 11 Data response exercise on osteoporosis Read through the following text carefully and answer the questions that follow. A few answers are not in the text so you will have to think hard! You can learn all about osteoporosis from this question. What is osteoporosis? Osteoporosis is @ condition of porous bones. This is a condition which atlects milions of elderly people allover the wort. You have all witnessed i: litle old lady bent over at right angles walking with a stick, a grandparent who has fallen and broken a hip (probably the hip broke first which then caused the fal). The tragedy is that there is no cure for it, but it can be prevented with sensible ving, Between puberty and midlife, sex hormones (oestrogen in women and testosterone in men) maintain bone tissue by stimulating osteoblasts to form new bone. After menopause both men and women produce smaller amounts of these hormones. As a result, the osteoblasts become less active, so less bone mass is formed. Bones become more porous and lighter which results in bones fracturing very easily Although osteoporosis affects the whole skeleton, the spongy bone of the spine is affected the most, Osteoporosis is responsible for loss of height (due to shrinking of the backbone), hunched backs, bone fractures, severe pain. Although most common in women over the age of 50, others at risk include, ballet dancers, anorexic females (adipose tissue (ft) is needed to make oestrogen), teenagers on junk-food diets, those who overdo exercise (marathon runners), smokers (this decreases blood levels of oestrogen), nursing mothers, those with a family history of osteoporosis, and those exposed to a long treaiment of cortisone. ‘There is no cure as such for osteoporosis as it is very dificult to reverse bone density. The most important aspect of treatment is prevention. Plenty of weight-bearing exercise such as walking, jogging, tennis, etc throughout life, increases bone mass above normal values. ‘A balanced diet and exercise are the best ways of preventing the disease. In postmenopausal women, hormone replacement therapy (HRT) helps prevent the onset of osteoporosis. A drug called etidronate suppresses the functioning of osteoclasts and is being used to treat osteoporosis of the spineQuestion 1 1. What does the word ‘osteoporosis’ mean? (1) 2. Which bones of the skeleton are most affected? } 3. Why is this disease most common in women over the age of 50? (3) 4, Whats the function of: 4.1 osteoblasts (2) _ 4.2 osteoclasts? (2) _ 5. Why do females such as marathon runners, ballet dancers and anorexics have a high risk of osteoporosis? (3) 6. Can you name another sex hormone in women besides oestrogen? (1) 7. Name an element and a vitamin that nursing mothers may lack which could cause them to develop osteoporosis. (2) 8, Why do you think HRT prevents osteoporosis in women? (2) 9. Besides HRT, what are the two best ways of preventing the onset of osteoporosis? (2) 10. What drug has recently been used to treat osteoporosis in the spine? (1) Question 2 Study the two pictures of bone below. 2. In your own words explain what could have caused the difference in the structure of the hone in the two pictures. (5) (7 ‘Total [27]Joints A joint is part of the skeleton where two or more bones meet. What are the functions of joints? Joints: 1. Hold the skeleton together with the help of ligaments and tendons. 2, Give the skeleton mobility so that parts of the body can move. © Because of joints we can bend our arms and legs, move our fingers, nod our head and perform all sorts of other movements. What are the characteristics and functions of ligaments? Ligaments are made up of connective tissue ~ mainly collagen and elastic fibres and are therefore strong, flexible and resilient. At joints, ligaments may form part of the articular capsule that: + holds bones together but allows the joints to move ‘+ directs bone movement but prevents damaging movernent. In addition, other ligaments may be present in a joint, holding the bones together. Note: ‘The more ligaments a joint has, the stronger itis. What are the characteristics and functions of tendons? Tendons attach muscles to bones. They are made up entirely of groups of collagen fibres which form a white fibrous tissue and therefore are strong but inelastic as they contain no clastic fibres. If the tendon was able to stretch, the action of the muscle would be ineffective. Tendons stabilize joints as they span them. ‘Tendons may be attached to a: + stationary bone ~ the origin. This bone is usually closer to the centre of the body's axis (such as the scapula), + movable bone ~ the insertion. This bone is usually further from the body’s axis (such as the humerus). Tendons attach muscles to bones to bring about movement. As the muscle contracts, one bone remains more or less stationary and the other bone is moved; the movable bone moves towards the immovable bone. upporting system Learning activity 12 Achilles tendon ‘The Achilles tendon is the largest, strongest tendon in the body. You can feel your Achilles tendon at the back of your ankle. Do some research to find ‘out the answers to the following questions. 1. The Achilles tendon attaches which muscle to which bone? (2) meant by Achilles tendonitis? (2) 3. What causes Achilles tendonitis? (2) 4, What causes an Achilles tendon to snap (rupturey? (2) 5. Give three explanations as to how you know that your tendon has snapped. (3) 6. What can be done to repair the damage? (5) 7. In the space below make a clear, labelled drawing of an Achilles tendon to show exactly where it is found in the body. (4) Total [20] © Did you manage to find all the answers? Do you now anyone who has ruptured an Achilles tendon?Classification of joints Joints maybe classified according to the material binding them or according to their mobility. In the following classification, both characteristics are used, Joints may be: + Fibrous joints which are held together by fibrous tissue and are immovable, eg. sutures of the cranium. + Cartilaginous joints which are held together by cartilage and are partially movable, e.g. joints between vertebrae and the pubic symphysis in the pelvis. Synovial joints which are held together by a double-layered articular capsule, have a fluid-filled cavity surrounding the bones and are freely moveable. All the joints of the limbs, in fact almost all the joints of the body, fall into this class. © Take note of the structure of a synovial joint and the functions of the various parts. compact bone cancellous bone periosteum aticularcapsule- prevents disication synovial membrane synovial fd + acts as a lubricant, reducing fiction nourishes catlage encloses the joint and = seoretes synovial id = helps to absorb shock it the joints compressed articular (yan) cartlage - creates a smooth surface on articulating bones io preven? friction and keeps the bone ends ram being crushed Structure of a synovi Joint Learning activity 13 Classification of joints ‘Various joints are illustrated in the next column. In the space provided, write down whether the joint is a synovial, cartilaginous or fibrous joint. (6) ‘Total [6] How are synovial joints classified? Synovial joints are classified according to the kind of movement that takes place at the joint. + Ball-and-socket joint contains a bony ball that fits inside a cup-shaped socket. It is the most flexible kind of joint as it allows movement in many directions. It is found in the hip joint between the pelvic girdle (coxal bone) and the femur, and in the shoulder joint, between the pectoral girdle (scapula) and the humerus. Hinge joint allows the bones to move up and down but not from side to side. Examples are the knee, ankle, elbow (rotating hinge) and joints between the phalanges ofthe hands and feet. + Pivot joint (axial joint) allows @ bone to rotate. An example is the joint between the atlas and axis vertebrae in the neck. + Plane joint may also be called a gliding joint as a flat bone glides or slips over another flat bone. Plane joints occur between the carpal bones in the wrist and the tarsal ones in the ankle. Did you know? ‘The knee joint is the largest and most complex joint in the body.A Ball and socket joint Exampl Learning activity 14 Synovial joints B. Hinge joint of synov . Pivotal joint (axial) D. Plane joint (aiding) I joints Complete the following table about joints. Marks will be deducted for names of bones left out. Joint Bones making up the joint ‘Type of synovial joint hip shoulder elbow knee jaw Joint injuries What is a bunion? A bunion is an enlarged bursa at the base of the big toe caused by wearing tight or poorly fitting shoes, The joint becomes thickened and bent and often inflamed. Note Bursae are flattened sacs, lined with synovial membrane, found between ligaments, muscles or tendons to prevent them rubbing against bone and causing friction. =P a What is a sprain? A sprain results from stretched or torn ligaments in a joint. A joint is built to withstand tough treatment but if forced beyond its normal limits of movement, an injury is caused. If the sprain is severe, the joint may have to be kept still for several weeks until the ligaments repair themselves. As Total [15] ligaments have a very poor blood supply, healing is slow, The lumbar region of the spine, the ankle and the knee are the joints most often sprained. What is a dislocation? A dislocation occurs when bones are forced out of their normal position at joints, When a joint is dislocated the bones are wrenched so hard that they are pushed or pulled out of place. Ligaments around a joint are often torn during dislocation which is why the injury can be so painful. Dislocations are common contact sports injuries and may occur in the knee, the joints of the shoulder, fingers and thumbs. What is arthritis? Arthritis is a disease that affects the joints that strikes one in every three woman in South Africa. I is a general term that covers over 100 different diseases and disorders that make joints painful, stiffand swollen. + Osteoarthritis usually occurs after the age of 50 and often in an individual with a family history of arthritis. The cartilage that cushions the bones in joints softens and wears away. The hones then rub against one another, causing pain= Supporting systems and stiffness. This is the most common form of arthritis, It is non-inflammatory and is known as ‘wear-and-tear arthritis’. * Rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic inflammatory disorder where the synovial membrane becomes thickened and inflamed, producing too much synovial fluid which causes the joint to swell, becoming painful and finally deformed, It is an auto-immune disease where the body’s immune system attacks its own tissues. Many joints, particularly the small joints of the fingers, feet, wrists and ankles, are affected. If allowed to progress, the joints may be totally destroyed and the bone ends fuse. It usually affects people from early middle age onwards and it affects three times as many women as men. + Gouty arthritis or gout is caused by a build up of uric acid in the blood which results in urate crystals being deposited in the soft tissue of joints. Very often this condition starts in the joint at the base of the big toe and it is extremely painful. If left untreated, the articulating bone ends fuse and immobilize the joint. Fortunately there are several drugs which cure gout attacks. © Find out what drugs are used to alleviate the pain caused by gout. Do these drugs prevent gout returning? Note Rheumatism is a general term to describe any condition producing pain or stiffness in joints and muscles. Assessment activity 3 Report on arthritis Practical investigation - Group work Los (AS3};L03 (AS) Skills: collecting, organizing information. evaluating, analyzing and Very few older people escape suffering from arthritis. The class must be divided into groups ~ the size of the group will depend on the size of the class. Using reports in newspapers and magazines, libraries, the Internet, information from doctors, chemists and clinics, write a report on arthritis with regard to’ ‘What causes the different types of the disease? Symptoms of the main types arthritis Which age groups are mainly affected? Is it more prevalent in men or women? What can be done to relieve the pain’? What indigenous herbal remedies available? Does diet affect the disease? ‘The final solution — joint replacement. are Instructions Plan the investigation Divide the work amongst the group Gather information from the various sources Design an attractive front page Present information under headings Include tables, photographs, diagrams Make observations and draw conclusions from the collected data ex eeene Assessment criteria Achievement levels Total 4. 2. 3 4. B Communication within the group poor fair good Information gathered ~eteriamet 1 2 3 4 5 Citra met for frontpage design 1 2 3 4 Ciera met for presentation 1 2 3 4 Ciera met for observations and conclusions 1 Bi 3 4 Comment: 20 Criteria for gathering information ‘© Visited focal clinic, chemist or hospital ‘© Used the internet, magazines or libraries ‘© Recorded details of publications Criteria for presentation + Headings used ‘+ Logical and clear tayout ‘+ Visual material used, with headings‘+ Interviewed an arthtitc patient ‘+ Recorded details of pationt interviewed (name, gender, age, occupation, etc) Criteria for front page ‘¢ Titled front page supplied + Allthe leamer's names + Date of project ‘+ Attractive and neat appearance Learning activity 15 Joint disorders Question 1 Read through the description of a hip replacement carefully and then draw a learning diagram to illustrate how it is constructed. In your diagram, clearly distinguish between which parts are bones and which parts are made from other materials. (5) © Previous diagrams of the hip joint will be a big help. Question 2 Upporting systems = + Source of visual material supplied Criteria for observations and conclusions + Two or more types of arthritis investigated * Valid observations made regarding the disease + Valid conclusions drawn + Enlightened information on joint replacement Joint replacements It arthritis causes severe damage and excessive pain, then the joint may be replaced with an artificial one, ‘The history of artificial joints is less than 50 years old In 1963 Sir John Chamiey, an English orthopedic surgeon, performed the first total hip replacement. He used a Vitallium metal ball on a stem, the ball of which ited into a cup-shaped plastic socket that lined the ‘acetabulum and was cemented into it by means of special cement. It is very important to use non- corrosive substances as body fluids are acidic. ‘Ten years later, @ total knesjoint replacement was perfected. Now joints can be repiaved in fingers, shoulders and elbows. ‘As new techniques and materiais are developed replacement joints become more durable (long lasting). These replacement joints last about ten years in elderly patients who do not overly stress the joint. Replacement joints are not yet strong enough for young active people but recent research has shown that joint tissue is capable of regeneration under certain circumstances, Great progress has been made in the way joints are designed and made. CADICAM (computer-aided design and computer aided manufacture) techniques are being used to design and create joints, or even vail Uf a joint, which aie perfeut for wach individual ‘Time and cost have been dramatically reduced. ‘Match each description in column A with a corresponding item in coluran B and write the correct letter in the space provided. Column B items may be used more than once. Column A Column B Answer 4. Build up of uric acid A. rheumatoid arthritis 2 Tom ligament 8. osteoarthritis 3. Charley operation C. gout 4. Auto-immune disease D. sprain5. Common contact spor injury E, dislocation 6. Affects more women than men F. hip replacement 7. CADICAM technique G. sprain 8. Totally destroyed joints 9. Painful, inflamed big toe joint 40. ‘wear & tear’ arthritis Movement Although bones provide leverage and form the framework of the body, they cannot bring about movement by themselves. Movement is brought about by the skeletal muscles applying force to the bones and joints when they contract. Bones and joints have been discussed. Now we will look at how skeletal muscles are made up and how they bring about movement of the body. Skeletal muscles Characteristics of skeletal muscle tissue Skeletal muscle tissue: + forms the skeletal muscles that are attached to the bony skeleton + has stripes called striations «canbe controlled voluntarily. The key functions of skeletal muscles Skeletal muscles: + bring about movement of the bones at joints when they contract and relax, causing movements such as walking, throwing a ball and breathing. maintain posture and keep the body stable when sitting or standing as the muscles are always in a state of slight tension — a condition called muscle tone. + together with ligaments, joints. + generate heat when they contract. help to stabilize ao) Total [15] How is a skeletal muscle made up? skeletal muscle: + is surrounded by a connective tissue sheath called the epimysium. + is made up of hundreds, or even thousands. of elongated muscle fibres (muscle cells), surrounded by connective tissue called the endomysium. + has the muscle fibres grouped together into bundles called fascicles, surrounded by a layer of connective tissue called the perimysium. Note ‘The fascia is a connective tissue sheath outside the epimysium that surrounds and separates the muscles, How is a muscle fibre made up? A muscle fibre, surrounded by endomysium, is formed from the fusion of hundreds of embryonic cells. A muscle fibre: + isa large, elongated, cylindrical muscle cell. * has many nuclei and mitochondria just under the sarcolemma (plasma membrane). + has sarcoplasm (cytoplasm) containing large amounts of stored glycogen and a unique oxygent-storing protein called myoglobin. + has two sets of tubules ~ the sarcoplasmic reticulum and the T tubules. See later. + is made up of thousands of myofibrils made up of contractile protein filaments, stacked lengthwise.Learning activity 16 SRR le wee Structure of a skeletal muscle and muscle fibre Read through the descriptions of a muscle and a muscle fibre very carefully. Now study the diagrams below and label the numbered parts in the spaces provided. Question 1 Structure of a muscle ’ Question 2 membranes on Structure of a musele fibre (4) ‘Total [11] © Now check your answers to make sure that you realty understand how a muscle is made up. Note: In adults, well developed and strong muscles are formed through increasing the thickness of the individual fibres and the amount of connective tissue between them, How is a myofibril made up? Each myofibril is made up of parallel filaments forming a pattern of alternating: + dark A bands consisting of thick filaments made up of the protein myosin + light I bands consisting of thin filaments made up of the protein actin. ‘The dark A bands are bisected by the H zone where there are no overlapping actin filaments. ‘The light I bands are bisected by the Z line; a dense area to which the actin filaments are attached, All the filaments between the Z lines form a sarcomere ~ the functional unit of a muscle, i.e. the part that actually contracts. © Mis sounds horribly complicated so you will have to study the following diagram very well to make any sense out of it.Learning activity 17 Structure of a myofibril Read through the descriptions of a myofibril very carefully. Now study the diagram below and fil in the labels in the spaces provided. 1 2 3 | 4 uw 5 <—__ <—____ 6 7 ——_—_ 8 1 2 3. 4. Thick filaments of _ 5. zone 6 _ band i _ band 8, _ band Total [8] © Mis is a difficult concept to follow, so check your answers and then go over the completed diagram again, What do actin and myosin filaments look like? A myosin molecule has a stalk-like tail from which two ‘heads’ stick out. The heads are called cross bridges because they link the thick and thin filaments during contraction. tal two myosin hedds forming a cross bridge Each thick filament consists of many myosin molecules where the heads stick out at opposite ends of the filament, leaving the centre of the sarcomeres with no heads, just tails as seen below. Each thin filament consists of actin molecule, made up of two polypeptide strands twisted together as seen below, Other protein molecules are attached to the actin but the details of these go beyond this syllabus. Learning activity 18 Filaments Having read through the description of myofibrils very carefully, study the diagram below and fill in the appropriate labels, taking note that two of the labels are worth two marks. Total (7] To sum up: sarcomeres of actin + myosin —» myofibrils —» muscle fibres—» fascicles —> skeletal muscleHow do muscles contract? ‘This theory states that during contraction the thin filaments slide past the thick ones, moving more and more into the centre of the A band. This results in the: © actin and myosin filaments overlapping to a greater degree, causing the Z lines to be pulled closer together towards the thick filaments ‘© width of the I bands to decrease © Hones to disappear + A bands moving closer together but not changing in width, ‘The overall effect is a contraction, ie. a shortening of the sarcomere, causing the length of the myofibril to shorten which results in the shortening of the muscle fibre as a whole, relaxed state contracted state A diagram of sliding filaments What causes the filaments to slide? © This is a very complicated process but it involves such a clever concept. The following is a greatly simplified version of the reactions that take place to bring about a shortening of a sarcomere and the resulting contraction. A motor neuron and all the muscles fibres it innervates is called a motor unit. ‘An axon of a motor neuron enters a muscle and branches into a number of axon terminals, each of which forms a neuromuscular junction with a single muscle fibre. Supporting Systems = When nerve impulses (electrical impulses) are transmitted to the muscle fibres, the following occur * calcium ions are released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR). These are necessary to expose the active binding sites on the actin molecules. * cross bridges of the myosin attach to these active sites on the thin filaments and the sliding begins. # each cross bridge attaches and detaches several times during a contraction, acting like a ratchet, pulling the thin flaments of actin towards the centre of the sarcomere. This causes the myofibrils to shorten and contract. + ATP is hydrolyzed to ATD « P to release the energy needed to bring about this attachment and detachment of the myosin heads. Sliding of the thin filaments continues as long as the calcium ions and ATP molecules are present. When the muscle no longer needs to contract, the calcium fons are pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum, the active sites shut down, the contraction ends and the muscle fibre relaxes. Something extra... Skeletal muscles have two sets of intracellular tubules that play a role in muscular contraction. + The sarcoplasmic reticulum is a series of interconnecting tubules that surround each myofibril. Their role is to store and release calcium ions as described. ‘+ The sarcolemma (plasma membrane) penetrates {nto the cell to form thousands of hollow tubules, collectively called the T system. Each action potential created at the neuromuscular junetion sweeps quickly along the sarcolemma and is carried into the T system. These tubules conduct impulses deep into every muscle cell and to every sarcomere, causing the release of the calcium ions from the calcium-filled sacs of the sarcoplasmic reticulum. This turns on the interaction between actin and myosin and the sarcomere contracts. so clever! Are there variations muscle contraction? ‘The response of a muscle to a single, brief stimulus is called a muscle twitch. This is not the way that muscles normally work. Contractions are relatively Jong and smooth and vary in length as different actions are performed. in the degree of‘These variations in the degree of muscular contraction are called graded responses. ‘These can be graded by changing the: © speed of stimulation; the faster the stimulation, the more the contractions fuse into ‘a smooth, sustained contraction called tetanus. (Not to be confused with the bacterial disease of the same name.) This is the usual way muscles contract in the body but these contractions cannot continue indefinitely. Eventually muscle fatigue sets in as not enough ATP can be generated. + number of motor units stimulated; the more motor units stimulated , the greater the force of the contraction until all the motor units are stimulated (maximal stimulus), after which an increased stimulus does not produce a stronger contraction. How do bones act as levers? When a muscles contracts the bone is moved at a joint. In producing a movement, bones act as levers and joints function as fulcrums of these levers. A lever may be defined as a rigid bar that moves on a fixed point called a fulerum when a force is applied to it A force or effort is used to move a resistance or load. The effort is provided by muscular contraction and is applied at the point of insertion on the bone. The load that is moved is the bone itself plus the overlying tissue and anything else that is being moved. What are antagonistic muscles? ‘As has been noted, skeletal muscles can. only contract and shorten (exert a pulling force) and then relax and lengthen ~ they cannot push. They can only exert a force by contraction. To reverse a muscular movement therefore requires contraction of an opposing or antagonistic muscle. In other words, whatever one muscle can do, there is another muscle that can ‘undo’ the action, The muscles in each pair work against each other, so when one contracts, the other relaxes. The biceps flexor (bending) and triceps extensor (extending) muscles illustrated below, demonstrate this point perfectly and are an example of an antagonistic pair of muscles In addition, many actions are aided by the functioning of additional muscles called synergists that work together with the antagonists to bring about and stabilize a movement. © ‘here are many antagonistic muscles in the body. I am sure you have heard of your hamstrings? This is a collective name for three separate muscles which extend from the femur to the ischium (one of the hip bones). On contraction they bring about flexion of the leg. Which group of muscles do you think is antagonistic to the hamstrings (0 bring about extension of the leg? How many other pairs of antagonistic muscles can ‘you think of? Learning activity 19 Flexing and distending the arm Study the two diagrams below and answer the questions. 1. Ondiagram A label the: 1.1, main bone of the pectoral girdle (1) 1.2. three bones of the arm. (3) 1.3, contracting muscle and its points of origin and insertion (3) 1.4, movement brought about by the contraction of this muscle. (1) 8 2. On diagram B label the: 2.1. contracting muscle and its points of origin and insertion (4)2.2. movernent brought about by contraction of this muscle (1) 2.3. two types of synovial joints. (2) 2.4.Mention two ways in which friction is reduced at the joints illustrated. (2) 3. By studying the diagrams, explain why the muscles are called biceps and triceps? (4) 4. As these two muscles bring about opposite actions, what are they called? (1) 5. What additional muscles are often needed to stabilize a movement? (1) Total [23] Muscular disorders 1. Muscular dystrophy Muscular dystrophies (MD) are a group of more than 30 genetic diseases that cause progressive weakness and degeneration of the skeletal muscles that control movement. Some forms of MD are seen in early childhood, while outers may not appear until middle age or later. The disorders differ in the extent of muscle weakness (some forms of MD also affect cardiac muscle), when the disorder begins, how quickly it progresses and how itis inherited. Which is the most common form? ‘The most common form is Duchenne muscular dystrophy, where the diseased muscle fibres lack a protein called dystrophin. This protein is essential for keeping the sarcolemma in a healthy state. The disorder is caused by an inherited, X-linked recessive gene, carried by females but expressed almost exclusively in males. © You do remember what the sarcolemma is, don’t you? — ee heme What are the symptoms of Duchenne muscular dystrophy? ‘The disease is usually diagnosed between the ages of two and six years. + The affected muscles enlarge due to deposits of fat and connective tissue. + The muscle fibres of the skeletal muscle degenerate and atrophy, causing frequent falls and difficulty in running or jumping. ‘+ The disorder progresses very quickly and many sufferers are unable to walk by the age of 12 years. It progresses from the extremities upward, finally affecting the head and chest muscles, at which stage a respirator is needed to breathe. © Those affected rarely live beyond their early 208 as they die from respiratory failure. Is there any treatment? ‘There is no cure for muscular dystrophy, but medications and therapy can slow down the progress of the disease, Myoblast transfer therapy involves injecting diseased muscle with healthy myoblast cells (embryonic cells that develop into muscle cells). ‘These cells provide the normal gene that allows the fibres to start producing dystrophin. At this stage clinical trials on humans have shown limited success. Current treatment is designed to help prevent or reduce deformities in the joints and the spine and to allow people with MD to remain mobile as long as possible, Treatments may include various types of physical therapy, medications, devices that help walking and surgery. Support groups bring together people, family and friends who are coping with the sate kind of physical or mental health challenges. Support ‘groups provide a setting in which people can share their common problems and provide on going support to one another. 2. Cramp Have you ever woken up at night with an excruciating pain in your calf or any other muscle? ‘This is probably caused by cramp ~ a sustained spasm of an entire muscle. It can last for a few seconds or several hours, causing the muscle to become taut and very painful. It is common in the thigh, calf and hip muscles and usually occurs at night or after exercisea ae a What causes cramp? Cramp may be caused by: + a mineral deficiency of caleium and/or magnesium ions (probably the most frequent cause of night leg cramping) * lack of sodium or potassium ions, both of which result in an electrolyte imbalance + low blood sugar levels + dehydration + irritability of the spinal cord neurons. Note Some people get leg cramps at night for no apparent reason. This is called restless legs syndrome. What to do to relieve the pain? If you are in bed when you get a leg cramp, stretch your leg straight out and bend the toes back toward your head. Hold in this position for 30 seconds, relax, and repeat until the cramp is gone. This will stretch out your calf muscle. If cramping occurs while you are exercising, follow these tips: © Keep hydrated, as you lose electrolytes when you sweat. © Warm up for 10-15 minutes before exercising to stretch out the muscles you will be using. + Take magnesium, potassium and calcium supplements daily. important Learning activity 20 Muscular disorders Question 1 Answer the following questions. 1. Approximately how many different forms of muscular dystrophy are there? (1) 2. Are mainly girls or boys affected by these disorders? (1) 3. Do all the forms only affect the skeletal muscles? (2) 4, Duchenne muscular dystrophy is a genetically inherited disorder. Why is it called a sex-linked disease? (2) (6) Question 2 Write down the meaning of the following words. Ifyou do not know the answers, ask friends, use a medical dictionary or the internet. 1. dystrophin (2) _ 2. sareolemma (2) 3. myoblasts (2) 4, atrophy (2) __ 5. spasm (2)_ io} Total [16]Supporting stems Learning activity 21 Short questions 1. Multiple choice questions Various possible answers are given for the following questions. Fill in the correct answer below. 1|2]3]4/s5]6|7 {8 | 9 | 0 | 1 | i | 13 | 14 | 15 The human skeleton performs which of the following functions? 41. provides support 2. protects important organs 3. produces blood cells 4, provides levers for muscle activity 5, stores calcium and other minerals (@ 1,3.and5; (b) 1,2, 4and5; (©) 1,2 and 5; (@) all the above. The axial skeleton is made up of the skull, vertebral column and ... (a) rib cages (b) sternum; (c) pelvic girdle; (d) bony thorax. ‘The following are all synovial joints except: (a) ball and socket; (b) cartilaginous; (c) hinge; (@) pivot. ‘An auto-immune disorder in which joints swell and are gradually immobilized and may be totally destroyed is: (a) gout; (b) rheumatoid arthritis; (©) osteoarthritis; (a) bursitis. ‘articular surfaces deep and secure; capsule very strong and reinforced by muscle tendons; extremely stable joint’ — best describes the: (@) elbow joint; (b) hip joint; (©). knee joint; (@) shoulder joint. Which statement is correct with regard to the ribs? (a) The front ends of the upper seven pairs, the true ribs, are attached to the vertebrae by cartilage. (b) The next three pairs, called false ribs, are connected to the rib above by cartilage. (c) The lowest two pairs, called floating ribs, are only attached to the sternum. (d) Intercostal muscles (external and internal) surround the ribs. Which of the following statements is not correct regarding the pectoral girdle? (a) It is made up of a clavicle and a scapula. (b) ‘The clavicle articulates with the sternum of the axial skeleton. (c) The scapula is not attached to the axial skeleton and can move freely over the ribs. (@) The socket of the shoulder joint, the acetabulum, is shallow to allow the arms to move freely. 10. u. 12. 2 14, 15. ‘Which of the following is not true of rickets? (@) The most frequent cause is lack of vitamin A. (b) The bones become soft and deformed. (© Malformed ribcage, deformed pelvis and howed legs are symptoms. (4) It occurs when hones lack minerals, especially calcium. The pelvic girdle of a female is adapted for childbearing and differs from a male pelvic girdle in all the following ways except... (a) the hones are lighter. (b) the cavity, through which the birth canal passes, is broader. (©) it is narrower. (d) vertically itis shorter. When a muscle contracts which of the following does not occur? (a) Calcium ions are released. (b) ATP is hydrolyzed. (c) Myosin filaments slide between the actin filaments. (2) ‘The sarcomeres shorten. A fascicle is a... (a) muscle; (b) a bundle of muscle fibres enclosed by a connective tissue sheath; (©) a bundle of myofibrils; (d) a group of filaments. The sites where the motor nerve impulses are transmitted from the nerve endings to the sarcolemma are the: (a) — neuromuscular junctions; (b) sarcomeres; (©) Z lines; (@) myofibrils, ‘Myoglobin has a special function in the muscle cells. It... (@) breaks down glycogen; —(b) releases ATP; (c) is a contractile protein; (2) holds a reserve supply of oxygen in the muscle. ‘The ions that are released as a result of nerve stimulation are: (a) chloride ions; (b) calcium ions; (c) sodium ions; (@ potassium ions. ‘The connective tissue covering that encloses the sarcolemma of a muscle fibre is called the: (a) epimysium; (b) perimysium; (¢) endomysium; (@ periosteum, (15)= SEEPS. ae eee 2. Physiological terms Write down the correct physiological term for each of the followin; 1, Part of the skeleton made up of pectoral girdle, pelvic girdle, upper limbs and lower limbs ‘The cavity that the head of the humerus fits into 2. The brain box’ 3. Cartilaginous pads between vertebrae 4, Bones making up the ankle 5. Inelastic fibres in ligaments 6. Cells that make bone tissue 7. 8 The opening at the base of the brain through w the medulla connects with the spinal cord 3] | =] 2] | =|] ]- 9. The shoulder blade 10. Fluid that lubricates joints Ty 11, ‘The protein making up thick filaments in myofibrils 12, A bundle of muscle fibres es 13, The connective tissue sheath that encloses a skeletal [13 muscle a 14, The ion necessary to initiate a muscle contraction 5 15. Structures that hold bones together 16, A motor neuron and all the muscles fibres it supplies, 16 17. A region where a motor neuron comes into close contact with a muscle fibre al 18. The protein that makes up thin filaments ina | 18 myofibril a 19. Muscles that bring about opposing movements 20 20. The endoplasmic reticulum in muscle cells. 3. Items and statements [20] Each of the following questions consists of two items in the first column (numbered 1 and 2) and a statement in the second column. Consider which item/s relate to the statement. Write down your choice in the appropriate space by using the following codes: A ifonly item 1 relates to the statement B ifonly item 2 relates tothe statement ifboth items 1 and 2 relate to the statement D ifneither item 1 or 2 relate tothe statement Items Statements ‘Answers 1. | scapula Bone/s of axial skeleton to which the 2. sternum pectoral girdle is attached 1. cartilage , Made up of collagen fibres 3, | otiens Extensor muscle 2. biceps 4, |b myosin Protein molecules 2. actin1. deformed pelvis 2. bowed legs pickets «g,_ | t: osteoartrits Body's immune system attacks its own 2. rheumatoid arthritis tissues 1. pubie symphysis 7 |-2, joints between the vertebrae | Cé*tilaginous joint 1. bones ofthe fingers 5. | 2, bones ofthe toes Pnalanges 1. axial skeleton Sia shiltin Skull, vertebral column, rib cage 10, |b compact bone Making of red and white blood cells 2, cancellous bone 1. actin filaments 1. 2. myosin filaments Cross bridges a2, | 1 sarcoplasmic reticulum Storage of calcium ions 2, sarcoplasm 4. Mix and match (12) Choose a word from Column B to match the concepts in Column A and write down the correct letter next to the relevant number in the spaces below. 3) Column A Answers | Column B 1. Forms the chin ‘A redmarrow — M_ neuromuscular 2. The ‘sitting bones’ B cartilage Junction N_ motor unit 3. The ‘wear and tear’ disease of joints Ccarpals — © ischium 4, A tissue with no nerves D_ tarsals P itium 5. Wrist bones 2 yelowmarow | 6. The most complex joint : aaa R knee G_ mandible 7. Strong, fused vertebrae A Ss ananee maxilla 8, Joints between bones of the cranium T sarcolemma 1 periostium 9. Making of red and white blood corpuscles U_ sutures J perichondrium 10. The membrane surrounding a muscle fibre actin V_ osteoarthritis W rheumatoid 11, A membrane that surrounds bones I smnyoain, arthritis, 12, The contractile protein that slides during a muscle contraction 13, The functional unit of a muscle 14, The contractile protein that forms cross bridges in myofibrils 15. ‘The region where a motor neuron comes into close contact with a skeletal muscle cell= EN a 5. True and false Some of the following statements are true (T) and others are false (F). Write aT or an F in the relevant spaces. If false write the wrong word in the space provided and next to it the correct word. Statement T/F | Incorrect word | Correct word 1. The intervertebral dises have ajelly-like centre covered by hyaline cartilage. 2, The S-shape of the vertebral column is made up of 3 curves. 3. Both red and white blood cells are made in the yellow marrow in long bones. 4. Cancelious bone is made up of thin plates of bone called trabeculae. 5. 80% of cartilage is tissue fluid. 6. The heads of long bones are called the diaphyses. 7. The hip bone, the iliur, is an example of a flat bone. 8. The cranium is made up of eight flat bones that are joined by means of cartilaginous joints called sutures. 9. Sinuses are mucous-lined spaces in certain skull bones that are connected to the nasal cavity. 10. The lower jawbone, the maxilla, is the largest and strongest bone of the face. 11, The pectoral girdle is made up of two bones, the acromium and the scapula. 12. Rheumatism is a general term used to describe any condition producing pain and stiffness in joints. 13, Skeletal muscles are enclosed in a connective tissue sheath called the endamysium. 14, Nerve impulses stimulate the release of calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, 18, The I band is made up only of myosin filaments. (25) Total [87]