CHAPTER II: THE SCHOOL AS AN ORGANIZATION

Schools are significant institutions in society, providing education and training to individuals of
various ages. They can be basic education schools (preschool, elementary, junior, and senior high
school), technical-vocational institutions, or higher education institutions (colleges and universities).
Schools are organized to achieve collective goals and meet specific objectives. This chapter explores the
functions, structure, and role of schools in society, as well as the discussion of organizational theories,
leadership, and management theories in basic education reforms, including the Department of
Education's organizational structure.

Aims and objectives of school organization

1. The basic aim is that schools are the betterment of societies.

2. To provide efficient life of the school children and prepare them for the art of learning together.

3. To bring school and community close to each- other.

4. To prepare the students according to the interest and ability of the students

5. To help the students to unfold their personality (mental development) inner part.

6. To enable the students to have the right type of psychology of life.

7. To conserve all the group practical values, heredity and culture of our society.

ORGANIZATIONAL THEORIES

Organizations have significantly influenced human activities worldwide, as seen in the structure of
government and private organizations, influencing how people function to achieve specific goals.

Kashyap (n.d.) explains that since civilization's beginnings, people have formed organizations to
achieve common goals. Examples include the Emperors of China, the First Pope, and the Egyptians who
built the great pyramids. Kashyap defines organizations as groups of individuals working together to
achieve specific objectives.

Organization theory focuses on the assembly of people working together to achieve common
objectives through division of labor. McNamara defines an organization as a group of people
intentionally organized to accomplish a common goal or set goals with major subsystems that function
together to achieve the overall goal.

In an educational setting, a school's vision, mission goals, and objectives (VMGOs) serve as a guide for
planning and decision-making, ensuring a clear and effective organization. There are several theories
that explain the structure of organization and these are classified as classical or modern organizational
theories which deal with formal organizational concepts. Among these are Taylor's scientific
management approach, Weber's bureaucratic approach, and Fayol's administrative approach.

Frederick Winslow Taylor was the primary contributor to Scientific Management, a concept that
originated in the early 20th century and was later adopted by industrial companies. It focuses on
systematization, enhancing efficiency through scientific analyses and experiments. Taylor's work
emphasizes planning work to achieve efficiency, standardization, specialization, and simplification,
promoting mutual trust between management and workers to increase productivity. He proposed four
principles of Scientific Management:

Four Principles of Scientific Management

1. Science, not rule of thumb - develop a science of each element of man's work, which replaces the old
rule-of-thumb.

2. Scientific selection of the worker - scientifically select and then train, teach, and develop the
workman, whereas in the past he chose his own work and trained himself the best he could.

3. Management and labor cooperation rather than conflict - heartily cooperate with the men so as to
ensure all of the work being done is in accordance with the principles of science which has been
developed.

4. Scientific training of the worker - workers should be trained by experts using scientific method.

Van (2009) emphasized that Fayol laid the first foundation for modern scientific management in
the early 1900 which serve as guidelines for decision-making and management actions. Van (2009)
further articulated that this management concept which is known as the 14 principles of management is
considered as the underlying factors for successful management:

1. Division of Work - tasks is divided among employees according to their field of expertise or field of
specialization.

2. Authority and Responsibility - the management has the authority to give orders to subordinates that
comes with corresponding responsibility.

3. Discipline - is about the core values anchored on the vision and mission of an organization to form of
good conduct which essential to the successful operation of the organization.

4. Unity of Command - all orders received must come from one manager only otherwise it will cause
confusion to employees.

5. Unity of Direction - this ensures that all actions are properly coordinated and requires employees to
perform and carry out activities as one team leading to the same objectives using one plan.

6. Subordinate of Individual Interest - is about prioritization of organization's interest over personal

interest which applies to all members of the organization.

7. Remuneration - is about rewards and compensations to efforts that have been made which could be
in a form of monetary or non-monetary that keeps employees motivated and productive.

8. The Degree of Centralization - this implies the concentration of decision-making authority at the top
management.

9. Scalar Chain - is about the hierarchical structure that is always present at any type organization. There
should be a clear line of in the area of authority from the top management down to the lowest level.

10. Order - this pertains to the order and safety of employees in order to function properly at work.
11. Equity - this implies equal treatment among members of the organization.

12. Stability of Tenure of Personnel - this is about the proper deployment and management of
personnel by providing employees the opportunity to be considered for tenured position based on their
performance.

13: Initiative - this allows employees to express ideas that will help benefit the company.

14. Esprit de Corps - this promotes unity among employees, develops morale in the workplace, and
creates atmosphere of mutual trust and understanding.

Another contributor to modern organizational theories is Max Weber. He is a German

sociologist known for bureaucratic theory of management and is considered as the father of sociology.
"Weber believed that the most efficient way to set up an organization is through bureaucracy which is
way better than the traditional structure. Bureaucracy is an organizational structure that is characterized
by many rules, standardized process, procedures and requirements, number of desks, meticulous
division of labor and responsibility, clear hierarchies and professional, almost impersonal interaction
between employees" (Mulder, 2017). Mulder (2017) and Lagaard (2006) highlighted the three types of
power that can be found in an organization based on Weber's Bureaucratic model and these are the
following:

Traditional authority - based on historically created legitimacy where authority is hereditary and based
on dependent subordinates;

Legal, rule-oriented authority - the bureaucratic type of authority, based on normative rules for career,
hierarchy etc.; and

Charismatic authority - the personal authority, based on a type of 'seduction' and hence, the devotion
of supporters

In addition, Mulder (2017) explained that "bureaucracy, according to Weber, is the basis for
the systematic formation of any organization and is designed to ensure efficiency and economic
effectiveness which is an ideal model for management and administration in order to bring an
organization's power structure into focus. Relative to this, Weber lays down the basic principles of
bureaucracy and emphasis on the division of labor, hierarchy, rules and impersonal relationship." The
following are the salient features of Max Weber's Bureaucratic Theory highlighted by Mulder (2017):

1. Task specialization - sometimes called the division of labor wherein individual tasks are divided into
separate jobs which allows to manage tasks easily. In a school setting, each department has different
functions and each member has different filed of expertise. Teachers for example are usually assigned
with teaching loads based on their area of expertise while other functions that are administrative in
nature are assigned to non-teaching academic personnel.

2. Hierarchical of authority - Managers are organized into hierarchical layers, where each layer of
management is responsible for its staff and overall performance. In bureaucratic organizational
structures like the educational system, there are many hierarchical positions from top management to
lower level. The top level of a bureaucratic organizational structure has the greatest power to control
the lower level while the bottom layers are always subject to supervision and control of the higher
levels.

3. Formal selection - All employees are selected on the basis of technical skills and competencies, which
have been acquired through training, education and experience and are paid accordingly. In the
Department of Education, formal selection process is being followed using an established set of
standards and requirements are applied. Education and training backgrounds are the primary
requirement in school setting when applying for a position including performance evaluation based on
existing standards is also required for promotion and remuneration.

4. Rules and requirements - Formal rules and requirements are required to ensure uniformity, so that
employees know exactly what is expected of them. In a bureaucratic form of organization like the
educational institutions, the operation is governed by specific policies, standards, and guidelines which
can be in a form of a memo or an order. It serves as a guide for the members of the organization to
follow.

5. Impersonal - Regulations and clear requirements create distant and impersonal relationships
between employees, with the additional advantage of preventing nepotism or involvement from
outsiders or politics. Decisions must be based on rational factors rather than personal factors. Career
orientation - Employees of a bureaucratic organization are selected on the basis of their expertise. This
helps in the deployment of the right people in the right positions and thereby optimally utilizing human
capital. Professional growth and career development are encouraged to support employees to become
experts in their own field and significantly improve their performance.

6. Career Orientation – Employees of a bureaucratic organization are selected on the basis of their
expertise. This helps in the development of the right people on the right positions and thereby optimally
utilizing human capital. Professional growth and career development is encouraged to support
employees to become experts in their own field and significantly improve their performance.

SCHOOL LEADERSHIP

School Leadership

Leadership is an essential factor that contributes to the successful operation of an organization

School Leader

Primary function is to take charge of the management of the school. They are
expected to have a collective vision of the future direction of the organization that is clearly
understood by its stakeholders in order to meet the school organization’s goals and objectives.

Believe that getting the right people to become school leaders is very important and by
providing them with competencies to be effective leaders is critical to their profession, Whiteley (2009).
Aspects of school leader’s

1. Developing a deep understanding of how to support teachers

School leaders should understand the need of teachers that will capacitate them in
order to become effective teachers.

2. Managing the curriculum in ways that promote student learning

Learners have different learning styles; hence curriculum shall be carefully managed
accordingly by planning for appropriate strategies in curriculum delivery that will suit the learning styles
of students.

3. Developing the ability to transform schools into more effective organization to foster powerful
teaching and learning for all students

Transformational leadership is one of the leadership theories that requires leaders to

have passion and energy to achieve great things.

Jackson (cited in ASCD, 2015)

● Teacher leaders transcend formally defined roles in building which means that every
teacher, any teacher, at some point in their career, becomes a teacher leader.

Gabriel (2005)

● Teacher leaders possess a semblance of authority but no formal power. While not all leadership
positions are formal in nature and are not fixed, every school teacher do not serve or may not
have served as official leaders but may be assigned to leadership roles.

YUKI (2013)

● Different from managers

● It includes motivating subordinates and creating favorable conditions for doing their work
which is considered as one of the important managerial roles.

Among the roles that teacher leaders may assume are the following:

• Grade Level/ Subject Coordinator – this may include instructional leadership and administrative
functions.

• Department Chair/ Coordinator – serves as liaison officer between administration and colleagues.

• Curriculum and Assessment Specialists – leads teachers to follow curriculum standards and
develop appropriate assessment.
• Mentor/ Coach – serves as a mentor for co- teachers

• Facilitator – facilitates professional development

Leaders can influence the effectiveness of an organization through the following:

• the choice of objectives and strategies to pursue; -

• the motivation of members to achieve the objectives; -

• the mutual trust and cooperation of members; -

• the organization and coordination of work activities; -

• the allocation of resources to activities and objectives; -

• the development of member skills and confidence; -

• the learning and sharing of knowledge by members; -

• the enlistment support and cooperation from outsiders; -

• the design of formal structure, programs, systems; and-

• The shared belief and values of members

LEADERSHIP STYLES

1. Instructional Leadership - The primary role of a School Principal is to promote learning and
make students successful in their academic endeavors. It requires instructional
leadership that is critical to the success and effectiveness of the curriculum and
instruction. Instructional leadership is based on three dimensional approach which includes
defining the school's mission, managing the instructional program, and promoting a positive
school climate. Hallinger,2010, as cited in Nedelco, 2013. It is being shared with teachers
through coaching , reflection, collegial investigation, study teams, exploration, and
problem solving (Base & Base, 2004)2.

2. Transformational Leadership - According to Bass & Riggio (2006), this leadership

theory was conceptualized by James MacGregor Burns in 1978. Transformational leaders are
type of leaders who inspire their followers to achieve extraordinary outcomes by inspiring
them and, in the process, develop their own capacity (Bass & Riggio, 2006). This leadership
approach supports the instructional leadership style. It focuses on developing one's
capacity to innovate and support the development of changes to practices of teaching and
learning (Hallinger, 2010, as cited in Nedelco, 2013)

3. 3. Distributed Leadership – Distributed leadership is considered as a shared effort by

more than one person. “It serves interests of systemic drivability by promoting patterns of
joint optimization of shared visions, values, and individuals among groups rather than
the maximization of any subset of particular individual interest.” (Chatwani, 2018). In
education setting, distributed leadership draws from different perspectives to support
 the instructional leadership team by establishing a system of improving curriculum and
instruction through collaboration. It is believed that leadership can be more effective when it is
distributed among group of individuals with different competencies but a shared mission and
vision to foster culture of learning.

THE SCHOOL AS AN EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION

The establishment of a basic education school in the Philippines requires a School

Principal/Administrator, Academic Nonteaching Personnel (registrar, librarian, school physician,
school dentist, school nurse, school office staff, guidance counselor, support staff, etc.), and teaching
staff as embodied in DECS Order No. 12, series of 1991.

1. Administrator / Principal
Each school need a leader that will guide faculty members and support staff in
fulfilling school’s mandate. School administrators who work in elementary, junior
high school, and senior high school are known as Principals who are responsible
for leading the entire organization of school. They are in charge of managing
the major administrative tasks and supervising all the teachers and students
which include evaluation of teachers, handling student discipline, developing,
implementing and evaluation school programs and projects, policy development,
hiring of teachers, delegating tasks and teaching assignments, and maintaining a
positive relationship with parents, community and other stakeholders.
2. Teaching personnel / Faculty Members
They are the licensed teachers assigned to teach in different subject areas in
different grade levels and responsible for managing classroom environment,
facilitating instruction and assessment of student learning. They work with school
administrators, parents and the community to improve student learning
and to promote school programs and projects.
3. Academic Non-Teaching Personnel
They are the non-teaching personnel assigned to support to help maintain a
positive learning environment and to keep the school clean and safe from harm.
They work as teacher aids, librarians, guidance counsellors, office personnel,
and security and maintenance staff.
4. Students
They are the primary stakeholders that benefits from the school. They come from
different age groups, cultures, and backgrounds whose ultimate goal is to be
trained and educated. They make teaching profession a challenging work for
teachers and serve as bridge in connecting with parents and the
community.
5. Community
It is the location where a school is situated. It plays a very important role in
creating a positive learning environment. The partnership between the school
and the community help to strengthen the relationship of teachers with parents,
government officials, and private organizations that help promote school programs and
projects.

A basic education school is usually headed by a School Principal. Under the School
Administrator/Principal are the subordinates that include Assistant Principal and Administration
Staff. Below the Assistant Principal are the Head Teachers, and Teachers. Under the teachers
are the students, support staff, Barangay Officials, Local Government Units (LGUs) and Private
Organizations

Designated Instructional Leader and Administrative Manager under the School Principal. The
Instructional Leader’s task is to manage the Functions of teachers while the Administrative Manager is
in charge of managing the functions of nonteaching personnel and support staff.
 The organizational structure of a school involves various theories which include
formalization of school procedures, centralization/decentralization of decision making, and
specialization of tasks and roles within the organization.

The formalization of procedures involves development of written policies that serve as a guide
for members of the organization to follow which may also include plans, vision, mission, goals, and
objectives. Centralization/decentralization of decision making, on the other hand is the division
of tasks in decision making from the top management of Administrator/School Principal down to
middle managers or the Asst. Principal and Instructional Leaders/Head Teachers known as top
down approach or in some cases uses the bottom up approach where middle managers make decision
and relay to the top management for approval.

The specialization of task is perhaps one of the most applicable theories in

educational organization. Departmentalization is one of the horizontal specializations often used in an
educational organization. It could be a Language Department, a Science Department, a Math
Department, a Physical Education Department, etc. Faculty members from these departments are
considered experts in their own field and are given teaching assignments that are aligned with
their field of specializations.

REFORMS IN THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

When the trifocalization of the Philippine educational system took place in the early 90's,
technical-vocational education and training and higher education were separated from basic education.
By virtue of RA 7722 and RA 7784 the Commission on Higher Education and Technical Education and
Skills Development Authority were created. In 2001, RA 9155 known as the “Governance of Basic
Education Act” was passed transforming the name of DECS to the Department of Education and
redefining the roles of its offices from the national level down the school level. The RA 9155 provided
the overall framework for school head empowerment by strengthening their leadership roles and
school-based management within the context of transparency and local accountability (DepEd, n.d).
 Under RA 9155, cultural and sports activities, programs and tasks were transferred to other
relevant government agencies... The Komisyon ng Wikang Filipino, National Historical Institute, Record
Management and Archive Office, and the National Library which are previously under the DEpEd were
administratively attached to the National Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCCA). Sports
competitions were also transferred to the Philippine Sports Commission, while school sports and
physical education programs remained under the DepEd.

Under its mandate, DepEd initiated many reforms that greatly improved the Philippine basic education
system to provide every Filipino with the education they need to compete in a global context.

The Enhanced Basic Education

According to the Senate Economic Planning Office (SECO) (2011), the Philippines, together with
Djibouti and Angola of Africa are the only three remaining countries in the world that retains 10-year
basic education system. SECO articulated that the continuous deterioration of the quality of education in
the Philippines despite of the constitutional guarantees has prompted DepEd to push for the
implementation of k to 12 program, which entails the institutional of the kindergarten and the
additional two more years of high school in the basic education cycle.

Issues that influenced the implementation of the K to 12 programs highlighted by SECO:

• Net elementary participation has declined from 90.1% in 2002 to 88% in 2010. Fewer
children of school age proceed to high school and an even smaller number pursue
college education.

• Access to education is unequal, with the poor having significantly lower participation
rates than the non-poor.

• Efficiency is a problem as manifested in the still high, albeit declining dropout school
leaver rates.

• The results of functional Literacy, Education and Mass Media Survey (FLEMMS) showed
that out-of-school with ages 6 to 15 years old do not attend classes due to lack of
personal interest, high cost of education, too young to go to school.

• Low score in the country’s national assessment test.

• The result of international test such as Trends in International Mathematics and Science
Study (IMMS) shows that Philippines is among the worst participating countries.

SECO added that the deterioration in the quality of education was attributed to the 10-year
basic education cycle. As such, the government exerted effort to address the issued by attempting to
increase the number of years in basic education. However, such idea was opposed by students and
parents since additional years in school will entail additional expenses for parents. Perhaps, due to lack
of information regarding the benefits of having a longer year of basic education.
 There are many compelling reasons why the Philippine government pushed for enhancement of
the basic education system. In an article published by k-12 Philippines (2015), six reasons were
highlighted why the Philippines should shift to k to 12, these are the following:

1. The Philippine is the only country in Asia with a 10-year basic education.

2. Poor quality of education

3. Too many non-practical subjects

4. Not prepared for college education

5. Too young for labor force

6. No global recognition

Finally, in 2012, RA no. 10553 known as the “Enhanced Basic Education Act” was passed
institutionalizing the k 10 12 curriculum. The K to 12 program has brought development opportunities to
the basic education system to address issues and concerns in quality education. The following are the
salient features of the K to 12 highlighted by DepEd:

1. Strengthening of the kindergarten in the Philippines

2. Making the curriculum relevant to learners

3. Building proficiency

4. Ensuring integrated and seamless learning

5. Gearing up for the future

6. Nurturing the holistically developed Filipino

The goal of the k to 12 basic education programs is to prepare Filipino students for tertiary
education and in the field of work by providing those with enough time in basic education to master
skills and develop competencies that will enable them perform better when they decided to go to the
field work.
Institutionalization of Kindergarten

General kindergarten program refers to the 10-month program provided to children who are at
least five years old in regular elementary schools using thematic and integrative curriculum to ensure
the development of foundational skills among children to prepare them for grade 1(DepEd 2012).

Prior to the implementation of the k to 2 curriculum in the Philippines, kindergarten is optional

to parents. The "Barangay-Level Total Protection of Children Act of 1990," also known as RA 8672,
requires local government entities to work with the Department of Social Welfare and Development
(DSWD) to build daycare centers for kindergarten students in every town. The implementation of early
childhood education was then strengthened by the passage of RA 8980 known as the “Early Childhood
Care and Development Council (ECCD) Act 2001” which mandated through DSWD to provide programs
needed by young children that will promote their optimum growth and development.

In 2011, RA no. 10517 known as the “Kindergarten Education Act”, was passed institutionalizing
the kindergarten into the basic education system. The passing of the said law in in consonance with the
Millennium Development Goals on achieving Education for All (EFA) by year 2015. RA 10517 also
provided equal opportunities for all children to avail accessible mandatory and compulsory kindergarten
education that effectively promotes physical, social, affective, cognitive, and creative-aesthetic
development that will prepare them for elementary schooling.

With the passage of RA 10410 known as the “Early Years Act of 2013”, children ages to 0-4
became the responsibility if the ECCD Council while the responsibility to help develop children in their
formative years between ages 5-8 was given to DepEd by virtue of RA 10533 known as the “Enhanced
Basic Education Act of 2012 which covers the inclusion of Kindergarten in the basic education system.

Mother tongue-based Multilingual Education

Consistent with the policy of the state to make education learner-oriented and responsive to the
needs, cognitive, and cultural capacity, the circumstances and diversity of leaners per RA 10517, the
mother tongue-based multi lingual education (MTB-MLE) was made as medium of instruction for
teaching and learning in the kindergarten level by virtue of DepEd Order no. 32, series of 2012.

Mother tongue is seen as an important medium of instruction by using a local language

understood by the learners. Rutus Foundation (2018) articulated the following benefits associated with
an education that takes into account children’s mother tongue:

• Children learn better and faster in a language they can understand

• They enjoy school more and feel more at home

• Pupil tend to increase self-esteem

• Parents participation is increased by helping kids in their homework and participating in

school activities

• When children take advantage of their multilingualism, they also enjoy higher socio-
economic status including higher earnings.

• On average, schools perform better, reporting less repetition

 • Finally, children stay in school longer

Contextualized Curriculum

In terms of curriculum, DepEd has restructured the content of the old basic education curricula
to make it more relevant to learner through contextualization and enhancement. The enhanced
curriculum also aims to provide students the opportunity to acquire in-depth knowledge, skills, values,
and attitudes through continuity and consistency across all levels and subjects (k12 Official Gazette, n.d).

Curriculum was also made seamless using spiral progression concept by teaching the simplest to more
complicated concept through grade levels which will ensure a mastery of knowledge and skills after each
level.

The additional 2 years of Senior High School is one of the most relevant reforms that may be considered.
The 2 years of senior high school was made to provide students sufficient time for mastery of concepts
and skills, develop life-long learners, employment, and entrepreneurship (k12 Official Gazette, n.d.). The
following tracks were included in the senior high school:

1. Academic Track

• Accountancy, Business and Management (ABM)

• Humanities and Social Sciences (HUMSS)

• Science, Technology, Engineering and Math (STEM)

• Pre-baccalaureate Maritime

2. Technical-Vocational-Livelihood

• Agri-Fishery

• Home Economics

• Information and Communication Technology

• TVL MAritime

3. Sports

4.Arts and Design

Organizational Structure of the Department of Education

When the Department of Education as restructured in 2001 through the passage of RA 9155,
DECS was renamed to DepEd and shifted the focus of its mandate to basic education. By virtue of
executive order no. 366, series of 2004 directing a strategic review of the operations of the executive
branch, DepEd initiated a rationalization plan which includes the rationalize structure and staffing
pattern of officers in central, regional, and schools division level (Development of Education, 2015).
 According to DepEd, the new DepEd organizational structure is a result of the thorough study
conducted by the DepEd Change Management (CMT) vis-à-vis the long term education reforms.
Consistent with the pertinent provisions of RA 9155, DepEd also continued to adopt the decentralization
and shared governance to ensure accountability and relevance to the needs and demands of its
stakeholders. As such, new organizational structure was adopted and took effect in January 1, 2016.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF SCHOOL ORGANIZATION

In the new organizational structure, there are newly created offices while other existing offices
were renamed, merged, transferred, and some are abolished like the Bureau of Physical Education.
Under the Office of the Secretary (OSEC), there are 5 Undersecretaries;

• Curriculum and Instruction

• Governance and Operations

• Legal and Legislative Affairs

• Finance and Administration

• Strategic Management.
 The organizational structure of the Department of Education is an example of a typical structure
where there is hierarchy of the chain of command. The person at the top which is the DepEd Secretary
oversees the next level down which are undersecretaries.

Undersecretaries which are the next level of managers to the Secretary oversee the first line of
managers who are in charge in different departments that are broken down based on their
specialization.

The school as an organization plays a very important role in the society. The leadership and
management of an organization, how it structured, and the implementation of educational reforms are
crucial to the functions of an educational organization particularly in the achievement of its goals and
objectives.

The role of the school as an agent of social change is important. Schools mold the minds and
character of the students.