RRC Revision Guide International General Certificate in Occupational Health Safet by Nebosh UK IG1 IG2 RRC International - Uk

RRC Revision Guide International
General Certificate in Occupational

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RRC
Revision Guide
NEBOSH
International General Certificate in
Occupational Health and Safety
Unit IG1: Management of Health and Safety
Unit IG2: Risk Assessment
NEBOSH INTERNATIONAL GENERAL CERTIFICATE
IN OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY
UNIT IG1
MANAGEMENT OF HEALTH AND SAFETY
UNIT IG2
RISK ASSESSMENT: THE PRACTICAL ASSESSMENT
REVISION GUIDE
RRC Ref. IGRG.2
© RRC International
All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form, or by any means, electronic, electrostatic, mechanical,
photocopied or otherwise, without the express permission in writing from RRC
International.
ISBN for this volume: 978-1-912652-28-0 Second edition December 2020
Contents
Introduction to Units IG1 and IG2 Revision Guide 1
Effective Revision 2
Unit IG1 Revision Notes 5
Unit IG1 Scenario and Exam Questions 43
Unit IG1 Model Answers 47
Unit IG2 The Practical Assessment 67

4 © RRC International
Units IG1 & IG2 Revision Guide: Introduction
Introduction to Units IG1 and IG2

Revision Guide

This Revision Guide has been created to help you revise and prepare for your Unit IG1
‘open book’ exam (Elements 1–4) and Unit IG2 practical assessment (Elements 5–11).
By combining an overview of each topic with practice exam questions, it will help you
revise the course content and improve your exam technique at the same time. It’s
perfect preparation for your NEBOSH exam. However, it is not intended to replace a
proper course of learning! Details about the practical assessment are also included to
help you understand what’s required for each part.
The Revision Guide is divided into the following sections:
Effective Revision
This is a summary of how you can use the syllabus for effective revision, a description
of the exam structure and the importance of exam technique.
Unit IG1 Revision Notes
These notes provide a summary of key principles and ideas that are assessed in the
exam. They are a condensed version of the topics covered by the first four elements
of the course. They will be useful to you when you are reviewing course content, and
will help you build and enhance your memory of core ideas.
Unit IG1 Scenario and Exam Questions
The example scenario and exam questions provided give you an insight into the
sorts of questions that are asked and the way that they are worded. They will be
useful to you when you are preparing for the ‘open book’ exam and will help you
understand the exam process.
Unit IG1 Model Answers
These answers to the example exam questions will help you review and understand
the course content. They have been written as ideal answers to an example scenario,
so your answers will differ depending on the scenario provided in the exam.
Unit IG2 The Practical Assessment
This focuses on what’s required for the practical assessment and the steps you will
need to take to ensure success.
Please note: If you are taking the NEBOSH International Certificate in Construction
Health and Safety, or the NEBOSH International Certificate in Fire Safety and Risk
Management, you should not refer to the last section of this Revision Guide, ‘Unit IG2
Risk Assessment: The Practical Assessment’ as this is for International General Certificate
candidates only.
© RRC International 1
Effective Revision

Using the Syllabus
The Guide to the NEBOSH International General Certificate is a very useful resource for
exam preparation. This sets out the structure of the course and contains the syllabus. If
you don’t already have a copy of the syllabus guide, we strongly recommend that you
download it from the NEBOSH website and refer to it as you work through your course
revision (make sure you get the version that is labelled ‘for Learning Partners’). The
example scenario and exam questions are based on Elements 1–4 of this syllabus guide,
and as you become more familiar with it, you’ll be less likely to be ‘thrown’ by a surprise
question.
Because the scenario and exam questions are based on Elements 1–4 of the syllabus,
mapping your study notes against the syllabus can be a very useful revision technique.
If you have studied with RRC, you will see that the material follows the syllabus quite
closely, but this exercise is important to help you appreciate the overall ‘picture’. When
you’re studying one specific section in isolation, it can be very easy to lose sight of how
the material fits together, what practical use it is, or how a health and safety practitioner
might make use of it in real life. Referring back to the syllabus will put each topic in
perspective and help you see how it relates to the field of health and safety generally. It
will also help you cross-reference the material with other related topics, which you may
have to do in more complex exam questions.
One revision technique is to randomly pick any part of the syllabus from Elements 1–4
and write down what you know about that topic. This might be very little at first, in
which case go back to your study notes and summarise the key issues that you need
to work on. Make a note of this topic, then return to it later and see how much more
you can remember. If you practise this regularly, you will eventually cover all four
elements and in the process find that you understand and retain the material much more
effectively. This is called ‘active revision’, as it actively tests your memory to see what you
have learnt. It is far more effective than ‘passive revision’, where you simply read your
study notes (most people will switch off after 30 seconds).
You will find it easier to study if you have an overall understanding of the topic first, then
fill in the detailed knowledge requirements later. Ask yourself searching questions such
as:
‘What use is this?’;
‘How would a health and safety practitioner apply this in real life?’; and
‘What is the point of this topic?’;
until you feel that you fully understand why a health and safety practitioner would need
to know about each topic. Once you have this level of general understanding, the details
will be much easier to retain, and in some cases you may be able to derive them from
your own workplace experience.
The aim of your revision is to achieve a comprehensive overview of Elements 1–4 of the
syllabus. Once you have done this, you will be able to say something about each of the
topic areas and apply this to any ‘open book’ exam scenario.
The Exam
The IG1 ‘open book’ exam is not invigilated and you have a 24-hour window in which to
prepare, complete and submit the exam, therefore allowing enough time to reflect and
detail your answers.
There is no choice of questions in the exam – all questions are compulsory. NEBOSH
specifies 4 to 5 hours to complete the exam. The 24 hours allows you to pick the best
time of day for you to work on the exam – it does not mean you should be working all
that time.
Exam Technique
The ‘open book’ exam will test you on your ability to “demonstrate analytical, evaluation
and creative skills as well as critical thinking” and how you apply your learning to your
answers. In other words, you will need to show what you can do with your knowledge
to solve the problems presented to you – and this may take practice. To assist you in
showing your knowledge, let us look at a step-by-step approach that you can adopt
when answering your exam questions.
Step 1 - Read the scenario – the first step is to read the scenario carefully. Take care
with this as it is very easy to misread words in the rush to get writing. It’s likely you
will read the scenario more than once.
Step 2 - Look at the first task – a task is an activity or piece of work that will
be part of a larger project. The task may be split up into several sub-tasks. The
task is used to indicate the questions. Read each question carefully. This is what
your knowledge is being tested on – so your answer must address the question.
Demonstrating knowledge alone will not gain marks – your knowledge has to be
applied to the task – so you need to clearly understand the question being asked.
Step 3 - Look at the marks – each task or sub-task, question or part of a question
will have the maximum number of marks indicated in brackets. For each mark to
be awarded, the examiner will expect a piece of information that demonstrates
an analytical evaluation of the task that has been set. The marks available give an
indication of how much you will need to write and, to a lesser extent, how long you
should spend on this part of each question.
Step 4 - Re-read the scenario and task question – to check that you have properly
interpreted them and understood them. There are no marks available for answering
the task question that you think you see rather than the one that the examiner asked
you.
Step 5 - Draw up a plan – this can take the form of a list or a mind map that
helps you unload information quickly and make sure you have enough factors (or
things) in your answer to gain the available marks. Jotting down a plan can help you
remember key points. The plan is also your aide-mémoire to keep you on track as
you start to write your full answer. Your plan can use information from the scenario
to support your answer.
When it comes to the exam, there is no need to submit your plan.
When writing your answer, you must ensure that the structure of the task appears in the
structure of your answer. So, for example, if the task question has a part (a) and a part
(b), your answer must follow the same structure. Answer part (a) and label it clearly for
the examiner as the answer to part (a). Then leave a gap (one line will do) and answer
part (b) and label it clearly. The examiner must be able to see the two separate parts of
your answer and it must be clear to them which parts are the answer to which questions.
One long paragraph of text that contains all parts of the answer jumbled up together
cannot gain full marks, even if all of the relevant information is there.
The above exam technique is tried and tested and is the best way to approach each exam
task. ‘Open book’ exams are a new approach for NEBOSH but the education sector has
used ‘open book’ exams for a long time.
NEBOSH gives a 24-hour window of time to reflect different time zones learners work
and live with. You are not expected to spend 24 hours completing the exam. You will,
however, need to monitor your progress on completing all the tasks and you should plan
for drafting answers, reflection and amending answers, building in time for breaks.
NEBOSH INTERNATIONAL GENERAL CERTIFICATE

IN
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY
UNIT IG1
REVISION NOTES

Element 1: Why We Should Manage Workplace
Health and Safety
Key Words
Health and safety at work covers a wide range of concepts:
Health refers to the absence of disease or ill-health condition and includes both
physical and psychological ill health.
Safety refers to the absence of risk of serious personal injury.
Welfare refers to access to basic facilities, such as toilet facilities, hand-wash stations,
changing rooms, rest rooms and places where food can be prepared and eaten in
relatively hygienic conditions, drinking water and first-aid provision.
Morals and Money

The Moral Reason for Managing Health and Safety
The scale of the problem – the International Labour Organization (ILO)
provides annual statistics detailing the scale of health and safety accidents globally.
These statistics indicate the extent of death, ill health and injury that results from
people going to work to earn a living. The moral argument for proper management
of health and safety is simply recognition that this suffering is morally unacceptable.
Societal expectations – standards of health and safety improve over time. Though
individuals may not appear to be interested in health and safety, when a serious
injury or disease is caused by work, the overall response from society is one of
condemnation.
The Financial Reason for Managing Health and Safety

The financial argument for good health and safety management is simply that accidents
and ill health cost an employer money.
The costs of failures in health and safety at work fall into two groups:
Direct costs – these are measurable costs arising directly from an accident and/or
claim for liability under the civil or criminal courts.
Indirect costs – these costs may arise indirectly as a consequence of an incident and
may be very significant (e.g. damage to business reputation). Some of these costs
may be insured (e.g. compensation to an injured employee) but many will not be.
Insured and Uninsured Costs

Insured costs – workers are insured against personal injury, and stock and premises
are usually insured against loss.
Uninsured costs – some losses are uninsurable by their very nature (e.g. you cannot
take out an insurance policy to pay money should you be prosecuted and fined
in the criminal law courts). Many of the direct and indirect costs associated with
workplace accidents are uninsured. It has been estimated that uninsured losses are
between 8 and 36 times greater than insured losses, with an average figure of 10
times greater (stated by the Health and Safety Executive (HSE)).
Regulating Health and Safety

The International Framework
A key player in the area of international legal standards in health and safety is the ILO
which is an agency of the United Nations (UN). Most countries are members of the ILO.
The two primary outputs of the ILO are Conventions and Recommendations. These
set international legal standards..
Employers’ Responsibilities
The ILO’s Occupational Safety and Health Convention (C155) is supplemented by
the Occupational Safety and Health Recommendation 1981 (R164).
Article 10 of R164 identifies some of the basic duties placed on employers to:
Provide workplaces and work equipment, and use work methods that are safe and
no risk to health.
Provide appropriate instructions and training.
Provide necessary supervision.
Put in place health and safety arrangements adapted to suit the size and nature of
the undertaking.
Provide any necessary personal protective clothing and equipment free of charge.
Ensure that the hours of work do not adversely affect employees’ safety and health.
Remove any extreme physical and mental fatigue.
Stay up-to-date with knowledge in order to comply with the above.
Workers’ Responsibilities and Rights

Article 19 of C155 states that individual workers and their representatives have to
co-operate with their employer so that they can fulfil their safety obligations.
R164 requires that workers should:

Take reasonable care of their own safety and that of other people who might be
affected by the things that they do and the things that they fail to do.
Comply with safety instructions and procedures.
Use all safety equipment properly and not tamper with it.
Report any situation which they believe could be a hazard and which they cannot
themselves correct.
Report any work-related accident or ill health.
Workers’ rights include:
The right to be provided with adequate information on actions the employer has
taken to ensure occupational safety and health.
The right to the necessary training in occupational safety and health.
The right to be consulted by the employer on all matters of occupational safety and
health relating to their work.
The right to leave a workplace which they have reason to think presents an
imminent and serious danger to their life or health and not be compelled to return
until it is safe.
The Role of Enforcement Agencies

Each country has a number of agencies that investigate incidents and enforce laws
(i.e. enforcement agencies and fire authorities) or provide advice (i.e. insurance
companies).
Consequences of Non-Compliance
Formal enforcement action: an enforcement agency might force an employer
either to make an improvement within the workplace within a given time period,
or to stop carrying out high risk activities altogether until improvements are made.
Failure to comply with formal enforcement action is usually considered to be an
offence in itself.
Prosecution of the organisation in the criminal courts: successful prosecution
might result in punishment in the form of a fine.
Prosecution of individuals, such as directors, managers and workers: successful
prosecution might result in punishment in the form of a fine and/or imprisonment.
In cases of civil liability, an organisation or individual may be required to pay
compensation for injuries or loss sustained, particularly in cases of negligence.
Negligence involves not exercising reasonable care towards others and causing harm as
a result of something you do or fail to do.
In many countries, worker compensation is based on proving negligence, i.e. sharing

blame or fault. In other countries, a no-fault compensation system is operated, where
negligence does not have to be proved in a court.
Other International Standards

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has been the main
instigator of the quality management standard (ISO 9001) and the environmental
management standard (ISO 14001). There is also an internationally recognised
standard for health and safety management (ISO 45001). At a technical level, ISO has
been responsible for developing health and safety standards to which machinery, etc.
should conform (e.g. ISO 12100: Safety of Machinery).
Sources of Information
Information on national standards can be obtained from the relevant national regulatory
bodies, who publish guidance documents which provide information on the legal
standards required. Many of the regulatory bodies have websites which are valuable
sources of information, such as:
Health and Safety Executive (HSE) in the UK at: www.hse.gov.uk
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) in the US at: www.osha.gov
WorkSafe in Western Australia at: www.commerce.wa.gov.au/WorkSafe
Who Does What in Organisations?

Although everyone working in an organisation will have a practical responsibility for their
health and safety and that of others, C155 and R164 place specific duties in respect of
health and safety to different people within the organisation.
The Employer
Responsibility for ensuring that the workplace is safe and free of health risk rests with the
employer. IC155 and R164 make the duty of the employer clear.
Directors and Senior Managers
Directors and senior managers must demonstrate clear commitment and leadership to
health and safety. They must have strategic responsibilities to ensure:
The right health and safety policy is in place.
There is an adequate budget for implementing the policy.
The right organisational structures are in place.
A member of top management is appointed with specific responsibility for health
and safety.
Competent people are employed by the organisation.

The health and safety performance of the organisation is reviewed on a regular basis.
Middle Managers and Supervisors
These are responsible for the health and safety standards within the operations they
control, for example:
Health and safety policies are implemented and monitored.
Safe systems of work and equipment are supplied.
Incidents are recorded and investigated.
They are responsible for:
The staff who work directly for them (their direct reports).
Staff lower down in the organisational chart (below their direct reports).
The areas and activities under their control.
The Shared Responsibilities of Joint Occupiers of Premises

Employers sharing premises must co-operate and co-ordinate their health and safety
arrangements and emergency procedures. They should also inform each other of any
likely risks arising from their activities.
Contractor Management
Contractor – a person or organisation engaged to undertake certain work on behalf
of a client but not under the client’s direct supervision and control.
Client – a person or organisation who engages a contractor.
In the interests of health and safety, the client must be aware of the risks associated with
the contractor’s work and the contractor must be aware of the risks inherent in the
client’s workplace.
Shared Duties
Contractors are responsible for their own health and safety and the health and safety
of others who might be affected by their work activities.
A contractor company is an employer in their own right as they have employees.
A contractor company and its employees owe a duty to everyone.
When a client brings a contractor on site, the contractor’s work becomes a part of
the client’s undertaking.
The client and their employees also owe a duty to everyone.
The client and the contractor share responsibility for ensuring health and safety.
It is in both parties’ interests to ensure that each does everything that might be
considered reasonable in the circumstances to discharge their duty and avoid
criminal liability.
Selection of Contractors
A contractor is selected on their health and safety competence. Evidence of competence
includes:
Health and safety policy.
Risk assessments.
Qualifications and training records.
Membership of a professional organisation or certified body.
Maintenance and testing for plant and equipment.
Names of previous or current clients.
Accident history records.
Enforcement action taken by authorities against them.
Adequate resources, such as access to specialist safety advice.
Adequate insurance.
Planning and Co-ordination of the Work
Planning
Information – the client should tell the contractor about the hazards and risks in
the workplace, and the contractor should tell the client about the hazards and risks
created by the contract work.
The contractor should carry out risk assessments and develop safe working methods
to control the risks identified. This safe working method must be documented and is
often referred to as a ‘method statement’.
Co-ordination
The client and contractor must co-ordinate their work carefully so as not to conflict.
Monitoring and Managing the Work
Arrangements should include:
Signing in and out procedure.
Named works supervisor.
Site induction training for all contractor workers.
Controlling high-risk activities with a permit-to-work system.
The client will need to monitor the contractor’s work to ensure that the contractor is
working to agreed safety standards. This can be done by monitoring against the method
statement that was developed during the planning stage.
Element 2: How Health and Safety Management

Systems Work and What They Look Like
Occupational Health and Safety Management Systems
ILO-OSH 2001: The ILO Occupational Safety and Health
Management System
The ILO’s Guidelines on occupational safety and health management systems 2001
(ILO-OSH 2001) provides a model for the development and maintenance of effective
systems and procedures. The key elements of this are the same as for other management
processes, as follows:
Setting a health and safety policy.
Organising staff and assigning roles and responsibilities for health and safety.
Planning and implementing systems.
Evaluation – monitoring and reviewing standards and systems.
Action for improvement – implementing any necessary adjustments.
Auditing the effectiveness and reliability of the safety system in order to continually
improve.
The ILO-OSH 2001 safety management system
ISO 45001: The Occupational Health and Safety Management

System Standard
ISO 45001 is compatible with ISO 9001 and ISO 14001 and provides a management standard that
an organisation can be certificated to
Making the Management System Work –The Health and

Safety Policy
A health and safety policy sets out the organisation’s health and safety aims. It:
Identifies the responsibilities and allocated duties of employees and managers.
Co-ordinates activities to identify, analyse and implement solutions to potential
safety problems.
Defines arrangements for promoting, planning and controlling all aspects of health
and safety in the workplace.
The Three Parts of a Health and Safety Policy

The policy is normally in three sections.
General Statement of Intent/Statement of General Policy
This sets out the organisation’s commitment and overall approach to health and safety. It
spells out the main objectives or measurable targets for health and safety performance.
The General Statement of Intent should be signed by the Chief Executive Officer or
Managing Director. Performance relating to targets may be compared with previous
performance or the industry as a whole, i.e. benchmarking.
Benchmarking is the process of identifying and learning from best practices; benchmarks
are performance targets that reflect best practices and allow comparisons to be made.
Objectives/targets should be ‘SMART’. The acronym SMART refers to the idea that
objectives should be:
Specific – a clearly defined, precise objective.
Measurable – it is possible to measure achievement of (or towards) the target;
usually by quantifying the objective.
Achievable – it can be done.
Reasonable – within the timescale set and with the resources allocated.
Time-bound – a deadline or timescale is set for completion of the objective.
When setting health and safety objectives, consideration should be given to:
Who is going to set the objectives.
How objectives will be set at each functional level.
Legal and other requirements.
Hazards and risks.
Technological options.
Financial, operational and business requirements.

Views of interested parties.
Organisational Roles and Responsibilities
This section specifies the roles and responsibilities of employees and management, their
accountability, the chain of command and communication, and operational duties in
terms of health and safety.
Arrangements
This section explains the general arrangements that exist to manage health and safety
and specific arrangements to deal with particular risks. The aims of the policy statement
are met by:
Planning health and safety measures using risk assessments.
Developing safe systems of work and permits to work.
Implementing staff consultation and communication mechanisms.
Monitoring compliance and assessing effectiveness through active and reactive
monitoring methods.
Reviewing Policy
An organisation’s health and safety policy should be reviewed if or when:
The structure of the organisation and/or key personnel change.
The organisation changes premises.
Work arrangements change or new processes are introduced.
An audit or a risk assessment requires a review.
There is enforcement action or as a consequence of the findings from accident
investigations.
The law changes.
Consultation with employees or their representatives highlights deficiencies.
A third party requests it (e.g. insurance companies, customers or clients).
Some time has passed since the policy was developed.
Standards and Guidance

Article 14 of the ILO’s R164 sets out the basic legal requirement for an organisation to
record its policy and arrangements. This is translated in national law.
ILO-OSH 2001 has additional guidance on safety policy. National governments usually
have specific guidance on what this actually means in practice in a given region.
Element 3: Managing Risk – Understanding

People and Processes
Health and Safety Culture
The culture of an organisation refers to the formal and informal rules, values, customs
and relationships that describe the ‘feel’ of the organisation.
Health and safety culture can be defined as the shared attitudes, values, beliefs and
behaviours relating to health and safety. These will either be positive or negative.
Relationship Between Health and Safety Culture and Performance

An organisation with a positive health and safety culture will ensure that health and
safety standards are high and will have:
A firm statement of health and safety policy.
Well-defined lines of responsibilities and control.
Clear communication and consultation on health and safety.
Active approaches to health and safety at all levels.
People working safely so there will be fewer accidents and ill health.
An organisation with a negative health and safety culture will have:
Workers who think health and safety unimportant.
Lack of clear direction and leadership from senior management.
Managers who do not consider health and safety in their decision making.
Workers who behave unsafely because they do not know any better.
Lack of attention, low health and safety standards, poor behaviour and accidents
occurring.
Indicators of Health and Safety Culture

Accidents – comparing performance with previous years/industry average.
Absenteeism – possibly due to ill health caused by work or poor morale linked to a
negative safety culture.
Sickness rates – ill health caused or made worse by work.
Staff turnover – low turnover may indicate a good safety culture.
Compliance with safety rules – high level of compliance indicates a positive safety
culture.
Complaints about working conditions – legitimate and serious complaints may
indicate a negative safety culture.
The Influence of Peers

Workers will be influenced by those they work with and may want to conform in order
to be accepted by others.
Improving Health and Safety Culture

Management Commitment and Leadership
Senior managers must inspire and motivate managers at all levels to pursue health and
safety objectives, by establishing a safety policy with clear priorities and targets.
Middle and junior management follow through the commitment of senior management
by means of the priorities and objectives that they set their staff. In this way,
commitment is cascaded down through the organisation.
An important factor in demonstrating management commitment is visible leadership.
Individual managers must show their commitment to health and safety to their staff as
this creates the local safety culture.
Visible leadership can be demonstrated by:
Behaving safely (leading by example).
Involvement in the day-to-day management of health and safety (e.g. by attending
safety meetings).
Taking part in safety tours or audits.
Promoting changes to improve health and safety.
Enforcing the company safety rules through use of disciplinary procedures.
Competent Workers
A competent person is someone who has sufficient training, skills, experience and
knowledge (and perhaps other abilities, such as attitude and physical ability) to be able
to carry out their work safely.
It is the responsibility of the employer to ensure that workers are competent to carry out
the tasks that they have been allocated.
Effective Communication
Communication can be defined as the process of delivering information from a sender
to a recipient. To be effective, the correct information has to be transmitted and
understood.
Verbal Communication
Uses the spoken word – face-to-face conversations, meetings, interviews, training
sessions, telephone calls, etc.
Benefits Limitations
Personal. Language barrier may exist.
Quick. Jargon may not be understood.
Direct. Strong accent or dialect may interfere.
Allows for checking of Background noise may interfere.
understanding.
Recipient may have poor hearing.
Allows for feedback to be given.
Message may be ambiguous.
Allows for exchange of views.
Recipient may miss information.
Usually allows for additional
information to be transmitted Recipient may forget information.
by means of tone of voice, facial No written record as proof.
expression and body language.
Poor transmission quality if by telephone
or PA system.
Written Communication
Uses the written word – reports, memos, e-mails, notices, company handbooks, etc.
Permanent record. Indirect.
Can be referred back to. Takes time to write.
Can be written very carefully to May contain jargon and abbreviations.
avoid use of jargon, abbreviations
and ambiguity. Can be impersonal.
Can be distributed to a wide Message may be ambiguous.

audience relatively cheaply. Message may not be read by recipient.
Language barrier may exist.
Recipient may not be able to read.
Immediate feedback is not available.
Questions cannot be asked.
Recipient may have impaired vision.
Graphic Communication
Uses pictures, symbols or pictograms – safety signs, hazard symbols, photographs, etc.
May be eye-catching. Can only convey simple messages.
Visual. Might be expensive to buy or produce.
Quick to interpret. May not be looked at.
No language barrier. Symbols or pictograms may be unknown
to the recipient.
Jargon-free.
No immediate feedback available.
Conveys a message to a wide
audience. Questions cannot be asked.
Recipient may have impaired vision.
Broadcasting Methods
Methods of broadcasting health and safety information include:
Noticeboards.
Posters and films.
Toolbox talks.
Digital media and intranet systems.
Memos and e-mails.
Worker handbooks.
Co-operation and Consultation

A positive safety culture can only be created with worker co-operation and inclusion.
This is best achieved by the involvement of employees in the decision-making process
(e.g. safety committees).
Consultation involves employers not only giving information to employees, but also
listening to and taking account of what they say before any health and safety decisions
are made, particularly in respect of:
The introduction of any new health and safety measures, technologies or procedures
in the workplace.
The appointment of specially nominated persons to provide health and safety advice
and assistance.
Any health and safety training plans or information required.
It is common practice to form a safety committee to act as a focal point for health and
safety issues. The safety committee also provides an opportunity for the involvement
of employees in health and safety, as a means of improving the overall health and safety
culture of the company.
Training
Health and safety training can be defined as the planned, formal process of acquiring
and practising knowledge and skills in a relatively safe environment.
Training is central to the management of health and safety. Employers have a
responsibility to train their staff to carry out their jobs in a safe manner. Training is a key
component of competence.
Statute law in many countries requires that an employer provides appropriate training
for their workers because training has a dramatic effect on safety-related behaviour.
Once the worker has been trained, they will understand:
The hazards and risks inherent to their work.
The correct rules and precautions to apply.
Foreseeable emergencies and the actions to take should these events occur.
Identifying who to contact with any issues.
Limitations and restrictions that apply to their work.
Their personal health and safety responsibilities.
The consequences of breaking the rules including disciplinary procedures.
Induction training will cover:
The organisation’s health and safety policy.
Fire and other emergency procedures.
First-aid facilities and personnel.
The location of welfare facilities.
Safe movement around the workplace.
Accident and incident reporting procedures.
Worker consultation arrangements.
General safety rules such as no smoking areas.
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) requirements.
Introduction to the safe systems of work and permit systems.
Introduction to the risk assessment system.
Refresher training will ensure employees remain motivated and effective, and is
needed whenever there are job or process changes, changes in legislation or when new
technology is introduced.
Human Factors which Influence Safety-Related Behaviour

To understand how ‘human factors’ influence working practices, we have to understand
why people behave the way they do at work in order to:
Correct poor behaviour when it is identified by removing the cause.
Anticipate poor behaviour before it occurs and introduce changes to reduce the
likelihood of it occurring.
Three groups of factors influence an individual worker’s behaviour. These can be
grouped under three main headings:
Organisational factors – characteristics of the organisation for which they are
working.
Job factors – characteristics of the job or task that they are performing.
Individual factors – characteristics of the individual.
Collectively, these are known as the three human factors in health and safety. Together
these influence a person's behaviour at work in both a positive and negative way. No one
single factor dictates behaviour; they subtly nudge behaviour in one direction or another.
Organisational, Job and Individual Factors

Organisational Factors
The characteristics of the organisation that influence workers’ behaviour include:
Health and safety culture of the organisation.
Commitment and leadership from management.
Resources – financial, personnel, etc.
Work patterns.
Communications.
Levels of supervision.
Consultation and worker involvement.
Training.
Job Factors
These are the various characteristics of a worker’s job that influence their safety-related
behaviour and may involve:
Task.
Workload.
Environment.
Displays and controls.
Procedures.
Individual Factors
People bring to their job their own personal mix of knowledge and experience, skills,
attitudes and personality. These individual characteristics influence behaviour in complex
and significant ways. Some of these characteristics cannot be changed, but others can.
Competence
A combination of knowledge, experience, training and ability that brings a person to a
level where they are able to perform to an acceptable standard and are aware of their
own limitations.
Skills
The skills or talents that a person has developed over time (e.g. engineering skills or
communication skills).
Personality
Personality is largely fixed – it is who we are.
Attitude
A person’s point of view or way of looking at something; how they think and feel about
it. In the context of workplace behaviour, attitudes are important because a worker’s
attitude will make them more or less likely to behave safely.
Changing attitudes can be done using various methods such as education and training,
high-impact interventions, enforcement and consultation, and involvement in the
decision-making process.
Risk Perception
Risk perception can be defined as the way that a person interprets information detected
by their senses. Some hazards in the workplace cannot be detected by the human senses,
so the risk associated with these hazards will not be perceived.
People with some form of sensory impairment may not be able to correctly detect
hazards in a workplace.
A person with fully functioning senses can still make errors in the way that they interpret
sensory information. Factors that can distort perception of hazard and risk include:
Illness.
Stress.
Fatigue.
Drugs and alcohol.
Previous experiences.
Training and education.
Use of PPE (which can impair or mask senses).
Workplace conditions such as background noise.
Risk Assessment
Key Words
A hazard is something with the potential to cause harm or damage. Hazards will
always exist, to some extent, in the workplace.
A risk is the likelihood that a hazard will cause harm in combination with the severity
of injury, damage or loss that might foreseeably occur.
Risk profiling is the process of identifying and prioritising the significant risks that
threaten an organisation.
A risk assessment is a careful examination of what, in the workplace, could cause
harm, so that we can decide if the current precautions are enough to prevent that
harm, or if we need to do more to reduce the level of risk.
Risk Profiling
Identify the threats faced by the organisation.
Identify the impacts that each threat might have.
Identify the likelihood of each threat.
Identify the control measures currently in place.
Prioritise the threat to ensure that the most significant ones receive the greatest
attention.
The Five Steps of Risk Assessment

A risk assessment should be good enough to fulfil legal requirements and prevent
foreseeable injuries and ill health from happening.
A suitable and sufficient risk assessment should:
Identify the significant risks arising out of work, i.e. those that are most likely
to occur and result in harm being caused, with any remaining risks being at an
acceptable low level.
Identify all those persons who could be at risk, including workers and others such as
visitors. Vulnerable people, such as young persons, should also be identified.
Evaluate the effectiveness of any current controls.
Enable the employer to identify and prioritise the measures that must be taken to
protect people from harm, including complying with any relevant legal provisions.
Be appropriate to the nature of the work and remain valid for a reasonable period
of time. In other words, the assessment should be proportionate to the risks in the
workplace.
Step 1 – Identify the Hazards
The first step in the risk assessment process is to identify all the significant hazards:
Safety hazards – capable of causing immediate physical injury.
Health hazards – can cause occupational disease or ill-health conditions.
Health hazards can be categorised into five groups:
Physical (e.g. radiation, vibration, noise, extremes of temperature).
Chemical (e.g. lead, mercury, sulphuric acid, silica, cement dust).
Biological (e.g. hepatitis B virus (HBV), Legionella bacteria (responsible for
Legionnaires’ disease, rabies virus).
Ergonomic (e.g. very repetitive movement, stooping, twisting, manual handling).
Psychological (e.g. stress and trauma).
Hazard Identification Methods
Inspections – will identify existing hazards as well as new ones.
Task analysis – finds hazards in each component step of the job.
Legislation – legal standards that need to be applied.
Manufacturer’s information – safe use, cleaning and maintenance.
Incident data – a hazard may be significant but not yet have caused harm, so be
unnoticed.
Step 2 – Identify the People at Risk

Consider all people at risk – workers (operatives, cleaners, maintenance personnel,
contractors), visitors and members of the public. Give special attention to lone workers,
pregnant women, etc.
Step 3 – Evaluate the Risk and Decide on Precautions
Risk evaluation aims to identify the likelihood of harm that will result from a hazard and
its severity.
Ranking risks implies a certain amount of subjective judgment (qualitative) although it is
possible to quantify risk (semi-quantitative) by using the formula:
Risk = Likelihood × Severity
It is not possible or practicable to eliminate all risk from the workplace. Residual risk
is the risk that remains once controls have been put in place. Where risk is reduced to
the lowest level that is reasonably practicable, it is deemed to be at an acceptable or
tolerable level, although the level of acceptability will vary with the people who may be
affected by the hazard.
If there are clear legal standards about the controls that should be applied to a particular
hazard in a workplace, then they should be implemented. There may also be semi-legal
codes of practice and guidance published by enforcement agencies available.
Generally, the higher the risk, the higher the priority for implementation of precautions.
General Hierarchy of Control
While the best way of controlling risk is by avoiding the risk/eliminating what causes
the hazard, this may not always be possible, so there is a hierarchy of measures that can
be taken to minimise the risk (based on ISO 45001 and ILO-OSH 2001):
Eliminate the hazard.
Substitute it for something less hazardous.
Use engineering controls that provide general rather than individual protection.
This may include isolating or segregating the risk at source. Good design of controls
that contain the hazard (i.e. guards, enclosures) and the inclusion of fail-safe devices
will remove or reduce risks. Dilution and Local Exhaust Ventilation (LEV) systems will
help reduce risks from airborne contaminants.
Use administrative controls such as ensuring the use of safe systems of work,
reducing exposure times and providing information, instruction, training and
supervision.
Use PPE.
Categories and Features of Safety Signs

Safety signs combine shape, colour and pictorial symbols to convey specific health and
safety information or instructions. Safety signs fall into five categories:
Prohibition – directed at stopping unsafe behaviour, i.e. ‘No Smoking’. Circular with
a black pictogram on a white background with a red border and red diagonal cross
bar.
Warning – telling people to take care with respect to certain hazards. Triangular
with a black pictogram on a yellow background with a black border.
Mandatory action – instructing people to follow certain instructions such as the
use of PPE. Circular with a solid blue background with a white pictogram.
Safe conditions – identifying safe behaviour or places of safety. Rectangular or
square with a white pictogram on a green background.
Fire-fighting equipment – identifying particular types of equipment and their
location. Rectangular or square with a white symbol or pictogram on a red
background.
Collective Protection Over Personal Protection
Collective protective measures are those that protect the whole workplace; personal
ones protect single workers. They are the approaches behind the concepts of:
Safe place or environment – all measures have been taken to protect the
workforce (i.e. access/egress, plant, processes, etc.).
Safe person – applies to an individual who has been trained and is following safe
systems of work, including the use of PPE.
Personal Protective Equipment
PPE is defined as equipment or clothing that is worn or held by a worker that protects
them from one or more risks to their safety or health.
It may be necessary to use PPE when no other controls can be applied or where residual
risk still exists. Common PPE includes:
Ear defenders for noise.
Gloves to prevent contact with substances hazardous to the skin.
Respiratory protection against substances hazardous by inhalation (breathing in).
Eye protection against splashes of chemicals and molten metals, mists, sprays and
dusts, projectiles and radiation, including bright lights.
It is the duty of the employer to provide PPE which is suitable for the work being carried
out; provide appropriate storage for PPE when not in use; provide training, information
and instruction to workers in safe use; and replace any lost or damaged equipment. The
employer must also enforce the use of PPE.
Benefits of PPE Limitations of PPE

Can be used as an interim It only protects one person – the wearer.
control while more expensive or
It may not protect adequately if it is not
difficult controls are put in place.
fitted correctly.
In some situations, it may be the
It may not be comfortable and may
only control option available.
interfere with the wearer’s ability to do
It may be needed as a back-up the job.
for emergencies when other
It may increase overall risk by impairing
controls have failed.
the senses (e.g. goggles that mist up).
It is usually cheap.
It may not be compatible with other items
It gives immediate protection. that have to be worn or used.
People do not like wearing PPE.
If it fails then the worker is exposed to
risk.
Step 4 – Record Significant Findings and Implement
There is no standard layout for recording findings but documents should describe
the processes/activities assessed, identify any groups of workers at risk, evaluate the
risks, identify the adequacy of existing controls and how any additional ones will be
implemented, include the date of the next review and the name of the competent
person carrying out the assessment.
Step 5 – Review and Update
The assessment will need to be reviewed when there are changes to the process or to
personnel. It should also be monitored to ensure that the control measures are effective.
Factors that would require an automatic review might include:
A change in legislation or control measures.
Any significant change in work practices, processes or volume of production.
Installation of new machinery and equipment.
New information becoming available on the hazards or risks.
Recurring accidents or patterns of ill health.
Enforcement action.
Results of monitoring (including health surveillance) or auditing.
Employment of a category of personnel (disabled, etc.) not previously considered.
Special Cases and Vulnerable Workers

Some employees may be particularly vulnerable due to their age, physical attributes or
condition:
Young persons may be excluded from carrying out certain high-risk activities, have
restricted work patterns, and receive more intensive training and closer supervision.
Expectant and new mothers should not carry out certain duties that would place
them or their babies at risk (i.e. ionising hazards) and should have a specific risk
assessment on the hazards of their jobs.
Disabled workers should be able to integrate with other employees; specific
arrangements may have to be made.
Lone workers should be fully competent and aware of hazards and risks associated
with their duties. Ideally, there should be means of staying in contact with base. They
may be at more risk of violence (e.g. if dealing with the public) or if they are injured
or fall ill while working (e.g. confined space entry).
The Management of Change

Typical types of change faced in the workplace include construction works (temporary
works), change of process, change of equipment and change in working practices. These
all have possible impacts on health and safety.
Managing the Impact of Change

Communication and co-operation.
Risk assessment.
Appointment of competent people.
Segregation of work areas.
Amendment of emergency procedures.
Welfare provision.
The need for review (both during and after the change has been made).
Safe Systems of Work

If hazards cannot be physically eliminated and some risk remains, a safe system of work
ensures that the tasks of a working process are formally analysed to identify all the
hazards and define working methods which eliminate those hazards or minimise the
associated risks.
A safe system of work is a formal procedure which must be followed at all times to work
safely in relation to the hazards.
Responsibilities of the Employer

Employers have a duty to ensure the safety of their workforce by:
Appointing competent persons with sufficient training and experience.
Involving employees in the development and review of systems of work.
Providing written procedures and instructions.
Technical, Procedural and Behavioural Controls

Implementing a hierarchy of controls such as:
Technical controls – engineering controls applied directly to the hazard itself.
Procedural controls – specifying the way work should be carried out in relation to
the hazard.
Behavioural controls – relating to safe practice of individual workers.
Developing a Safe System of Work

Developing a safe system of work involves:
Analysing tasks, identifying hazards involved in the various tasks and assessing the
risks.
Introducing controls and formulating procedures.
Instructing and training personnel in the use of the system.
Monitoring and reviewing the system.
Examples of types of work where safe systems of work are required include working in
confined spaces and lone working.
Permit-to-Work Systems
A permit-to-work system helps ensure that all necessary actions are taken before, during
and after particularly hazardous operations, or in situations that are hazardous, or where
the combination results in high risk.
A permit-to-work is a safe system of work – it is a formal clear written record of what
work is to be done, the hazards and what precautions are to be taken. It must be in the
possession of the person in charge of the operation before work can begin.
Operation and Application

Permits must specify the type of work and the location to which they refer. An effective
permit-to-work system will have four main sections:
Issue – defines the work, identifies the hazards and determines the necessary
precautions.
Receipt – signed by workers to confirm they understand all the hazards, risks and
precautions and will comply with control measures.
Clearance/return to service – signed by workers to confirm the workplace has
been left in a safe condition.
Cancellation – authorising manager signs to accept the hand-back of the workplace.
There may also be an extension section in case of overrun of the work.
Typical Uses of Permit Systems

Permits will always be required for hazardous situations such as:
Hot work – permits are concerned with preventing fires/explosions in relation to
maintenance activities and other non-routine work involving burning, welding, use
of a naked flame, etc.
Work on live electrical systems.
Machinery maintenance.
Confined spaces, where the implementation of risk assessments (including safe
systems of work), precautions and emergency arrangements are needed to avoid
risks such as asphyxiation from gas, fume or vapour when working in confined spaces
(e.g. storage tanks, silos, sewers, vats, ductwork).
Work at height.
Emergency Procedures and First Aid

The Need for Emergency Procedures
An organisation has to develop procedures to deal with foreseeable incidents. Such
incidents might include:
Fire.
Bomb threat.
Spillage of a hazardous chemical.
Release of a toxic gas.
Outbreak of disease.
Severe weather or flooding.
Multiple casualty accident.
Terrorist/security incident.
The foreseeable incidents will vary depending on many factors, such as the type of
organisation and its location.
Emergency Procedure Arrangements

Having identified the foreseeable incidents, the organisation should make internal
arrangements to deal with each of them, including:
Foreseeable emergencies.
Procedure for raising the alarm.
Procedures to be followed.
Provision of suitable equipment.
Nomination of responsible staff.
Dealing with the media.
Arrangements for contacting the emergency services
Drills and exercises.
While internal emergency arrangements must be made by the organisation, these
responses will also involve contacting external emergency services. This requires:
Communication equipment. The more remote the location, the more difficult this
becomes.
Contact details. This may involve international medical evacuation as well.
Responsible individuals with the necessary information and knowledge nominated to
make the call.
First-Aid Requirements
An employer has a duty to make appropriate first-aid provision for their employees
to allow an immediate emergency medical response to foreseeable injuries that might
occur. This provision could consist of:
Facilities – an appropriate location where first-aid treatment can be given.
Equipment – suitably stocked first-aid kits and other equipment as necessary.
Personnel – staff with appropriate training to deliver first-aid treatment.
The employer must notify staff of these first-aid arrangements and in particular the
identity of trained first-aid personnel.
First-Aid Facilities
This might be a room used for other purposes that can be quickly converted into a
treatment area. In a larger workplace with higher-risk activities, a dedicated treatment
room should be provided that is:
Centrally located and easily accessed by emergency services.
Clean and adequately heated, ventilated and lit.

Provided with hand-wash facilities, a chair and a clinical waste bin, etc.
First-Aid Equipment
As a minimum, one fully stocked first-aid kit might be provided for a small, low-risk
workplace. In larger workplaces, multiple first-aid kits should be positioned at various
locations in the workplace, plus:
Eye-wash stations.
Emergency showers.
Blankets.
Splints.
Resuscitation equipment.
Stretchers.
Wheelchairs.
Other equipment as required.
Small travelling first-aid kits can be provided for drivers and lone workers.
First-Aid Personnel
Role of First Aiders
The basic principle of first aid is to keep the injured casualty alive until professional
medical assistance can take over. The three Ps are:
Preserve life.
Prevent deterioration.
Promote recovery.
First aid also concerns the provision of simple treatment to minor injuries that do not
require professional treatment.
Types of First-Aid Personnel
An appointed person should be available to take charge in an emergency situation
and call the emergency services, and might also need to be trained in basic
emergency aid.
In most workplaces, personnel should be trained as ‘first aiders’. In certain cases,
training on specific matters relating to the workplace might be provided.
Refresher training is mandatory for first aiders because their skills fade over time
through lack of practice.
First-Aid Coverage
An employer should determine by risk assessment what first-aid facilities, equipment
and trained personnel to provide. Factors to consider include:
The general risk level of the workplace.
The hazards present in the workplace.
Accident history.
The presence of vulnerable persons.
The number of workers in the workplace.
Work patterns and shift systems of workers.
The geographic location of the workplace.
The spread of the workplace.
There should be adequate first-aid cover on all shifts worked in the workplace.
The geographic location is an important issue to consider when determining first-aid
provision. Workplaces within easy reach of the emergency services can perhaps provide
minimal cover, but workplaces in remote locations, which the emergency services may
take hours to reach, must have more facilities and skilled personnel available.
Element 4: Health and Safety Monitoring and

Measuring
Active and Reactive Monitoring
There are two approaches to monitoring health and safety:
Active monitoring that takes place before any event has happened.
Reactive monitoring that takes place after, and in response to, an event.
Active Monitoring
Active monitoring involves systematic inspection of the workplace and existing safety
measures to establish conformance with standards (good performance) and non-
conformance (so that remedies can be implemented).
To actively monitor performance standards, you have to identify the appropriate
standard and what level of performance is acceptable.
General workplace inspections can focus on:
Plant.
Premises.
People.
Procedures.
An inspection could concentrate on one, several or all of these areas and systematic
inspection regimes can be daily, weekly, monthly, six-monthly, annual, etc.
Safety Inspections, Sampling and Tours

Safety inspection – a visual inspection normally carried out with the aid of a
checklist, looking at the control measures that are in place to control risk and
ensuring that these control measures are being maintained. It may be routine,
statutory, periodic or pre-use.
Safety sampling – an in-depth look at a representative sample only.
Safety tour – a tour of the organisation, with a senior manager showing
commitment to health and safety and with a focus on looking at safety standards
generally and their implementation.
Arrangements for Active Monitoring

Certain factors must be considered before the introduction of an active monitoring
system:
Type of monitoring – general safety inspection, sampling or tour?
Frequency – weekly, monthly, etc.?
Allocation of responsibilities – to identified personnel.
Competence of the inspector – should have the necessary training, knowledge and
experience.
Use of checklists – to ensure everything covered, consistency and a written record
available.
Action planning for problems found – action required, those responsible for
implementing it, priorities and timescales.
Reactive Monitoring
Reactive monitoring involves looking at accidents and other safety-related incidents
to find out what went wrong and identify action to put it right so that there will be no
recurrence.
Information about what has failed may come from:
Data on accidents, incidents, ill health and near misses; such data may be unreliable
because it is based on historical information and may not reflect a true and accurate
picture.
Complaints or concerns voiced by the workforce through consultative channels and
safety/worker representatives.
Evidence from external agencies involving enforcement notices.
Investigating, Recording and Reporting Incidents

Introduction to Incident Investigation
Incidents, be they accidents resulting in loss, injury or death, or near misses, should
be investigated to find the cause and prevent a recurrence. Other possible reasons for
investigating an accident are:
To identify the immediate and root causes of the incident.
To identify corrective action to prevent a recurrence.
To record the facts of the incident.
For legal reasons.
For claim management.

For staff morale.
To enable risk assessments to be reviewed and updated.
For disciplinary purposes.
For data-gathering purposes.
Most minor incidents can be investigated and resolved by the supervisor, but more
serious incidents may require the intervention of the safety or workers’ representative
together with the management team.
Types of Incident
Accident – an unplanned, unwanted event that leads to injury, damage or loss. Any
deliberate attempt to cause injury or loss is not an accident. Accidents can be further
subdivided into:
–– Injury accident – an unplanned, unwanted event which leads to personal injury
of some sort.
–– Damage-only accident – an unplanned, unwanted event which leads to
damage to equipment or property.
Near miss – an unplanned, unwanted event that had the potential to lead to injury,
damage or loss, but did not do so.
Dangerous occurrence – a specified event that has to be reported to the relevant
authority by statute law.
Work-related ill health – diseases or medical conditions caused by a person’s work
(can refer to psychological illness).
Level of Investigation
The time, money and effort put into the investigation process must reflect the severity
or potential severity of outcome resulting from the incident. Minor incidents that did
not, and could not, result in any significant injury, ill health or loss should be investigated
with a proportionate allocation of resources. This might be a local line manager spending
a little time and effort. High-potential incidents, where there was the potential for very
significant personal injury, ill health or loss, should be investigated by a team of people,
that might include senior management representation, with far more time and effort
being dedicated.
Basic Investigation Procedures

Step 1– Gathering Information
Secure the scene and collect witnesses’ details.
Collect factual information, including physical layout, environmental conditions, etc.
using plans, diagrams, measurements, photographs, etc.
Interview witnesses.
Examine appropriate documents (e.g. company policy, risk assessments, training
records, maintenance records).
Step 2 – Analysing Information
It is necessary to draw conclusions about the immediate and root causes of the accident:
Immediate causes are the unsafe acts on the part of the worker (e.g. walking
through an oil spill) or unsafe conditions in the workplace (e.g. inadequate
guarding).
Underlying and root causes are the things that brought about the immediate
causes, management system failure, lack of adequate supervision or training, lack of
maintenance, etc.
Some accidents will have one immediate cause and one underlying cause, but others
are complex and have multiple causes.
Step 3 – Identifying Suitable Control Measures
This stage involves determining what should be done to prevent future incidents with
similar underlying causes, such as:
Improving safety and skills training.
Improving management and supervisory control.
Changing work practices and implementing a positive safety culture.
Step 4 – Planning the Remedial Action
Usually in the form of an action plan which identifies priority, timescale and responsible
persons.
Recording and Reporting Requirements

Internal Incident Reporting and Recording Systems
Workers normally report incidents to their immediate line manager verbally, followed by
completion of an internal incident report form.
Organisations should clearly define the type of incident that has to be reported. Workers
should be encouraged to report all relevant incidents.
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alimentary and the reproductive organs, are enormously developed.
This state of things explains some phenomena of its life which were
long considered unintelligible: the almost abrupt occurrence of well-
nigh unlimited fertility, and the vast, apparently organized migrations
of the animal. In ordinary circumstances the lemming leads a very
comfortable life. Neither in summer nor in winter has he any anxiety
about subsistence. In winter he devours all sorts of vegetable matter,
—moss-tips, lichen, and bark; in summer he lives in his burrow, in
winter in a warm, thick-walled, softly-lined nest. Danger indeed
threatens from all sides, for not only beasts and birds of prey, but
even the reindeer devour hundreds and thousands of lemmings;[10]
nevertheless they increase steadily and rapidly, until special
circumstances arise when millions, which have come into existence
within a few weeks, are annihilated within a few days. Spring sets in
early, and a more than usually dry summer prevails in the tundra. All
the young of the first litter of the various lemming females thrive, and
six weeks later, at the most, these also multiply. Meantime the
parents have brought forth a second and a third litter, and these in
their turn bring forth young. Within three months the heights and low
grounds of the tundra teem with lemmings, just as our fields do with
mice under similar circumstances. Whichever way we turn, we see
the busy little creatures, dozens at a single glance, thousands in the
course of an hour. They run about on all the paths and roads; driven
to extremity, they turn, snarling and sharpening their teeth, on the
defensive even against man, as if their countless numbers lent to
each individual a defiant courage. But the countless and still-
increasing numbers prove their own destruction. Soon the lean
tundra ceases to afford employment enough for their greedy teeth.
Famine threatens, perhaps actually sets in. The anxious animals
crowd together and begin their march. Hundreds join with hundreds,
thousands with other thousands: the troops become swarms, the
swarms armies. They travel in a definite direction, at first following
old tracks, but soon striking out new ones; in unending files—defying
all computation—they hasten onwards; over the cliffs they plunge
into the water. Thousands fall victims to want and hunger; the army
behind streams on over their corpses; hundreds of thousands are
drowned in the water, or are shattered at the foot of the cliffs; the
remainder speed on; other hundreds and thousands fall victims to
the voracity of Arctic and red foxes, wolves and gluttons, rough-
legged buzzards and ravens, owls and skuas which have followed
them; the survivors pay no heed. Where these go, how they end,
none can say, but certain it is that the tundra behind them is as if
dead, that a number of years pass ere the few who have remained
behind, and have managed to survive, slowly multiply, and visibly re-
people their native fields.[11]
Fig. 8.—The Reindeer (Tarandus rangifer).

A third animal characteristic of the tundra is the reindeer. Those who
know this deer, in itself by no means beautiful, only in a state of
captivity and slavery, can form no idea of what it is under natural
conditions. Here in the tundra one learns to appreciate the reindeer,
to recognize and value him as a member of a family which he does
not disgrace. He belongs to the tundra, body and soul. Over the
immense glacier and the quivering crust of the unfathomable
morass, over the boulder-heaps and the matted tops of the dwarf-
birches or over the mossy hillocks, over rivers and lakes he runs or
swims with his broad-hoofed, shovel-like, extraordinarily mobile feet,
which crackle at every step. In the deepest snow he uses his foot to
dig for food. He is protected against the deadly cold of the long
northern night by his thick skin, which the arrows of winter cannot
pierce, against the pangs of hunger by the indiscriminateness of his
appetite. From the wolf, which invariably follows close on his heels,
he is, in some measure at least, saved by the acuteness of his
senses, by his speed and endurance. He passes the summer on the
clear heights of the tundra, where, on the slopes just beside the
glaciers, the soil, belted over with reindeer-moss, also brings forth
juicy, delicate alpine plants; in winter he ranges through the low
tundra from hill to hill seeking spots from which the snow has been
cleared off by the wind.[12] Shortly before this, having attained to his
full strength and fully grown his branching antlers, he had in
passionate violence engaged in deadly combat with like-minded
rivals as strong as himself until the still tundra resounded with the
clashing of their horns. Now, worn out with fighting and with love, he
ranges peacefully through his territory with others of his kind,
associated in large herds, seeking only to maintain the struggle with
winter. The reindeer is certainly far behind the stag in beauty and
nobility, but when one sees the great herds, unhampered by the
fetters of slavery, on the mountains of their native tundra, in vivid
contrast to the blue of the sky and the whiteness of the snowy
carpet, one must acknowledge that he, too, takes rank among noble
wild beasts, and that he has more power than is usually supposed to
quicken the beating of the sportsman’s heart.
The tundra also possesses many characteristic birds. Whoever has
traversed the northern desert must have met one, at least, of these,
the ptarmigan:
“In summer gay from top to toe,
In winter whiter than the snow”.
I do not allude to the ptarmigan of our mountains, which is here also
restricted to the glacier region, but to the much more abundant
willow-grouse. Wherever the dwarf-birch thrives it is to be found, and
it is always visible, but especially when the silence of night has fallen
upon the tundra, even though the sun be shining overhead. It never
entirely forsakes its haunts, but, at the most, descends from the
heights to the low grounds in winter. It is lively and nimble, pert and
self-possessed, jealous and quarrelsome towards its rivals,
affectionate and devoted towards its mate and young. Its life
resembles that of our partridge, but its general behaviour has a
much greater charm. It is the embodiment of life in the desert. Its
challenging call rings out through the still summer night, and the
coveys enliven the wintry tundra, forsaken by almost all other birds.
Its presence gladdens and charms naturalist and sportsman alike.
During summer the golden plover, which also must be described as
a faithful child of the tundra, is to be met almost everywhere. As the
swift ostrich to the desert, the sand-grouse to the steppes, the rock-
partridge to the mountains, the lark to the corn-fields, so the golden
plover belongs to the tundra. Gay as its dress may be, they are the
colours of the tundra which it wears; its melancholy cry is the sound
most in keeping with this dreary region. Much as we like to see it in
our own country, we greet it without pleasure here, for its cry uttered
day and night makes us as sad as the tundra itself.
With much greater pleasure does one listen to the voice of another
summer guest of the region. I do not refer to the tender melodies of
the blue-throated warbler, which is here one of the commonest of
brooding birds and justly named the “hundred-tongued singer”, nor to
the ringing notes of the fieldfare, which also extends to the tundra,
nor to the short song of the snow bunting, nor to the shrill cries of the
peregrine falcon or the rough-legged buzzard, nor to the exultant
hooting of the sea-eagle or the similar cry of the snowy owl, nor to
the resounding trumpet-call of the musical swan or the plaintive
bugle-like note of the Arctic duck, but to the pairing and love cry of
one or other of the divers—a wild, unregulated, unrestrained, yet
sonorous and tuneful, resonant and ringing northern melody,
comparable to the roar of the surge or to the thunder of a waterfall as
it rushes to the deep. Wherever a lake rich in fish is to be found, with
a secret place in the reeds thick enough to conceal a floating nest,
we find these children of the tundra and the sea, these soberly-
joyous fishers in the calm fresh waters and fearless divers in the
northern sea. Thence they have come to the tundra to brood, and
back thither they will lead their young as soon as these are able, like
themselves, to master the waves. Over the whole extent of the
tundra they visit its waters, but they prefer to the broad inland lakes
the little ponds on the hills along the coast, whence they can daily
plunge, with their wildly jubilant sea song, into the heaving, bountiful
ocean, which is their home.
From the sea come other two birds very characteristic of the tundra.
The eye follows every movement of the robber-gulls with real delight,
of the phalarope with actual rapture. Both breed in the tundra: the
one on open mossy moors, the other on the banks of the most
hidden ponds and pools among the sallows. If other gulls be the
“ravens of the sea” the skuas may well be called the “sea-falcons”.
With full justice do they bear the names of robber and parasitic gulls,
for they are excellent birds of prey when there is no opportunity for
parasitism, and they become parasites when their own hunting has
been unsuccessful. Falcon-like they fly in summer through the
tundra, in winter along the coast regions of the North Sea; they hover
over land or sea to find their prey, then swoop down skilfully and
gracefully and seize without fail the victim they have sighted. But
even these capable hunters do not scruple, under some
circumstances, to become bold beggars. Woe to the gull or other
sea-bird which seizes its prey within sight of a skua! With arrow-like
swiftness he follows the fortunate possessor uttering barking cries,
dances, as if playfully, round him on all sides, cunningly prevents any
attempt at flight, resists all defence, and untiringly and ceaselessly
teases him till he gives up his prize, even though it has to be
regurgitated from his crop. The life and habits of the Arctic skua, its
skill and agility, its courage and impudence, untiring watchfulness
and irresistible importunity are extraordinarily fascinating; even its
begging can be excused, so great are its charms. Yet the phalarope
is still more attractive. It is a shore bird, which unites in itself the
qualities of its own order and those of the swimming birds, living, as
it does, partly on land, partly in the water, even in the sea. Buoyant
and agile, surpassing all other swimming birds in grace of motion, it
glides upon the waves; quickly and nimbly it runs along the shore;
with the speed of a snipe it wings its zigzag flight through the air.
Confidently and without fear it allows itself to be observed quite
closely, and in its anxiety for the safety of its brood usually betrays its
own nest, with the four pear-shaped eggs, however carefully it has
been concealed among the reeds. It is perhaps the most pleasing of
all the birds of the tundra.[13]
Fig. 9.—Skuas, Phalarope, and Golden Plovers.

Likewise characteristic of the tundra are the birds of prey, or, at least,
their manner of life there is characteristic. For it is only on the
southern boundary of the region or among the heights that there are
trees or rocks on which they can build their eyries, and they are
perforce obliged to brood on the ground. Among the winding
branches of the dwarf-birch is the nest of the marsh-owl, on its crown
that of the rough-legged buzzard; on the bare ground lie the eggs of
the snowy-owl and the peregrine falcon, though the latter chooses a
place as near as possible to the edge of a gully, as though he would
deceive himself by vainly attempting to make up for the lack of
heights. That it and all the others are fully conscious of the insecurity
of their nesting-place is shown by their behaviour on the approach of
man. From a distance the traveller is watched suspiciously and is
greeted with loud cries; the nearer he approaches the greater grows
the fear of the anxious parents. Hitherto they have been circling at a
safe distance, about twice as far as a shot would carry, over the
unfamiliar but dreaded enemy; now they swoop boldly down, and fly
so closely past his head that he distinctly hears the sharp whirr of
their wings, sometimes indeed he has reason to fear that he will be
actually attacked. Meanwhile the young birds, which are visible even
from a distance as white balls, bend timidly down and await the
approach of this enemy,—suspected at least, if not known as such,
—sitting so still in their chosen, or perhaps forced position that one
can sketch them without fear of being disturbed by a single
movement—a charming picture!
Many other animals might be enumerated if I thought them
necessary to a picture of the tundra. At least one more is
characteristic—the mosquito. To call it the most important living
creature of the tundra would be scarcely an exaggeration. It enables
not a few of the higher animals, especially birds and fishes, to live; it
forces others, like man, to periodic wanderings; and it is in itself
enough to make the tundra uninhabitable in summer by civilized
beings. Its numbers are beyond all conception; its power conquers
man and beast; the torture it causes beggars description.
It is well known that the eggs of all mosquitoes are laid in the water,
and that the larvæ which creep forth in a few days remain in the
water till their metamorphosis is accomplished. This explains why the
tundra is more favourable than any other region to their
development, and to their occurrence in enormous numbers. As
soon as the sun, once more ascending, has thawed the snow, the
ice, and the upper crust of the earth, the life of the mosquito, latent in
winter but not extinguished, begins to stir again. The larvæ escape
from the eggs which have been buried, but not destroyed, in the
frozen mud; in a few days these larvæ become pupæ, the pupæ
become winged insects, and generation follows generation in quick
succession. The heyday of the terrible pests lasts from before the
beginning of the summer solstice until the middle of August.
During the whole of this time they are present on the heights as in
the low grounds, on the mountains or hills as in the valleys, among
the dwarf-birches and sallow bushes as on the banks of rivers and
lakes. Every grass-stalk, every moss-blade, every twig, every
branch, every little leaf sends forth hundreds and thousands of them
all day long. The mosquitoes of tropical countries, of the forests and
marshes of South America, the interior of Africa, India, and the
Sunda islands, so much dreaded by travellers, swarm only at night;
the mosquitoes of the tundra fly for ten weeks, for six of these
actually without interruption. They form swarms which look like thick
black smoke; they surround, as with a fog, every creature which
ventures into their domains; they fill the air in such numbers that one
hardly dares to breathe; they baffle every attempt to drive them off;
they transform the strongest man into an irresolute weakling, his
anger into fear, his curses into groans.
As soon as the traveller sets foot on the tundra their buzzing is
heard, now like the singing of a tea-kettle, now like the sound of a
vibrating metal rod, and, a few minutes later, he is surrounded by
thousands and thousands. A cloud of them swarms round head and
shoulders, body and limbs, follows his steps, however quickly he
moves, and cannot possibly be dispersed. If he remain standing, the
cloud thickens; if he move on, it draws itself out; if he run as quickly
as possible, it stretches into a long train, but does not remain behind.
If a moderate wind is blowing against them, the insects hasten their
flight to make headway against the current of air; when the wind is
more violent all the members of the swarm strain themselves to the
utmost so as not to lose their victim, and pounce like pricking
hailstones on head and neck. Before he knows, he is covered from
head to foot with mosquitoes. In a dense swarm, blackening gray
clothes, giving dark ones a strange spotted appearance, they settle
down and creep slowly about, looking for an unappropriated spot
from which to suck blood. They creep noiselessly and without being
felt to the unprotected face and neck, the bare hands and the feet
covered only with stockings, and a moment later they slowly sink
their sting into the skin, and pour the irritant poison into the wound.
Furiously the victim beats the blood-sucker to a pulp, but while the
chastising hand still moves, three, four, ten other gnats fasten on it,
while others begin work on the face, neck, and feet, ready to do
exactly as the slain ones had done. For when blood has once
flowed, when several insects have met their death on the same
place, all the rest seek out that very spot, even though the surface
becomes gradually covered with bodies. Specially favourite points of
attack are the temples, the forehead just under the hat-brim, the
neck and the wrist, places, in short, which can be least well
protected.
If an observer can so far restrain himself as to watch them at their
work of blood, without driving them away or disturbing them, he
notices that neither their settling nor their moving about is felt in the
least. Immediately after alighting they set to work. Leisurely they
walk up and down on the skin, carefully feeling it with their proboscis;
suddenly they stand still and with surprising ease pierce the skin.
While they suck, they lift one of the hind-legs and wave it with
evident satisfaction backwards and forwards, the more emphatically
the more the translucent body becomes filled with blood. As soon as
they have tasted blood they pay no heed to anything else, and seem
scarcely to feel though they are molested and tortured. If one draws
the proboscis out of the wound with forceps, they feel about for a
moment, and then bore again in the same or a new place; if one cuts
the proboscis quickly through with sharp scissors, they usually
remain still as if they must think for a minute, then pass the forelegs
gently over the remaining portion and make a prolonged examination
to assure themselves that the organ is no longer present; if one
suddenly cuts off one of their hind-legs, they go on sucking as if
nothing had happened and continue to move the stump; if one cuts
the blood-filled body in half, they proceed like Münchausen’s horse
at the well, but at length they withdraw the proboscis from the
wound, fly staggeringly away and die within a few minutes.
Careful observation of their habits places it beyond doubt that, in the
discovery of their victim, they are guided less by sight than by smell,
or perhaps, more correctly, by a sense which unites smell and tactile
sensitiveness.[14] It can be observed with certainty that, if a human
being approach within five yards of their resting-place, they rise and
fly to their prey without hesitating or diverging. If anyone crosses a
bare sand-bank usually free from them he can observe how they
gather about their victim. Apparently half carried by the wind, half
moving by their own exertions, but at any rate wandering aimlessly,
some float continually over even this place of pilgrimage, and a few
thus reach the neighbourhood of the observer. At once their seeming
inactivity is at an end. Abruptly they alter their course, and make
straight for the happily-found object of their longing. Others soon join
them, and before five minutes have passed, the martyr is again
surrounded by a nimbus. They find their way less easily through
different strata of air. While observing them on a high dune I had
been followed and tormented for some time by thousands, so I led
the swarm to the edge of the steep slope, let it thicken there, and
then sprang suddenly to the foot. With much satisfaction I saw that I
had shaken off the greater number of my tormentors. They swarmed
in bewildered confusion on the top of the dune, forming a dense
cloud for some time over the place from which I had leaped. A few
hundreds had, however, followed me to the lower ground.
Though the naturalist knows that it is only the female mosquitoes
which suck blood, and that their activity in this respect is indubitably
connected with reproduction, and is probably necessary to the
ripening of the fertilized eggs, yet even he is finally overcome by the
tortures caused by these demons of the tundra, though he be the
most equable philosopher under the sun. It is not the pain caused by
the sting, or still more, by the resulting swelling; it is the continual
annoyance, the everlastingly recurring discomfort under which one
suffers. One can endure the pain of the sting without complaint even
at first, still more easily when the skin has become less sensitive to
the repeatedly instilled poison; thus one can hold out for a long time.
But sooner or later every man is bound to confess himself conquered
and beaten by these terrible torturing spirits of the tundra. All
resistance is gradually paralysed by the innumerable, omnipresent
armies always ready for combat. The foot refuses its duty; the mind
receives no impressions; the tundra becomes a hell, and its pests an
unutterable torture. Not winter with its snows, not the ice with its
cold, not poverty, not inhospitality, but the mosquitoes are the curse
of the tundra.[15]
During the height of their season the mosquitoes fly almost
uninterruptedly, during sunshine and calm weather with evident
satisfaction, in a moderate wind quite comfortably, in slightly warm
weather gaily, before threatening rain most boisterously of all, in cool
weather very little, in cold, not at all. A violent storm banishes them
to the bushes and moss, but, as soon as it moderates, they are once
more lively and active, and in all places sheltered from the wind they
are ready for attack even while the storm is raging. A night of hoar-
frost plays obvious havoc among them, but does not rid us of them;
cold damp days thin their armies, but succeeding warmth brings
hosts of newly developed individuals on the field. The autumn fogs
finally bring deliverance for that year.
Autumn in the tundra comes on as quickly as spring came slowly. A
single cold night, generally in August, or at the latest in September,
puts an end to its summer life. The berries, which, in the middle of
August, looked as if they would scarcely ripen at all, have become as
juicy and sweet as possible by the end of the month; a few damp,
cold nights, which lightly cover the hills with snow, hasten their
ripening more than the sun, which is already clouded over all day
long. The leaves of the dwarf-birch become a pale but brilliant lake-
red on the upper surface, a bright yellow beneath; all the other
bushes and shrubs undergo a similar transformation: and the gloomy
brown-green of the tundra becomes such a vivid brown-red that even
the yellow-green of the reindeer-moss is no longer conspicuous. The
winged summer guests fly southwards or towards the sea, the fishes
of the tundra swim down the rivers. From the hills the reindeer,
followed by the wolf, comes down to the low grounds; the ptarmigan,
now congregated in flocks of thousands, fly up to the heights to
remain until winter again drives them down to the low tundra.
After a few days this winter, as much dreaded by us as by the
migratory birds, yet longed for by the human inhabitants of the
tundra, sets in on the inhospitable land, to maintain its supremacy
longer, much longer than spring, summer, and autumn together. For
days and weeks in succession snow falls, sometimes coming down
lightly in sharp-cornered crystals, or sometimes in large flakes,
driven by a raging storm. Hills and valleys, rivers and lakes are
gradually shrouded in the same winter dress. A brief ray of sunshine
still gleams occasionally at mid-day over the snowy expanse; but
soon only a pale brightness in the south proclaims that there the
sunny day is half-gone. The long night of winter has begun. For
months only the faint reflection of the stars twinkles in the snow, only
the moon gives tidings of the vitalizing centre of our system. But
when the sun has quite disappeared from the tundra another light
rises radiant: far up in the north there flickers and flashes
“Soweidud”, the fire of God, the flaming Northern Light.
THE ASIATIC STEPPES AND THEIR
FAUNA.
There is perhaps monotony, but there is also the interest of a well-
marked individuality in that immense tract of country which includes
the whole of Central Asia, and extends into Southern Europe, and
which forms the region of the steppes. To the superficial observer it
may seem an easy thing to characterize these steppes, but the
difficulty of the task is soon felt by the careful observer. For the
steppes are not so invariably uniform, so absolutely changeless as is
usually supposed. They have their time of blooming and their time of
withering, their summer and their winter aspects, and some variety at
every season is implied in the fact that there are mountains and
valleys, streams and rivers, lakes and marshes. The monotony is
really due to the thousand-fold repetition of the same picture, what
pleased and even charmed when first seen becoming tame by
everyday familiarity.
The Russian applies the word steppe, which we have borrowed from
his language, to all unwooded tracts in middle latitudes, when they
are of considerable extent, and bear useful vegetation. It matters not
whether they be perfectly flat or gently undulating plains, highlands
or mountains, whether there be patches of fat, black soil, admitting of
profitable agriculture, or merely great tracts of poor soil covered with
such vegetation as grows without man’s aid, and is useful only to the
nomadic herdsman. This wide usage of the term is convenient, for
throughout the whole region we find the same plants rising from the
ground, the same types of animal life, and approximately the same
phenomena of seasonal change.
Unwooded the steppe-lands must be called, but they are not
absolutely treeless. Neither shrubs nor trees are awanting where the
beds of the streams and rivers form broad and deep valleys. In very
favourable circumstances, willows, white and silver poplars, grow to
be lofty trees, which may unite in a thick fringe by the river banks, or
birches may establish themselves and form groves and woods, or
pines may plant their feet firmly on the sand-dunes, and form small
settlements, which, though not comparable to true forests, are, at
least, compact little woods, like the growths along the river-banks.
But, after all, such wooded spots are exceptions, they constitute to
some extent a foreign element in the steppe scenery, and suggest
oases in a desert.
At one place the steppe may stretch before the eye as a boundless
plain, here and there gently undulating; at another place the region
has been much upheaved, is full of variety, and may even be
mountainous. Generally the horizon is bounded on all sides by
ranges of hills of variable height, and often these hills inclose a
trough-like valley from which it seems as if the water must be
puzzled to find its way out, if, indeed, it does so at all. From the
longer cross valleys of the often much-ramified ranges a small
stream may flow towards the lowest part of the basin and end in a
lake, whose salt-covered shores sparkle in the distance as if the
winter snow still lay upon them. Viewed from afar, the hills look like
lofty mountains, for on these vast plains the eye loses its standard
for estimating magnitude; and when the rocks stand out above the
surface and form domes and cones, sharp peaks and jagged
pinnacles on their summits, even the practised observer is readily
deceived. Of course there are some genuinely lofty mountains, for,
apart from those near the Chinese boundary, there are others on the
Kirghiz steppes, which even on close view lose little of the
impressiveness that the ruggedness of their peaks and slopes gives
them when seen from a distance. The higher and more ramified the
mountains, the more numerous are the streams which they send
down to the lower grounds, and the larger are the lakes that occupy
the depressions at their base—basins which their feeders are unable
to fill, even though unable to find a way through the surrounding
banks. The more extensive, also, are the salt-steppes around these
lakes—salt because they have no outlet. But apart from these
variations, the characteristics of the steppes are uniform; though the
composition of the picture is often changed, its theme remains the
same.
Fig. 10.—View in the Asiatic Steppes.
We should convey a false impression if we denied charm, or even

grandeur, to the scenery of the steppes. The North German
moorland is drearier, Brandenburg is more monotonous. In the gently
undulating plain the eye rests gratefully on the lakes which fill all the
deeper hollows; in the highlands or among the loftier mountains the
gleaming water-basins are a real ornament to the landscape. It is
true that the lake is, in most cases, though not invariably, without the
charm of surrounding verdure, often without so much as a fringe of
bushes. But, even when it lies naked and bare, it brightens the
steppes. For the blue sky, mirrored on its surface, smiles kindly
towards us, and the enlivening effect of water makes itself felt even
here. And when a lake is ringed round by hills, or framed, as at
Alakul, by lofty mountains; when the steppes are sharply and
picturesquely contrasted with the glittering water-surface, the dark
mountain-sides, and the snowy summits; when the soft haze of
distance lies like a delicate veil over hill and plain, suggesting a
hidden beauty richer than there really is; then we acknowledge
readily and gladly that there is a witchery of landscape even in the
steppes.
Fig. 11.—A Salt Marsh in the Steppes.
Even when we traverse the monotonous valleys many miles in

breadth, or the almost unbroken plains, whose far horizon is but an
undulating line, when we see one almost identical picture to north,
south, east, and west, when the apparent infinitude raises a feeling
of loneliness and abandonment, even then we must allow that the
steppes have more to show than our heaths, for the vegetation is
much richer, more brilliant, and more changeful. Indeed, it is only
here and there, where the salt-steppes broaden out around a lake,
that the landscape seems dreary and desolate. In such places none
of the steppe plants flourish, and their place is taken by a small,
scrubby saltwort, not unlike stunted heather, only here and there
attaining the size of low bushes. The salt lies as a more or less thick
layer on the ground, filling the hollows between the bushes so that
they look like pools covered with ice. Salt covers the whole land,
keeping the mud beneath permanently moist, adhering firmly to the
ground, and hardly separable from it. Great balls of salt and mud are
raised by the traveller’s feet and the horses’ hoofs at every step, just
as if the ground were covered with slushy snow. The waggon makes
a deep track in the tough substratum, and the trundling wheels
sometimes leave marks on the salt like those left on snow in time of
hard frost. Such regions are in truth indescribably dismal and
depressing, but elsewhere it is not so.
The vegetation of the steppes is much richer in species than is
usually supposed, much richer indeed than I, not being a botanist,
am able to compute. On the black soil, the tschi-grass, the thyrsa-
grass, and the spiræa in some places choke off almost all other
plants; but in the spaces between these, and on leaner soil, all sorts
of gay flowers spring up. In the hollows, too, the vegetation becomes
gradually that of the marsh, and reeds and rushes, which here
predominate, leave abundant room for the development of a varied
plant-life. But the time of blooming is short, and the time of withering
and dying is long in the steppes.[16]
Perhaps it is not too much to say that the contrasts of the seasons
are nowhere more vivid than in the steppes. Wealth of bright flowers
and desert-like sterility, the charms of autumn and the desolation of
winter, succeed one another; the disruptive forces are as strong as
those which recreate, the sun’s heat destroys as surely as the cold.
But what has been smitten by the heat and swept away by raging
storms is replaced in the first sunshine of spring; and even the
devouring fire is not potent enough wholly to destroy what has been
spared by the sun and the storms. The spring may seem more
potent in tropical lands, but nowhere is it more marvellous than in the
steppes, where in its power it stands—alone—opposed to summer,
autumn, and winter.
The steppes are still green when summer steals upon them, but
already their full splendour has sped. Only a few plants have yet to
attain their maturity, and they wither in the first days of the burning
heat; soon the gay garment of spring is exchanged for one of gray
and yellow. The sappy, green thyrsa-grass still withstands the
drought; but its fine, flowing, thickly-haired beards have already
attained their full growth, and wave about in the gentlest breeze,
casting a silvery veil over the green beneath. A few days more, and
both leaves and awns are as dry as the already yellowed tschi-grass,
which appears in spring like sprouting corn, and is now like that
which awaits the sickle. The broad leaves of the rhubarb lie dried on
the ground, the spiræa is withered, the Caragan pea-tree is leafless,
honeysuckle and dwarf-almond show autumnal tints; the thistle tops
are hoary; only the wormwoods and mugworts preserve their gray-
green leaves unchanged. Bright uninterrupted sunshine beats down
upon the thirsty land, for it is but rarely that the clouds gather into
wool-packs on the sky, and even if they are occasionally heavy with
rain, the downpour is scarce enough to lay the whirling dust which
every breath of wind raises. The animals still keep to their summer
quarters, but the songs of the birds are already hushed. Creeping
things there are in abundance, such as lizards and snakes, mostly
vipers; and the grasshoppers swarm in countless hosts, forming
clouds when they take wing over the steppes.
Before the summer has ended, the steppes have put on their
autumnal garb, a variously shaded gray-yellow, but without variety
and without charm. All the brittle plants are snapped to the ground by
the first storm, and the next blast scatters them in a whirling dance
over the steppes. Grappling one another with their branches and
twigs, they are rolled together into balls, skipping and leaping like
spooks before the raging wind, half-hidden in clouds of drifting dust
with which the dark or snow-laden packs in the sky above seem to
be running a race. The summer land-birds have long since flown
southwards; the water-birds, of which there are hosts on every lake,
are preparing for flight; the migratory mammals wend in crowded
troops from one promise of food to another; the winter-sleepers have
closed the doors of their retreats; reptiles and insects have
withdrawn into their winter hiding-places.
A single night’s frost covers all the water-basins with thin ice; a few
more days of cold and the fetters of winter are laid heavily on the
lakes and pools; and only the rivers and streams, longer able to
withstand the frost, afford a briefly prolonged shelter to the migratory
birds which have still delayed their farewell. Gentle north-west winds
sweep dark clouds across the land, and the snow drizzles down in
small flakes. The mountains have already thrown on their snowy
mantles; and now the low ground of the steppes puts on its garment
of white. The wolf, apprehensive of storms, leaves the reed-thickets
and the spiræa shrubberies which have hitherto served him well as
hiding-places, and slinks hungrily around the villages and the winter
quarters of the nomad herdsman, who now seeks out the most
sheltered and least exhausted of the low grounds, in order to save
his herds, as far as may be, from the scarcity, hardship, and misery
of the winter. Against the greedy wolf the herdsman acts on the
aggressive, as do the Cossack settlers and peasants; he rides out in
pursuit, follows the thief’s tell-tale track to his lair, drives him out, and
gives chase. With exultant shouts he spurs on his horse and terrifies
the fugitive, all the while brandishing in his right hand a strong
sapling with knobbed roots. The snow whirls around wolf, horse, and
rider; the keen frost bites the huntsman’s face, but he cares not.
After a chase of an hour, or at most of two hours, the wolf, which
may have run a dozen or twenty miles, can go no further, and turns
upon its pursuer. Its tongue hangs far out from its throat, the ice-
tipped hairs of its reeking hide stand up stiffly, in its mad eyes is
expressed the dread of death. Only for a moment does the noble
horse hesitate, then, urged on by shout and knout, makes a rush at
the fell enemy. High in the air the hunter swings his fatal club, down
it whizzes, and the wolf lies gasping and quivering in its death agony.
Wild horses and antelopes, impelled by hunger, like the wolf, shift
their quarters at this season, in the endeavour to eke out a bare
subsistence; even the wild sheep of the mountains wend from one
hillside to another; only the hares and the imperturbable sand-grouse
hold their ground, the former feeding on stems and bark, the latter on
seeds and buds, but both finding only a scant subsistence.
Fig. 12.—A Herd of Horses during a Snowstorm on the Asiatic Steppes.
For many days in succession the fall of snow continues; then the
wind, which brought the clouds, dies away, but the sky remains as
dark as ever. The wind changes and blows harder and harder from
east, south-east, south, or south-west. A thin cloud sweeps over the
white ground—it is formed of whirling snow; the wind becomes a
tempest; the cloud rises up to heaven: and, maddening, bewildering
even to the most weather-hardened, dangerous in the extreme to all
things living, the buran rages across the steppes, a snow-hurricane,
as terrible as the typhoon or the simoom with its poisonous breath.
For two or three days such a snow-storm may rage with
uninterrupted fury, and both man and beast are absolutely storm-
stayed. A man overtaken in the open country is lost, unless some
special providence save him; nay, more, even in the village or
steppe-town, he who ventures out of doors when the buran is at its
height may perish, as indeed not rarely happens. When February is
past, man and beast are fairly safe, and may breathe freely, though
the winter still continues to press heavily on the steppes.

RRC Revision Guide International General Certificate in Occupational Health Safet by Nebosh UK IG1 IG2 RRC International - Uk

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RRC Revision Guide International

General Certificate in Occupational

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Unit IG1 Revision Notes 5

Unit IG1 Scenario and Exam Questions 43

Unit IG1 Model Answers 47

Unit IG2 The Practical Assessment 67

Introduction to Units IG1 and IG2

NEBOSH INTERNATIONAL GENERAL CERTIFICATE

Unit IG1 Revision Notes

Morals and Money

The Financial Reason for Managing Health and Safety

Insured and Uninsured Costs

Regulating Health and Safety

Workers’ Responsibilities and Rights

R164 requires that workers should:

The Role of Enforcement Agencies

In many countries, worker compensation is based on proving negligence, i.e. sharing

Other International Standards

Who Does What in Organisations?

 Competent people are employed by the organisation.

The Shared Responsibilities of Joint Occupiers of Premises

Element 2: How Health and Safety Management

The ILO-OSH 2001 safety management system

ISO 45001: The Occupational Health and Safety Management

Making the Management System Work –The Health and

The Three Parts of a Health and Safety Policy

 Financial, operational and business requirements.

Standards and Guidance

Element 3: Managing Risk – Understanding

Relationship Between Health and Safety Culture and Performance

Indicators of Health and Safety Culture

The Influence of Peers

Improving Health and Safety Culture

 Can be distributed to a wide  Message may be ambiguous.

Co-operation and Consultation

Human Factors which Influence Safety-Related Behaviour

Organisational, Job and Individual Factors

The Five Steps of Risk Assessment

Step 2 – Identify the People at Risk

Categories and Features of Safety Signs

Benefits of PPE Limitations of PPE

Special Cases and Vulnerable Workers

The Management of Change

Managing the Impact of Change

Safe Systems of Work

Responsibilities of the Employer

Technical, Procedural and Behavioural Controls

Developing a Safe System of Work

Operation and Application

Typical Uses of Permit Systems

Emergency Procedures and First Aid

Emergency Procedure Arrangements

 Clean and adequately heated, ventilated and lit.

Element 4: Health and Safety Monitoring and

Safety Inspections, Sampling and Tours

Competent people are employed by the organisation.

Financial, operational and business requirements.

Can be distributed to a wide Message may be ambiguous.

Clean and adequately heated, ventilated and lit.

For claim management.