Structural Design (II) Spring 2010 Building Engineering Program

LECTURE (3): LOADS AND ALLOWABLE STRESSES

3.1 Loads on Steel Buildings

Loads are taken from the Egyptian code for calculating the loads and forces in buildings. The
loads are divided into two main cases:

A) Case I (Primary loads): primary loads are the loads more probable to act together, which
include: dead loads, live loads, dynamic effect of live load and centrifugal forces …etc.

B) Case II (Primary and Secondary loads): Secondary loads are the loads less probable to
act with the primary loads, which may include: wind loads, earthquake loads, braking forces,
temperature effect, erection forces, shrinkage and creep of concrete and differential settlement
of supports.

The loads can be primary or secondary according to the designed element. For example, wind
loads are secondary for the design of main beams and columns and primary for the design of
wind bracing members. In the following sections, some of these loads are summarized.

3.1.1 Dead Load (For a steel factory building)

Dead loads are taken as the loads of the covering material in addition to the own weight of steel
structure itself.
a) The weights of covering material (wc), in the structural analysis can be taken as:

Single Layer Steel Sheets 5kg/m2 to 8 kg/m2

Double Layered Steel Sheets with Isolation 10kg/m2 to 15 kg/m2

b) Own weight of steel structures (w steel) [Trusses, purlins, bracings, ...etc.], can be assumed:
w steel = (20-35) kg/m2 depending on the span of the truss

3.1.2 Live Load

The minimum live loads are taken according the Egyptian code of practice. In case of inclined
roofs, live loads are considered according the angle of roof slope “α” according to the curves
presented in Figure (3.1) for accessible and inaccessible roofs. The value of the live load can
be calculated using equations 3-1 and 3-2 instead of the curve.

L.L. = (60 – 66.67x tanα) ≥ 20 kg/m2 (for Inaccessible roofs) (3.1)

L.L. = (200 – 300x tanα) ≥ 20 kg/m2 (for Accessible roofs) (3.2)

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Structural Design (II) Spring 2010 Building Engineering Program

Accessible Roof
250
L.L. kg/m2
200

150 Inaccessible Roof

100

50
20 kg/m2
0
Tan α
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Fig. (3.1) Live Loads on

Inclined Roofs

For Truss roofs, the joint dead and live loads can be calculated as follows:

a
Dead Load: PD.L. = wc * * S + w steel * (a * S)
cos α

Live Load: PL.L. = L.L.* (a * S)

PL.L. PL.L. PL.L. PL.L. PL.L.

PL.L. PL.L. PL.L. PL.L.
PL.L./2 PL.L. PL.L. PL.L./2

PD.L. PD.L. PD.L. PD.L. PD.L.

PD.L. PD.L. PD.L. PD.L.
PD.L./2 PD.L. PD.L. PD.L./2

h H

Span L

a
S
S

Main
S

Trusses

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Structural Design (II) Spring 2010 Building Engineering Program

3.1.3 Wind Load

Wind loads are the forces that affect the building in direction perpendicular to the surfaces of
the buildings and structures. This force is considered positive if it is in surface direction
(pressure) and negative if it is outside the surface, away from the surface direction (suction).
The external pressure or suction of wind force affecting the building surfaces is calculated
using the following equation:

Pe = C e .k .q (3.3)
Ce
Where; +0.80
Pe is the external design static wind pressure
affecting the external unit area, +0.60
Wind
Ce is the coefficient of wind effect (pressure +0.40
Pressure
or suction) and it depends on the building
geometric shape as shown in figure (3.2) for +0.20
wind pressure side only.
Tan α
k is a coefficient changes with the change of 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80
building height and taken according to table -0.20
(3.1), Wind
q is the basic wind pressure and it depends on -0.40 Suction
the location of the building and is taken
-0.60
according to table (3.2) for areas inside Egypt.
-0.80

Fig. (2.2) Coefficient of Wind effect on roof surfaces

Table (3.1) Values of Coefficient “k” facing wind load (Pressure side)
Height “m” Coefficient “k”
0 to 10 1.0
10 to 20 1.10
20 to 30 1.30
30 to 50 1.50
50 to 80 1.70
80 to 120 1.90
120 to 160 2.10
More than 160 2.30

Table (3.2) Basic wind Pressure at different Locations in Egypt

Location q “Kg/m2”
Marsa Matrouh, El-Dabaa, Ras-Sedr 90
Alexandria, El-Saloum,Abu Sower, Hurghada and all coastal 80
areas
Cairo, Asyot, Belbis 70
Fayoum, Menya, Aswan, Modereyat El-Tahrir 60
Tanta, Mansoura, Damanhour 50

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Structural Design (II) Spring 2010 Building Engineering Program

Coefficient of wind effect (Ce) for various roof surfaces according to Egyptian Loads
Code at pressure and suction sides:

Fig. (3.3) Coefficient of Wind Effect on Rectangular Frames

Fig. (3.4) Coefficient of Wind Effect on Pitched Roof Frames

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Structural Design (II) Spring 2010 Building Engineering Program

Fig. (3.5) Coefficient of Wind Effect on Inclined Roof Frames

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Structural Design (II) Spring 2010 Building Engineering Program

For Truss roofs, the wind loads affecting the truss can be calculated as follows:

Case of Wind left:

Wind loads affect perpendicularly on the surfaces and there are usually two sides: pressure side
and suction side.

Pressure Side Suction Side

Wind Left Surface 2 Surface 3
1:Z

h
α
H

a Surface 4
Surface 1

Span L

1. Pressure Side:
For surface (1): α=90o tan α=∞ ⇒ Ce = +0.8
Uniform wind load on column: Wp1 = (+0.8*k*q)*S = Kg./m
For surface (2): From tan α ⇒ get Ce
[Usually Z:1 = 20:1 or 10:1 or 5:1 ⇒ tan α < 0.4 ⇒ Ce =-0.8 (suction)]
a
The joint load: P2= (Ce *k*q)*( *S)
cos α

2. Suction Side: Ce = -0.5 (constant)

For surface (3):
a
P3 = (-0.5*k*q)*( *S)
cos α
For surface (4):
Uniform wind load on column: WS4 = (-0.5*k*q)*S= Kg./m

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Structural Design (II) Spring 2010 Building Engineering Program

Wind Left

P2 P2 P2 P2/2 P3/2 P3 P3 P3
P2/2 P2 P2 P3 P3 P3/2

Wp1= t/m Ws4= t/m

a

Span L

Then, the forces in the truss members due to dead, live and wind loads can be calculated using
any computer program such as STAAD or SAP2000, or manually using stress diagram or
method of sections.

Note:
Steel sections are generally designed according to Case (I) [using primary loads]. If the
sections are designed using Case (II) [using primary and secondary loads], the allowable
stresses increase by 20% according to Egyptian Code of Practice. The critical design case (I or
II) can be determined as follows:

Force(CaseII ) − Force(CaseI )
If ≤ 0.20 Design case is (I)
Force(CaseI )
Force(CaseII ) − Force(CaseI )
If > 0.20 Design case is (II)
Force(CaseI )
Case II
Case I Design
Members D.L. L.L. W.L.L. W.L.R. D+L+W
D+L Case
or D+W
L1
Lower L2
Chord L3
M
U1
Upper U2
Chord U3
M
V1
Verticals V2
M
D1
Diagonals D2
M

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Structural Design (II) Spring 2010 Building Engineering Program

Example:
The shown figure represents the main system of a building made of steel trusses. The covering
material used is single layer steel sheets. Spacing between trusses is S = 6.0 m. Calculate the
dead load, live load and wind load acting on the truss. Calculate also the maximum forces in
the marked member due to dead and live load only.

slope 1 : 20

1.2 m
2 1.6 m
1

6.0 m
Concrete Columns

L = 10 x 1.6 = 16.0 m

Solution:

1) Dead Load: Assume weight of single layer sheets Wc =6 kg/m2

Assume weight of steel structures W steel = 20 kg/m2
PD.L = 6*(1.6/cosα*6) + 20*(1.6*6) = 249.7 kg = 0.25 t

2) Live Load: Case of Inaccessible roofs L.L. =60-66.66*1/20 =56.67 kg/m2

PL.L. = 56.67*(1.6*6) = 545 kg = 0.55 t

PT.L. = 0.25 + 0.55 t = 0.80 t

b a
0.80 t 0.80 t 0.80 t 0.80 t 0.80 t 0.80 t 0.80 t
0.40 t 0.80 t 0.80 t 0.40 t
c
2
1

4.0 t b a 4.0 t
L = 10 x 1.6 = 16.0 m

Dead and Live Loads

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Structural Design (II) Spring 2010 Building Engineering Program

Force in member (1):

From section (a-a), Σ Mc, left = zero:
(4-0.40)*6.4-0.8*(1.6+3.2+4.8)-F1* 1.52 = zero
⇒ F1 = 10.11 t (Tension)
Force in member (2):
From section (b-b), Σ Y left = zero:
(4-0.40)-F2* Sin 41o = zero
⇒ F2 = 6.0 t (Tension)

3) Wind Load:

For surface (1): α=90o tan α=∞ ⇒ Ce = +0.8

P1 = (+0.8*1.0*0.07)*(6.0*1.2/2) = 0.202 t

For surface (2): Z:1 = 20:1 tan α = -0.05 < 0.4 ⇒ Ce = -0.8 (suction)]
P2= (-0.8*1.0*0.07)*(1.6/cos3.18 * 6.0) = - 0.54 t

For surface (3):

P3 = (-0.5*1.0*0.07)*(1.6/cos3.18 * 6.0) = - 0.34 t

For surface (4):

P4= (-0.5*1.0*0.07)*(6.0*1.2/2) = 0.13 t

0.54 0.54 0.54 .27 .17 0.34 0.34 0.34

0.27 0.54 0.34 0.17
0.202 0.13

0.202 0.13

L = 10 x 1.6 = 16.0 m
Wind Loads (ton)

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Structural Design (II) Spring 2010 Building Engineering Program

3.2 Allowable Stresses For Steel Structures According To Egyptian Code 2001:

All elements of the steel building shall, in the first instance, be so designed that in no
case the stresses due to case I (primary stresses) exceed the allowable stresses specified in the
Egyptian Code of Practice 2001. The design should then be checked for case II (primary and
secondary stresses), and the stresses shall in no case exceed the aforesaid allowable stresses by
more than 20%.

Classification of Cross-Section
In the Egyptian code of practice (ECP), the sections are classified according to local buckling
of component plate elements (Depending on the maximum width-thickness ratios) into three
section classes; compact sections, non-compact sections and slender sections as follows:
C f = Fy
Class 1: Compact Sections ( fcr > Fy ) tf

Compact sections are the sections that can achieve plastic (-)

moment capacity without the occurrence of local buckling dw

tw

of any of its component plate elements subjected to

compressive stress. (+)

bf Fy

Compact Section
C f = Fy
Class 2: Non-Compact Sections ( fcr > Fy ) tf
(-)
Non-compact sections are the sections that can achieve the
yield moment capacity without the occurrence of local tw
dw
buckling of any of its component plate elements subjected to
compressive stress.
(+)
bf Fy

Non-Compact Section
Class 3: Slender Sections ( fcr < Fy )
C f act < F y
Slender sections are the sections in which local buckling
of component plate elements subjected to compressive (-)

stress takes place before failure takes place. When any of t

the compression component elements of a cross-section H dw
is classified as class 3, the whole section shall be
designed as class 3 cross-section.
t (+)
Where: B
Fy = Yield stress of the material.
fcr = The critical buckling stress at which the local Slender Section
buckling of any of the compression component
elements of the cross-section takes place.

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Structural Design (II) Spring 2010 Building Engineering Program

The limiting plate width-to-thickness ratio for class 1 and class 2 are given in the following
tables:

Table (3.3a) Maximum Width to Thickness Ratios for Stiffened Compression Elements

dw dw dw dw dw h
tw tw tw tw tw
dw=h-3t , (t=t f=t w )

13

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Table (3.3b) Maximum Width to Thickness Ratios for Stiffened Compression Elements

2
Fy in t/cm

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Structural Design (II) Spring 2010 Building Engineering Program

Table (3.3c) Maximum Width to Thickness Ratios for Un-stiffened Compression Elements

Stress distribution
in element

Stress distribution
in element

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Structural Design (II) Spring 2010 Building Engineering Program

Table (3.3d) Maximum Width to Thickness Ratios for Compression Elements

Refer also to
(Table 2.1c)
"Outstand flanges"

1. Compact

2. Non-Compact

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Structural Design (II) Spring 2010 Building Engineering Program

For compact and non-compact sections, the full area of the section shall be used, while
for slender sections, the effective area shall be used. Slender sections which do not meet the
non-compact section requirements shall be designed using the same allowable stresses used for
non-compact sections except that the section properties used in the design shall be based on the
effective widths (be) of compression elements as specified in Table 2.3 for stiffened elements
and Table 2.4 for un-stiffened elements in the ECP.

Allowable stresses for steel structural shall be determined according to the grade of steel used as
shown in tables (3.3a) and (3.3b):

Table (3.3a) Allowable Stresses in Standard Grade Structural Steel (Thickness t ≤ 40 mm)
Compression and Buckling Fc Bending Bending
(t/cm2) (1) for for Non- Shear in
Grade Tension Compact Compact Web
Cause of
of Ft=0.58Fy sections sections
stresses λ=(KL/r) <100 λ=(KL/r)≥100 qall=.35Fy
Steel (t/cm2) Fb=0.64Fy Fb=0.58Fy
(t/cm2) (2) (t/cm2) (3) (t/cm2) (4)

I-Primary St. 37 1.40 1.40-0.000065*λ2 7500/λ2 1.54 1.40 0.84

Stresses
Dead load
Live Load St. 44 1.60 1.60-0.000085*λ2 7500/λ2 1.76 1.60 0.98
Dynamic Effect
Centrifugal
Force St. 52 2.10 2.10-0.000135*λ2 7500/λ2 2.30 2.10 1.25

II- Primary and

Additional All values are 20 % higher than for item I
Stresses(5)

(1) For axially loaded symmetric sections.

(2) For compact sections satisfying the requirements of Clause 2.6.5.1.
(3) For compact sections not satisfying the requirements of Clause 2.6.5.1 or non-compact sections
satisfying the requirements of Clause 2.6.5.5.
(4) For sections satisfying the buckling requirements of Clause 2.6.3.1.
(5) Dead Load, Live Load, Dynamic Effect, Centrifugal Force, (Wind Pressure or Earthquake Loads),
Braking Force, Lateral Shocks, Temperature Effect, Frictional Resistance of Bearings, Settlement
of Supports and Shrinkage and Creep of Concrete.

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Structural Design (II) Spring 2010 Building Engineering Program

Table (3.3b) Allowable Stresses in Standard Grade Structural Steel (100 mm ≥ Thickness t > 40 mm)

Compression and Buckling Fc Bending Bending

(t/cm2) (1) for for Non- Shear in
Grade Tension Compact Compact Web
Cause of
of Ft=0.58Fy sections sections
stresses qall=.35Fy
Steel (t/cm2) λ=(Kl/r) <100 λ=(Kl/r)≥100 Fb=0.64Fy Fb=0.58Fy
(t/cm2) (2) (t/cm2) (3) (t/cm2) (4)

I-Primary St. 37 1.30 1.30-0.000055*λ2 7500/λ2 1.38 1.30 0.75

Stresses
Dead load
Live Load St. 44 1.50 1.50-0.000075*λ2 7500/λ2 1.63 1.50 0.89
Dynamic Effect
Centrifugal
Force St. 52 2.00 2.0-0.000125*λ2 7500/λ2 2.14 2.0 1.17

II- Primary and

Additional All values are 20 % higher than for item I
Stresses(5)

(1) For axially loaded symmetric sections.

(2) For compact sections satisfying the requirements of Clause 2.6.5.1.
(3) For compact sections not satisfying the requirements of Clause 2.6.5.1 or non-compact sections
satisfying the requirements of Clause 2.6.5.5.
(4) For sections satisfying the buckling requirements of Clause 2.6.3.1.
(5) Dead Load, Live Load, Dynamic Effect, Centrifugal Force, (Wind Pressure or Earthquake Loads),
Braking Force, Lateral Shocks, Temperature Effect, Frictional Resistance of Bearings, Settlement
of Supports and Shrinkage and Creep of Concrete.

Dr. Ahmed Hassan yousef Loads and Allowable Stresses 16