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 THE ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK OF
EDUCATION TECHNOLOGY

This handbook offers a comprehensive understanding of the use of technology in education.

With a focus on the development of Education Technology in India, it explores innovative
strategies as well as challenges in incorporating technology to support learning.
The volume examines diverse learning approaches such as assistive technology and
augmentative and alternative communication for learners with disabilities and creating more
social and accessible environments for learning through Collaborative Learning Techniques
(CoLTS), massive open online courses (MOOCs), and the use of AI (Artificial Intelligence) in
modern classrooms. Enriched with discussions on recent trends in ET (Education Technology),
university curriculum and syllabi, and real-life examples of the use of ET in different classroom
settings, the book captures diverse aspects of education technology and its potential. It also
discusses the challenges of making technology and resources available for all and highlights the
impact technology has had in classrooms across the world during the COVID-19 pandemic.
This book will be of interest to students, researchers, and teachers of education, digital
education, education technology, and information technology. The book will also be useful for
policymakers, educationalists, instructional designers, and educational institutions.

Santoshi Halder is a Professor at the Department of Education, University of Calcutta, India.

She is a Board-Certified Behavior Analyst (BACB, USA) and Special Educator Licensure (RCI,
India). Her specialization and primary focus of research range from Educational Technology (ET),
Special Needs Education (SEN), and inclusion of people with diverse needs, to marginalized
communities and minorities. Her recent book publications include Inclusion, Disability, and
Culture (2017), Inclusion, Equity, Access for Individuals with Disabilities (2019), and Routledge
Handbook of Inclusive Education for Teachers (2022). Her research work focuses on video modeling
behavioral intervention for people with autism, marginalized and secluded communities, and
finding constructive strategic pathways for the inclusion of people with diverse needs in low-,
middle-, and high-income countries.

Sanju Saha is an Assistant Professor at Ghoshpukur College, Siliguri, West Bengal, India. His
research interests include instructional design, technological innovation for teaching-learning,
instructional visualization, and technology-based design of learning materials to utilize human
cognition.



 THE ROUTLEDGE
HANDBOOK OF EDUCATION
TECHNOLOGY

Santoshi Halder and Sanju Saha


 Cover image: © Getty Images
First published 2023
by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2023 Santoshi Haldar and Sanju Saha
The right of Santoshi Haldar and Sanju Saha to be identified as authors of
this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced
or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means,
now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording,
or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN: 978-1-032-27196-5 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-27619-9 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-29354-5 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003293545
Typeset in Bembo
by Deanta Global Publishing Services, Chennai, India
Let us unravel and extend the potential of technology for good of all


 CONTENTS

List of figures ix
List of tables xii
Foreword xv
Preface xvii
Acknowledgments xix

PART I
Fundamental Concepts and Theories 1
1 Origin of Technology and Philosophy of Educational Technology 3
2 Conceptual Orientation of Educational Technology 6
3 Historical Evolution of Educational Technology 19
4 Instructional Design in Education 31
5 Communication and Communication Strategies 56
6 Models and Patterns of Communication 74

PART II
Design, Evaluation, and Implementations 97
7 System Analysis or System Approach in Education 99
8 Micro-teaching 109
9 Programmed Instruction 129
10 Models of Teaching 142
11 Cooperative Learning 152

vii
 Contents

12 Theories and Techniques of Cooperative Learning 164

13 Co-teaching Approach in Education 177
14 Blended Learning in Education 196
15 Assistive Technology and Augmentative and Alternative Communication 207
16 Models and Universal Design Principles of Assistive Technology 220
17 Intelligent Tutoring System (ITS) in Education 233

PART III
Large-Scale Instructional/Administration Tools, Techniques, and
Initiatives 245
18 Distance Education 247
19 E-Learning in Education 266
20 Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) 282
21 Learning Management System (LMS) and Learning Content
Management System (LCMS) in Education 294
22 Social Media Applications in Education 305
23 Various Social Media Platforms and Applications in Education 314
24 Open Educational Resources (OER) 325

PART IV
Emerging Trends 337
25 Computer in Education and Its Application 339
26 Information Communication Technology (ICT) in Education 351
27 Games, Gamification, and Simulation in Education 363
28 Mobile or M-Learning in Education 378
29 Artificial Intelligence in Education 390
30 COVID-19 Pandemic: Educational Strategies and Resources during
Crises and Emergencies 400

Index 417

viii
 FIGURES

2.1 Present scope of educational technology in the context of the

instructional procedure, educational administration, and educational
testing and feedback 10
2.2 Hardware and software approach 13
2.3 System approach of educational technology 14
2.4 System approach to teaching model (SAT) 14
3.1 Abacus math 22
3.2 Old Chinese abacus or counting frame which was used as the original
calculator. It consists of a wooden frame with wooden beads and
bamboo rods 22
3.3 Image of Stonehenge standing in Southern England 23
3.4 Gutenberg printing press 24
3.5 Napier’s bones 24
3.6 Keuffel & Esser Slide Rule, model 4081-3 (c. 1940) 25
3.7 NMS Jacquard loom 25
3.8 Panasonic 16-mm film projector and vidicon camera, 1957 26
3.9 Sputnik 1 27
3.10 Skinner teaching machine 27
3.11 Integrated circuits 28
3.12 HP 1000 E-Series minicomputer 29
4.1 The basic structure of instructional design 36
4.2 Timeline for ADDIE model of instructional design 38
4.3 Analysis phase of ADDIE model of instructional design 39
4.4 The structural aspect of a formative and summative evaluation of the
ADDIE model 43
4.5 The ASSURE model of instructional design 44
4.6 The Dick and Carey systems approach model for designing instruction 47
5.1 Diagrammatic representation of the process or cycle of communication 62
5.2 Oral communication process 64
ix
 Figures

5.3 Nonverbal communication process 65

6.1 Wheel network pattern of communication 75
6.2 Chain network pattern of communication 75
6.3 Y network pattern of communication 76
6.4 Circle network pattern of communication 76
6.5 Star or all-channel communication pattern 77
6.6 Intrapersonal communication process 78
6.7 Dyadic communication process 78
6.8 Small-group communication process 78
6.9 Public communication process 79
6.10 Mass communication process 79
6.11 A linear model of communication 80
6.12 Shannon Weaver communication model 81
6.13 Components of Lasswell’s communication model 83
6.14 Aristotle’s communication model 84
6.15 Berlo’s SMCR communication model 86
6.16 Transactional model of communication 88
6.17 Barnlund’s transactional model of communication 90
6.18 Becker’s mosaic model of communication 91
6.19 An interactive model of communication 92
6.20 Fishbone diagram or cause and effect diagram 93
7.1 Parameters for instructional system 101
7.2 Schematic flow chart of the system approach 102
7.3 Stages of the instructional development system 105
7.4 Goal determination 106
8.1 The microteaching cycle 114
8.2 The phases of microteaching 115
8.3 The standard microteaching model 117
11.1 Co-operative learning environment 153
11.2 Traditional learning environments 157
13.1 The parallel model of co-teaching 180
13.2 The station model of co-teaching 181
13.3 The teaming model of co-teaching 183
13.4 The alternative model of co-teaching 184
13.5 The one teaches one observes model of co-teaching 185
13.6 The one teaches one assists model of co-teaching 186
13.7 Present stages of the co-teaching process 188
13.8 Components of the co-teaching approach 192
14.1 Process of blended learning 202
14.2 The constructive alignment model of curriculum design 203
14.3 The 4Q model of evaluation 204
15.1 Categories of assistive technology by Blackhurst and Lahm, 2008 209
17.1 Interaction in components in an intelligent tutoring system 237
17.2 Siemer and Angelides’s general intelligent tutoring system architecture 238

x
 Figures

17.3 Costa and Perskuchisk’s Architecture of MATHEMA for IT learning

environment 239
18.1 Guided didactic conversation: BorjeHolmburg (1995) 256
19.1 Information systems success model 273
19.2 Updated information systems success model 274
21.1 Components of Learning Management System (LMS) 295
21.2 Overview of the functional aspect of Learning Management System 301
21.3 Overview and features of Learning Management System 301
24.1 Difference between all right reserved, open license, and public domain 332
25.1 Process of computer-assisted instruction 344
26.1 Representation of ICT and its various uses 352
26.2 Scope of ICT in education 354
27.1 Elements of gamification classified by Oxford Analytica in a global
analysis report (2016) 370
28.1 Basic elements of mobile learning 382
28.2 Teacher role in the present technology era 383

xi
 TABLES

2.1 Differences between technology in education and technology of

education 16
3.1 Technology for teaching (1500 BC‒AD 1990) 21
4.1 Difference between instructional system design and instructional design 34
5.1 Difference between vertical and horizontal communication 67
6.1 Components in the Shannon Weaver communication model 81
6.2 Components of Lasswell’s model of communication 83
8.1 Comparison between microteaching and traditional teaching 112
8.2 Phases of microteaching with specific activities and components 115
8.3 Presents various teaching skills explained by Allen and Ryan (1969) 116
8.4 Present list of different stages of the lesson and the components of
teaching skills 119
8.5 Present components of explaining skills for microteaching 120
8.6 Format sample 120
8.7 Gradation index 121
8.8 Component-wise grading 121
8.9 Sample format skill of illustration 122
8.10 Gradation Index 122
8.11 Component-wise grading 123
8.12 Sample format for the skill of reinforcement 124
8.13 Grading index 124
8.14 Component-wise grading 125
8.15 Phases and timing for microteaching 126
10.1 Concept Attainment Model of Teaching 149
11.1 Timeline on the history of cooperative learning 155
11.2 Comparison between traditional learning and cooperative learning 158
13.1 Present applicability of co-teaching and level of planning 187
16.1 Present various models of assistive technology 221

xii
 Tables

16.2 Assistive technology for people with visually impaired 224

16.3 Assistive Technology for Hearing Impaired 227
16.4 Assistive Technology for People with Physical Disabilities 228
16.5 Assistive Technology for People with a Communication Disability 228
16.6 Assistive Technology for People with Cognitive Disability and
Learning Disorder 229
16.7 Agencies and organizations for assistive technology 230
16.8 Some vendors for assistive technology resources 230
17.1 Historical chronology of intelligent tutoring system 236
18.1 Details of the name of the theory and contributors with year 253
18.2 Distance teaching program based on dialog and structure 256
18.3 Types of independent study programs by learner autonomy 259
20.1 Difference between online learning and MOOC 286
20.2 Categorization of MOOC-based on their massiveness and openness 286
20.3 MOOC-based learning platforms and their web addresses 292
21.1 Historical overview of Learning Management System 297
21.2 Comparison of LMS and LCMS 299
21.3 Learning management platform commercial and open-source 300
22.1 Differences between social and industrial media 310
23.1 Comparison between traditional newsletter and eNewsletter 315
23.2 Comparison between traditional classroom communication and
Facebook-based classroom communication 317
23.3 Some other social media platforms for education 320
23.4 Name of the websites, their functions, and official website link 321
24.1 Present historical overview of open educational resources 327
24.2 Present repository-based OER platform 329
24.3 OER for complete courses 330
24.4 Six types of Creative Commons licensing 333
24.5 Present various institutional repositories in India 334
25.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Computer-Based Instructional
Visualization 349
26.1 ICT tools in education 353
27.1 Difference between game, game-based learning, and gamification 364
27.2 Brief history of gamification trajectory 368
27.3 Present game-design elements and motives 370
27.4 Some of the various gamification-based learning applications/platforms 373
30.1 Tools to create infographics and charts for teachers 403
30.2 Tools to create infographics for teachers 404
30.3 Tools to create text-to-speech for teachers 405
30.4 Digital storytelling tools for teachers 405
30.5 Podcast tools for teachers 405
30.6 Screen recorder tools for teachers 405
30.7 Social bookmarking for teachers 406
30.8 Bibliography and citation tools for teachers 407

xiii
 Tables

30.9 Sticky notes tools for teachers 407

30.10 Photo and image editing tools for teachers 408
30.11 Testing and quizzing tool for teachers 408
30.12 Web or video conferencing tools for teachers 409
30.13 Authoring tools for teachers 409
30.14 Video tools for teachers 409
30.15 PDF tools for teachers 410

xiv
 FOREWORD

It is an immense honor and privilege to write this foreword for ‘Educational Technology’
authored by two passionate and informed scholars, Prof. Santoshi Halder and Dr Sanju Saha.
Readers may be tempted to wonder what yet another book on educational technology can
possibly add to the already available books dealing with educational technology. As well as the
wealth and scope of already available literature in the field of educational technology, authors
attempting to provide fresh insights or a novel angle to educational technology are also faced
with the speed and scope with which technology, in general, and specifically educational tech-
nology are changing. Often educational technology is outpacing critical reflection on its value
contribution, the hype surrounding the “new”, the potential and risks, as well as the critical
question pertaining to whose interests are ultimately served. We therefore increasingly need
authors with a critical disposition who write about educational technology and who recognize
that the field of educational technology is an intensely contested field with developers, venture
capitalists, educators, students, and education providers negotiating the often-perilous intersec-
tions between value, profit, and educational gains.Too often it is almost impossible to distinguish,
on the one hand, the potential of (new) educational technologies to address existing, new, or
perceived pedagogical problems and, on the other hand, the claims and rhetoric surrounding
educational technology. As such, this book provides a comprehensive overview of educational
technology and will contribute to more informed and critical discussions on the potential, risks,
and challenges of using educational technology in appropriate, ethical, and effective ways.
This book consists of 30 chapters divided into four different parts.Part I deals with“Fundamental
Concepts and Theories”, and Part II addresses “Design, Evaluation, and Implementations”. Part
III introduces “Large-Scale Instrumental/Administration Tools,Techniques, and Initiatives”, and
the concluding part (Part IV) addresses “Emerging Trends”. In these four parts, each chapter
is dedicated to a specific aspect of the vast and expanding educational technology landscape.
The chapters are uniform in firstly foregrounding the learning objective, and then introducing
several gateway questions. This is followed by, depending on the focus, definitions, core charac-
teristics, and an informative overview of the chapter focus.
The book provides a very comprehensive overview of educational technologies ranging from
foundational concepts to discussing some of the latest forms and uses of educational technol-
ogy. As such, the book is an excellent introduction to educational technology and should be an
invaluable introduction to those looking for an informed introduction to the field. Particularly

xv
 Foreword

valuable is the inclusion of a detailed discussion of different models of “Instructional Design in

Education”, different “Models and Patterns of Communication”, “Models of Teaching”, and
“Cooperative Learning”. The inclusion of chapters on “Assistive Technology” for those living
with, or teaching those living with, a variety of disabilities is of immense value. Two chap-
ters in the book address “Games, Gamification, and Simulation in Education” and “Mobile or
M-Learning in Education”.
While the book may be valuable for scholars, educators, and students from a range of interna-
tional contexts, the book will add immense value to the specific context of India. For example,
inter alia, the phenomenon of “Microteaching in India”, “Programmed Instruction”, evolution
of “Distance Education”, “Market and Structure of E-Learning”, “Barriers of E-Learning in
the Context of India”, Open Educational Resources (OER) and some latest trend in educa-
tional technology, e.g., “Artificial Intelligence in Education”. The book culminates with an
overview chapter on the application of “Educational Strategies and Resources during Crises
and Emergencies” with special reference to the COVID-19 pandemic.
I would like to congratulate Prof. Santoshi Halder and Dr Sanju Saha for this invaluable
contribution to mapping the field of educational technology, and specifically for the immense
value this book will add to the making of more informed and appropriate choices in the context
of education in India.
Paul Prinsloo
Research Professor in Open and Distance Learning
University of South Africa, (UNISA), Pretoria, South
Africa

xvi
 PREFACE

Human resource is surely the most significant natural resource. Living a quality life and enjoy-
ing every moment of human existence is perhaps the right of every individual. However, we
are not all born having the same personal or social/context-driven attributes. Differences and
diversity are natural phenomenon that needs to be accepted, celebrated, rejoiced, and facili-
tated. Individual differences can be enhanced and facilitated for maximum utilization through
the application of technology in education. The application of innovations in technology can
facilitate inclusion not only in education but also in every sphere of life and human existence
and make life comfortable. The key to equality, equity, and access can be successfully achieved
through technology and its strategic and appropriate application. Hence, it is pertinent to know
and understand technology and its various aspects most comprehensively so that its crucial ele-
ments can be implemented in real-life applications most appropriately.
The idea for drafting this comprehensive book on educational technology was initiated and
conceptualized back in 2011 while understanding the needs of the students and became further
crystallized and shaped through cumulative efforts, thought processes, and brainstorming. It
appeared that despite many books being available in the market, there is always room for bet-
terment to bridge the persistent lacuna. The demand for a more comprehensive book on the
subject covering updated areas and topics based on the most recent revised courses and syllabi
provided more impetus to this ongoing endeavor.
This book is an attempt to provide the most updated resources on educational technol-
ogy and its various crucial aspects to students, scholars, teachers, and educators. To success-
fully and most effectively achieve the objectives, the entire existing and latest courses and their
syllabi were reviewed. A detailed list of chapters and subheadings was laid down after careful
thought followed by stimulating discussions.The content has been prepared based on all existing
resources available in India and abroad on each topic. All of the content has been prepared and
drafted in easy language to make it more accessible and easily readable for a much wider audi-
ence, mostly in the developing countries, with a primary focus on the Indian context so that it
can provide the most updated content in one comprehensive book most effectively. I believe the
book is going to benefit numerous students, scholars, and trainee teachers, as well as educators,
and facilitate their quest and goal of getting acquainted with educational technology with its
crucial aspects and application.

xvii
 Preface

The book is categorized into four sections:

Part I: Fundamental Concepts and Theories

Part II: Design, Evaluation, and Implementations
Part III: Large-Scale Instructional/Administration Tools, Techniques, and Initiatives
Part IV: Emerging Trends

The book is designed to be of use to a wide range of students, scholars, researchers, teacher edu-
cators, and teacher trainees covering most of the syllabi of graduate and postgraduate courses:
Bachelor’s in Education, Master’s in Education, teacher training courses (B.Ed. and M.Ed.),
research-oriented courses (MPhil. and PhD), etc.

xviii
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The initial idea of a well-conceptualized and comprehensive book on educational technol-

ogy evolved while teaching educational technology courses in higher educational institutions.
The raw ideas gathered crystallized, culminated, and got refined and shaped through multiple
academic and nonacademic means, including teaching, and research exposures and opportuni-
ties, over the years in various divergent contexts. Teaching in a heterogeneous classroom and
addressing the multifarious needs of learners with varied abilities and backgrounds has been one
of the most interesting and adventurous challenges and one that I thoroughly cherish. Bringing
out the best in every learner most creatively through an enriched stimulating environment that
includes scaffolding, brainstorming, and critical thinking is one of the significant goals of any
educational system and the role of the teachers is paramount.
The content of the book is an accumulation of thoughts over the years through multiple
exposures and engagements in India and across various countries of the world (low, middle, and
high income).
First and foremost, I am thankful to the University of Calcutta for providing me the scope,
platform, opportunity, and continuous support to flourish my multifarious research and aca-
demic endeavors most strategically, effectively, and significantly.
I would like to acknowledge the various organizations who have supported me through
prestigious funding opportunities, namely the United States-India Educational Foundation
(USIEF), New Delhi; Institute of International Education (IIE), New Delhi; The Rockefeller
Foundation, USA; Shastri Indo-Canadian Institute (SICI), New Delhi; Japan Society for the
Promotion of Science (JSPS),Tokyo; Department of Education and Training, under the Australian
government; Australian High Commission; Endeavour Australia India Council; Indian Council
of Social Science Research (ICSSR), New Delhi; University Grants Commission (UGC), New
Delhi; and National Institute for the Humanities and Social Sciences (NIHSS), South Africa.
These fellowships/awards entrusted me with the role and responsibility of getting engaged with
exceptional academicians in different interdisciplinary fields through significant collaborations
across various countries through the interchange of thoughts that shaped my thought process
further and added to my drive for contributing to the community and its people.
From the outset, I would like to thank my co-author, who is also my former PhD. and post-
doctorate scholar, Dr Sanju Saha, with his ever-inquisitive mind for the quest for knowledge,
who readily and most enthusiastically agreed and accepted my invitation to take this academic

xix
 Acknowledgments

plunge and collaborated with me on this book project. His contribution to materializing and
manifesting the ideas most concretely in the form of this book is noteworthy and appreciable.
Without his efforts of working with me tirelessly and extracting his valuable time and following
my guidance and assistance most enthusiastically, this book would not have attained its current
form. Moreover, his sincere efforts reflected throughout the book show his enormous passion
for technology. I am glad to be able to extend and continue our academic relationship further
in a different role through this significant academic contribution. The book is the result of the
cumulative collaborative and cooperative efforts of both of us together through continuous
stimulating discussions, brainstorming, debates, and positive arguments.
I acknowledge the support and assistance of the publisher, Routledge India, for supporting us
for this book project and for providing us the needed assistance at every phase.
Finally, I would like to thank my husband, Dr Arindam Talukdar, Principal Scientist, Indian
Institute of Chemical Biology (IICB), Kolkata, India, my daughter Mihika, my son Kiaan, my
parents, and the almighty God for instilling in me the inspiration, drive, energy, passion, and
consistent effort without which the book would not have been possible.
Finally, I would like to state that this is just a part of our multiple continuous efforts to pro-
vide needful comprehensive resources for enhancing the sphere of teaching and learning in our
capacity as a teacher, academician, and researcher in the field. The entire journey of bringing
this amazing book to fruition has been a learning experience in itself that has been extremely
refreshing, and we are sure to continue our efforts with more future endeavors.
Prof. Santoshi Halder

xx
 PART I

Fundamental Concepts and Theories


 1
ORIGIN OF TECHNOLOGY
AND PHILOSOPHY OF
EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Introduction
It can be assumed that mixed types of learners will read this book, such as completely nov-
ice learners who for the first time are getting introduced to the new buzz term “Educational
Technology” (ET), at the same time, some may have some basic knowledge about ET, while
others may have some advanced knowledge about ET. It is imperative to say that whatever level
the learner is at, one has to accept the reality that we all are living in a “technological era”, where
every aspect of our life and society is changing unprecedentedly, mostly due to the advancement
of technology. Therefore, as a learner of ET, one must know about “technology” and its origins.
Taking this into consideration, the introductory chapter of the book has been designed to delve
into the “origins” of technology through the lenses of the philosophy of technology.This chapter,
at the outset, will focus on the origin of “education” and explain how technology works as a
catalyst for education. Besides this, the core aim of education and basic knowledge about technol-
ogy will also be discussed. Further, the relationship between technology, its value, and technology
as determinism will also be elaborated. Eventually, the chapter will discuss the various aspects of
technology in the field of education. The chapter will be concluded by laying out the journey
from technology to technology education and the philosophy of technology education.

Concept of Education and Technology

“Education” is derived from the Latin word “Educatum”, which means “the art of teaching”.
However, the modern approach to education is very dynamic. The aim of education is varied
based on factors like cultural context, environmental context, personal traits, etc. However, the
collective aspect of the various educational aims mainly focuses on three fundamental aspects:

• To transfer culture and improve the way of life

• To improve the social and physical environment
• To fulfill and improve individual life

To achieve the three fundamental objectives of education, various countries developed pathways
or policies. For example, the United States has the pertinent Educational Need of Youth (1944)
(cited by Gilchrist, 1951), India has a National Policy on Education (1986), Australia has the

DOI: 10.4324/9781003293545-2 3
 Fundamental Concepts and Theories

Common Agreed National Goal for Schooling in Australia (AEC, 1986), and so on and so forth
(Vries, 2012). All these policies mainly focused on the development of self-confidence, achieve-
ment of personal excellence, etc. To achieve these goals, various subjects, curriculum, school
systems, and subject-based development of education have occurred.
Besides this, technology is a different concept and has a long history. In the early stages of
the development of human beings, technology was developed and used as a “survival strategy”
as well as for the “development of lifestyle” through improvement or environmental impact,
when technology was not a subject. Therefore, the philosophical aspect of technology in that
period was not explicit. In the early stages of human development lots of problems were faced
and every time mankind tried to find a possible pathway to solve the problem by inventing
various technological innovations. For example, weapons were invented by using stones through
repeated trial-and-error learning or attempts to get good weapons. Furthermore, the knowledge
and skills which were gathered from the trial-and-error learning method were transferred to the
next generation and, by this process, one specific technology became more modern, updated,
and usable. This is called modern technology, and its long evolutionary journey began with
primary innovation.
Now, the fact is that in the ancient period there was no such separate subject related to
“technology education”. Technology education or technology as a subject of education is a
very recent concept. The concept regarding the philosophy of technology was first introduced
by Ernst Kapp in 1977. It is very surprising that although technology takes a vital role in
present civilized society there is a lack of answers regarding how technology is significant for
human life. Or how it impacts society, the relationship between advancement in technology
and advancement in a civilization, the impact of human engagement with technology, and so
on and so forth. Therefore, a basic gap can be seen in the context of acceptance of technology
by teachers, parents, and students and their attitude toward technology as a subject as well as
for school administration. Moreover, another interesting fact is that in the past it was thought
that the use of technology in the context of education was basically for slow learners, and
it is not known why this type of misconception or attitude formed regarding “educational
technology”. Maybe this type of misconception happened due to a lack of knowledge of the
philosophy of technology.
However, this kind of rigid conception regarding technology changed after the Industrial
Revolution and the knowledge of technology became a professional one, a way of thinking that
brings about improvement in society and the environment.
The present chapter aims to provide a basic conception of the philosophy of educational
technology. Philosophy denotes a branch of fundamental concepts of the nature of technology,
beliefs about technology, the value of technology, the determining factors of technology, etc.

Philosophy of Technology Education

A comprehensive discussion about the philosophy of technology cannot take place without dis-
cussing the relationship between technology and technology education from a philosophical
viewpoint.Therefore, it is imperative to create a learning environment where the learner has some
opportunity to work with technology to understand the pivotal methods and principles of tech-
nology. Besides this, a student needs to adapt various cognitive and technological skills to under-
stand the functional aspect of technology, which may only come from technology education.
It is also noted that there is a difference between technological knowledge and technological
activity; technological knowledge is always scientific, whereas technological activity should be
focused on the design-like process.

4
 Origin of Technology and Philosophy of Educational Technology

Somehow, technologists and technological designers function separately. The designer of

technology produces original ideas and technologies to work with the design. Nevertheless,
technologists also produce the original ideas in the context of functional activities of a specific
design.
From the philosophical point of view, technology education functions in two ways; one is
in a liberal art context and the second one is in a vocational training context. In the liberal art
context, technology education focuses on mainly the “methodology of technology”, whereas
the vocational aspect focuses on competency and skill-based knowledge. But the link between
these two aspects occurs when an acquisition of skills determines the specific methodology for
technology education.
Now the use of technology is ubiquitous throughout the world. All countries have been
gradually adapting technology education for economic and social development. However, there
is still a lack of knowledge about the philosophical aspect. One doesn’t know what school tech-
nology should belong to. How a student can learn through it? What are the effective teaching
strategies for technology education? And so on and so forth. Furthermore, this kind of lack of
consciousness creates fear in the teacher and, as a result, they are very suspicious of or pessimistic
about accepting new technology.
Through this introductory chapter, the learner will know that in the context of technology
education, there is a great degree of diversity throughout the world. For example, in Japan, there
is no core technology education; in Israel, it’s a compulsory subject; in Sweden, it has a human-
istic approach; the United States focuses on the context of technology education, etc.Therefore,
whatever the nature of technology education, the policymakers should design the curriculum
of technology education by taking into consideration the country’s needs and also know that
teachers’ beliefs about technology will broadcast the social context.

References
Gilchrist, R. S. (1951). Are schools meeting the imperative needs of youth? Bulletin of the National Association
of Secondary School Principals, 35(180), 82–87.
Vries, M. J. de (2012). Philosophy of technology. In P. J. Williams (Ed.), Technology education for teachers (pp.
15–34). Sense Publishers.

Suggested Readings
Archer, B. (1986). The three R’s in technology in schools (A. Cross & B. McCormick, Eds.). Milton Keynes:
Open University Press.
Benson, C., & Lunt, J. (Eds.). (2011). International handbook of primary technology education: Reviewing the
past twenty years (Vol. 7). Boston USA/ London, U.K: Springer Science & Business Media, D. Reidal
Publishing Company.
De Vries, M. J. (2016). Teaching about technology: An introduction to the philosophy of technology for non-philoso-
phers. Berlin: Springer.
Erneling, C. E. (2010). Towards discursive education: Philosophy, technology, and modern education. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Ihde, D. (2012). Technics and praxis: A philosophy of technology (Vol. 24). Boston USA/ London, U.K: Springer
Science & Business Media, D. Reidal Publishing Company.
Knight, G. (1982). Issues and alternatives in educational philosophy. Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews University
Press.
Mitcham, C. (1994). Thinking through technology: The path between engineering and philosophy. Chicago, IL:
University of Chicago Press.
Scharff, R. C., & Dusek, V. (Eds.). (2013). Philosophy of technology: The technological condition: An anthology.
Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.

5
 2
CONCEPTUAL ORIENTATION OF
EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Introduction
In the present times, we are living in a liberal global economy where technology is a power
for change and information is the fuel. Throughout the world, if we look around every corner,
the common thing to get noticed is the application of technology for living and the availability
of information. Therefore, the 21st century is also called the era of the knowledge economy.
The revolutionary innovations and applications of technology impact every aspect of human
beings and the education sector is not exempted from it. The overall teaching-learning scenario
is gradually changing due to technological excogitations. School, or any learning environment,
is more than a knowledge tank through which knowledge can be distributed and is rather an
environment that promotes learning and a process of acquisition that produces knowledge and
skills for lifelong learning and technology is the holder and carrier. Over the last few decades,
the impact of technology on education has been very large and seeks to explore the meaning of
educational technology, the various approaches of Educational Technology (ET), etc. Therefore,
the present chapter aims to discuss and provide a bird’s-eye view of the application of technol-
ogy in education.

Concept and Definition of Educational Technology

To get an overall view about educational technology it is imperative to form a separate concept
of “technology” and “education”, and then merge and present them as a comprehensive defini-
tion of technology from the established literature survey in the field.

What Is Meant by Technology?

In a very basic view, the term “technology” is derived from two Greek words namely “Technic”
and “Logia”. The term “Technic” denotes “art or skill” and “Logia” denotes “science or study”.
Therefore, combining the meaning of these two words is a science of the study of an art or skill.
In that point of view technology is a systematic understanding and application of “science” to
achieve a specific objective effectively and efficiently. Professor Galbraith discussed two essential
characteristics of technology:

6 DOI: 10.4324/9781003293545-3
 Conceptual Orientation

• Systematic application of scientific knowledge into practice

• Deviation of any task into its components

The following are some of the explicit definitions of technology provided by Cass G. Gentry in
his book chapter, “Educational Technology: A Question of Meaning”.
Simon (1983) discussed “Technology as a rational discipline designed to assure the mastery of
man over physical nature by using scientifically determined laws”.
Jacquetta Bloomer (1973) defined “technology as the application of scientific theory to practi-
cal ends”.
Mc Dermott (1981) explained that “Technology, in its concrete empirical meaning refers fun-
damentally to a system of rationalized control over large groups of man, event and machines by
small groups of a technically skilled man operating through an organized hierarchy”.
In Random House Kernerman Webster’s College Dictionary (2010), “Technology refers to applica-
tions, methods, theories, and practices that are used to reach desirable ends, especially industrial
and commercial ends”.
From the above definitions, it is very clear that technology is a pivotal component in every
aspect of a human being. Now one should know what is meant by education and what are its
fundamental objectives.

What Is Meant by Education?

The word “education” is derived from the Latin word “Educatum” that means “to bring out”. In
this context, education aims to bring out better qualities of the individual.
The Universal Dictionary of the English Language defines education as:

• To provide training, to educate

• Developing the brain and characteristics of a learner
• A particular state of an education system

From this point of view, “education” is a process that promotes modification of behavior, social
efficiency, socialization, actualization, harmonious and all-round development, and adjustment
to the environment.
John Dewey (1916) defined education as “the enterprise of supplying the conditions which
ensure growth, or adequacy of life irrespective of age”.

What Is Meant by Educational Technology?

From the separate view of “technology” and “education”, it is quite clear that “educational
technology” is an application part of the technological aspect to promote various educational
objectives. By using various processes of technology and resources, educational technology gen-
erally emphasizes the teaching and learning process and communication aspects through the
diverse application of multiple devices. By using devices or strategies of educational technology
instructors or teachers developed various unique and organized teaching-learning processes by
utilization of modern technological development. Though plenty of discussion regarding ET
has evolved over the years by various researchers, there is, however, still no concrete or universal
definition of ET, maybe this is because of the dynamic nature of the field of educational tech-
nology.

7
 Fundamental Concepts and Theories

Definitions of Educational Technology

For a better understanding of the definitions of educational technology, following are some
of the definitions provided by the eminent researchers and scholars from the various fields of
study.
S. S. Kulkarni (1986) discussed that “Educational Technology may be defined as the applica-
tion of the laws as well as recent discoveries of science and technology to the process of educa-
tion”.
Dieuzeide (1971) defined educational technology as a “body of knowledge resulting from the
application of the science of teaching and learning to the real world of the classroom, together
with the tools and methodologies developed to assist these applications”.
Takshi Sakamato (1971) said, “Educational Technology is an applied or practical study which
aims at maximizing educational effect by controlling such relevant facts as educational purposes,
educational environment, the conduct of the student, behavior of instructors and interrelations
between students and instructors”.
Cleary et al. (1976) explained that “Educational Technology is concerned with the overall
methodology and set of techniques employed in the application of instructional principles”.
Collier et al. (1971) stated that educational technology involves the applications of systems,
techniques, and aids to improve the process of human learning, … It is characterized by four
features in particular: the definition of objectives to be achieved by the learner; the application
of principles of learning to the analysis and structuring of the subject matter to be learned;
the selection and use of appropriate media for presenting material; and the use of the appro-
priate methods of assessing student performance to evaluate the effectiveness of courses and
materials.
AECT (Association for Educational Communications and Technology) Task Force (1977)
explained that educational technology “is a complex, integrated process involving people,
procedures, ideas, devices, and organization, for analyzing problems, and devising, imple-
menting, evaluating and managing solutions to those problems, involved in all aspects of
human learning”.
Jacquetta Bloomer (1973) said, “Educational Technology is the application of scientific knowl-
edge about practical learning situations”.
Richmond (1970) stated, “Educational Technology is concerned to provide appropriately
designing learning situations, holding in view the objectives of the teaching or training, bring
or bear the best means of instruction”.
Januszewski and Molenda (2008) defined that “Educational technology is the study and ethical
practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using and managing
appropriate technological processes and resources”.
UNESCO (2001) explained that “Educational technology is a communication process
resulting from the application of scientific methods to the behavioral science of teaching and
learning. This communication may or may not require the use of media such as television
broadcasts, radio, cassettes, etc.”.
Kumar (2002) stated:

Educational Technology is a systematic way of designing, implementing and evaluat-

ing the total process of learning and teaching in terms of specific objectives, based
on research in human learning and communication and employing a combination of
human and non-human resources to bring about more effective instruction.

8
 Conceptual Orientation

NPE (National Policy on Education) (1986) says, “Educational technology offers the means to
reach large numbers in remote and inaccessible areas, remove disparity in educational facilities
available to the disadvantaged, and provide individualized instruction to learners conveniently
suited to their needs and pace of learning”.
Besides all the mentioned definitions of educational technology, it is also imperative to pro-
vide the latest and more acceptable definition provided by the Association for Educational
Communications and Technology.
The Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) (1977) defines
“Educational technology as the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improv-
ing performance by creating, using and managing appropriate technological processes and
resources” (cited by Richey et al., 2008).
From the above definition, one gets the view that educational technology is the application
of scientific knowledge and technology in education. Now, if we try to separate the two views,
we can see that science is a search of knowledge and technology is an application of scientific
knowledge to the solution of a problem.Therefore, ET is a systematic approach to the teaching-
learning process. With a simplistic view of ET, educational technology is:
• The scientific aspect and systematic approach to using technology in education to achieve
the aim of education
• A scientific aspect of preservation, transmission, and development of knowledge through
technology
• The application of scientific knowledge and devices to enhance the meaningful contextu-
alization and productivity in education

Characteristics of Educational Technology

After the critical discussion on definitions, the following are some of the major characteristics
of educational technology.
Application of scientific principles: One of the essential characteristics of educational technology is
that it is scientific.The development of a field of science is a parallel indication of the development
of a field of educational technology. The application of scientific principles in the field of edu-
cational technology ensures a maximized benefit of teaching and learning scenarios. Educational
technology as a field of study always tries to adopt various technological, mechanical, and sci-
entific knowledge to encounter various educational problems and find out a required solution.
Dynamic, flexible, and modern discipline: The field of educational technology is dynamic, flex-
ible, and based on modern disciplines. It is dynamic because every day various new technologies
are developed to find out a specific solution. It is flexible because day by day old technology is
becoming obsolete and one embraces new technology. And it is a modern discipline because this
field is ready to face future challenges.
Mass communication approach: By using various modern communication technologies, the
field of ET has been impacted by the mass approach of teaching and learning processes. By using
educational technology, mass numbers of students can learn irrespective of their socio-economic
status, demographic background, location, language, etc.
Personalization teaching and learning: Another unique characteristic of educational technology
is it encourages individual differences and by using various scientific methods of design it can
nurture every student in respect of their specific needs.
Scientific solution to methods and techniques of instructions: Educational technology provides vari-
ous scientific solutions to specific problems. It also encourages development of various instru-
ments to accelerate the learning process and to improve the teaching and learning environment.

9
 Fundamental Concepts and Theories

Systematic approach: Educational technology is a systematic approach. On the one hand, it uti-
lizes various hardcore hardware- and software-based technological knowledge and, on the other
hand, a systematic use of multidisciplinary field knowledge to achieve educational objectives.
Facilitates educational system and management process: Another essential characteristic of edu-
cational technology is that it helps to facilitate and manage the educational environment in an
effective as well as an efficient way.
Research-based discipline: Educational technology is a more sophisticated field of study. It
includes a multidisciplinary field of knowledge and psychosocial and behavioral knowledge to
solve a specific problem related to teaching and instruction.

Scope of Educational Technology

From the previous discussion one gets some basic knowledge about the concept of educational
technology and its characteristics. From this general discussion one can understand that the field
of educational technology is not only limited to the use of audiovisual tools in the teaching-
learning process but rather is a multidisciplinary field of knowledge. It encompasses several
domains of knowledge, such as behavioral science, engineering and mechanical knowledge,
psychological principles, knowledge of learning theories, use of computer-based media, etc.This
huge spectrum of inclusion of different fields of knowledge expands the scope of educational
technology so that it is much wider. Therefore, the scope of educational technology includes,
but it is not limited to, the discussion of selection and use of media and method, management
of resources, and evaluation. Following are some basic scopes of educational technology as pro-
posed by Derek Rowntree (1973):

• Development of goals and objectives for specific teaching and learning processes
• Arrangement of suitable teaching and learning environments
• Structuring and scientific development of course materials
• Selection of effective teaching strategies, learning media, and instructional instruments
• Evaluation of the effectiveness of certain teaching and learning process
• Last, but not least, provision of appropriate feedback for future development (see Figure 2.1)

Scope of Educational • Developed various

Technology as instructional objectives
Academic • Helps in developed
instructional strategies
instructional Process
Scope of Educational • Development of
Technology as curriculam
General Education • Searching and structuring
of cources
Adminstration
Scope of Educational • Focused on educational
Technology as measurement
Educational Testing • Design feedback strategies
for future develoment
and Feedback

Figure 2.1 
Present scope of educational technology in the context of the instructional procedure,
educational administration, and educational testing and feedback.

10
 Conceptual Orientation

From the above discussion of the scope of the study of educational technology, the following
conclusions can be made in this regard:

• Educational technology as a “theory and practice”—focused on approaches of learning

• Educational technology as “technological tools and media”—assists in communication,
development, management, and exchange of knowledge
• Educational technology as “learning management system”—helps in curriculum, informa-
tion, and content management

Assumptions of Educational Technology

The following are some of the basic assumptions in the context of educational technology:

1. The assumption of productivity: One of the major aims of the present educational system is
to increase productivity in the context of education as a system approach and, in that case,
technology is one of the weapons or means to do so. For the productivity aspect, dichoto-
mous contexts are needed such as quality and productivity. In the context of cost-effective-
ness, therefore, it is assumed that the use of technology can create a balance between them.
2. Assumption of technology as a bridge between strategies and tactical aspects: It is assumed that tech-
nology can work as a lever to increase the quality aspect of education. Technology is not a
strategic tool but rather a technical tool that bridges between strategies and applications to
reach a certain goal of education.
3. Assumptions of cost-effectiveness: As technology can work accurately and repetitively in a
specific job, it is therefore assumed that the use of technology in the field of education can
make education cost-effective.
4. Active learning assumptions: It is a known fact that active learning is a more motivating learn-
ing strategy than passive learning. As technology can serve education in a more personal-
ized way to the larger community, it is therefore assumed that technology can produce an
effective active learning environment for the benefit of learning.

Approaches of Educational Technology

From the discussion of the previous section, one gets a basic view that the field of educational
technology is the application of various modern and advanced skills to achieve various aims and
objectives of education and training. Therefore, educational technology as a scientific aspect is a
multifaceted concept. Lumsdaine (1964) has classified the field of educational technology into
three distinct approaches:

• Educational Technology I or Hardware Approaches

• Educational Technology II or Software Approaches
• Educational Technology III or System Approaches

Educational Technology I or Hardware Approach

Educational Technology I or the Hardware Approach originated from the field of physical sci-
ence and engineering. This is a concept that Silverman (1968) denotes as “technology in edu-
cation”. For example, suppose a teacher wants to communicate with several students in a big
classroom, then amplification of the teacher’svoice is imperative for effective communication.

11
 Fundamental Concepts and Theories

In this specific scenario, the use of a microphone can be an effective device for teaching and
learning. Therefore, as a simplified view, the use of a hardware device like a microphone is an
“Educational Technology I or Hardware Approach”. Like the microphone, the use of a model,
chart, slide, filmstrip, projector, audiovisual aids, radio, tape recorder, teaching machines, com-
puter, etc. are all hardware approaches in educational technology. One of the unique characteris-
tics of ET I or hardware approaches to educational technology is that all equipment is developed
in a different field like engineering or mechanics and is utilized for educational purposes.
Educational technologist Davis provides a similar conception that hardware technology
of education purely uses innovations of different fields like physical science, engineering, or
mechanics which helps to mechanize the entire teaching and learning process to promote
and achieve the objective of education in a very specific and easy matter. In addition, these
approaches also help the teacher to deal with more students in an effective as well as a personal-
ized way. Nickson (1978) explained that the hardware approach of educational technology is an
application of the science of many other fields to the field of education to meet the needs of an
individual as well as society. Therefore, Silverman (1968) also called this approach “Relational
technology” which means the application of technology, machines, and devices in the context
of the process of teaching and learning.
Therefore, hardware approaches to educational technology mainly focus on “machine tech-
nology”.They believe that the application of machines in the context of instruction helps in the
advancement of the teaching and learning process as well as the cognitive aspects of instruction.
Educational Technology I or the Hardware Approach of education emphasizes three basic facts:
preservation, transmission, and advancement.
It is also noted that various mechanical devices used in the field of education are not spe-
cifically designed for teaching and instruction but rather ithey are designed only for effective
communication, information, and recreation. Therefore, as a teacher or instructor, one needs to
be aware or cautious about using various hardware devices to achieve the educational objectives.

Educational Technology II or Software Approach

As the hardware approach originated from physical science and applied engineering, the soft-
ware approach originated from “behavioral science” and “psychology of learning”, for bringing
desirable change in the learner.
As approaches of Educational Technology II originated from “theories of learning”, they
therefore mainly focus on questions like: What is the process of learning? What are the factors
for effective learning and communications? What kind of mental preparedness of students is
required for effective learning? So this approach deals with various aspects like prior knowledge
of the learner, expert knowledge of the teacher, method of the teaching process, the motivation
of the learning process, etc. for optimizing the teaching and learning process.To do so, the ET II
Approach is focused on the technique of developing and utilization of software. Therefore, this
approach is also called the software approach of educational technology.
In this software approach context, the National Centre for Programmed Learning UK
defined ET as: “Application of scientific knowledge about learning and conditions of learning,
to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of teaching and learning. In the absence of scientifi-
cally established principles, educational technology implements techniques of empirical testing
to improve learning situations” (cited by Kumar, 1996; see Figure 2.2).
The software approach of educational technology is also called “constructive educational
technology” by Silverman (1968). Generally, the software approach of educational technology
is focused on analysis, selection, and construction to achieve any desired educational aim and

12
 Conceptual Orientation

Hardware Approach Software Approach

Chalk Board Use of Chalk Board

Slide Projector Slide

Computer Computer Program

Audio recorder Recorded Matter

Figure 2.2 
Hardware and software approach (based on Kumar, 1996).

objectives. In this aspect, education is technology enriched from the various interdisciplinary
fields like psychology, management, cybernetics, philosophy, sociology, etc.
The software approach of educational technology is mainly designed for the application of
various psychological theories for bringing desirable change in the learner through the princi-
ple of the instructional procedure, teaching behavior, and behavior-modification process. The
software approach of educational technology is also called “instructional technology”, “teaching
technology”, and “behavioral technology”. According to Davis (1971), “The software approach
of educational technology closely associates with the modern principles of programmed learn-
ing and is characterized by task analysis, writing, precise objectives, selection of correct responses
and constant evaluation process” (Aggarwal, 1995). It is imperative to say that though the fields
of “hardware technology” and “software technology” are independent approaches of educational
technology, both the approaches are very interlinked and both are very much dependent on
each other. The hardware approach deals with machines, and the software approach deals with
the principles of learning and teaching.

Educational Technology III or System Approach

This is a third and comparatively more recent approach to educational technology. It originated
from the concept of system engineering. This is a concept of “technology of education”. The
system approach of educational technology mainly focused on a systematic way to design, carry
out, and evaluate the whole process of an education system to achieve the educational objective.
The concept of the system approach became popular after World War II. In that specific period,
there was a great demand for scientific decision-making as well as the administration and man-
agement of military problems.Therefore, this approach is also called “management technology”.
Generally, the system approach of educational technology deals with a complete aspect of the
teaching and learning process.
The US Commission on Instructional Technology defines it as follows:

System approach of educational technology is a systematic way of designing and

implementing and evaluating the total process of learning and teaching in terms of
specific objects based on research in human learning and communication and employ-
ing a combination of human and non-human resources to bring about more effective
instruction.​
(cited by Reiser & Ely, 1997; see Figure 2.3)

13
 Fundamental Concepts and Theories

Environment

Administrator. Attainment of
Teachers, Students, Educational
Teaching Learning Objective,
Teaching Learning Process
Materials, AV Aids Achievements of
etc. Students

Input Process Output

Feedback

Environment

Figure 2.3 
System approach of educational technology.

Write
Select teaching
programmed Evaluate
method media
objectives

Student
Involvement
Activities

Feedback

Figure 2.4 
System approach to teaching model (SAT) (adapted from Smith, 1991).

From this definition, one can get a complete view about the system approach of education as
follows:

• A system approach is a complete process of teaching and learning designed for the utiliza-
tion of scientific procedures like research, communication, and evaluation in an instruc-
tional process.
• It encourages the utilization of various valuable resources, irrespective of human and non-
human, to achieve a certain educational goal.
• A system approach is a process of a complex whole.Various parts of a system work together
with a mechanism or interconnecting process to achieve a specific objective.
• It is an intelligent combinational process of hardware and software approaches to achieve
the desired result.
• A system approach to education is considered as a whole educational process in the context
of input‒output system (see Figure 2.4)

The Technology of Education and Technology in Education: Overview

The concept of “educational technology” can be classified into two independent but mutually
interlinked concepts:

14
 Conceptual Orientation

• Technology of education
• Technology in education

Technology of Education
Technology of education is the core aspect in the context of education. It is a combinational
aspect of an application of the various fields of knowledge of behavioral science, knowledge of
psychology principle, knowledge of management and administration, etc. to solve various learn-
ing problems and find out effective teaching and learning solutions. Technology of education
has a broad spectrum covered with various scientific system approach techniques of curricu-
lum planning transaction and evaluation processes through the means of input‒process‒output
techniques.
Following are some of the technical aspects that fall under the spectrum of the technology
of education:

• System analysis
• Programmed learning
• Designing of an instructional objective
• Evaluation process and selection of instruments
• Strategies of the teaching-learning process
• Designing of instruction and analysis of instructional problems
• Designing a model of teaching

Technology in Education
Technology in education is the application of technological knowledge, devices, and machines
in education. In the context of education, technology includes the use of various devices like
projectors, film, television, radio, Internet, etc. As previously discussed, technology education is
an application of the engineering principle. Silverman (1968) explained that approach as “rela-
tive technology” and “constructive educational technology” (see Table 2.1).

Forms of Educational Technology

As readers now have a comprehensive knowledge about the concept of educational technol-
ogy and its versatile applicability in the different fields, the subsequent section aims to provide
information about various forms of educational technology:

• Teaching technology
• Instructional technology
• Behavioral technology

Teaching technology: Teaching is a unique activity to promote the aim of education effectively.
The most significant aspect of teaching is to bring about the all-around development of
children. This is one of the essential scientific aspects of education. Teaching as a science
studies various teaching strategies objectively and scientifically. Generally teaching technol-
ogy is concerned with a justification of various teaching activities theoretically and in a
systematic way to provide effective and motivational teaching methods to the teacher. The
early exponents of teaching technology are Davis, Gagne, Robert Glaser, etc. One of the

15
 Fundamental Concepts and Theories

Table 2.1 Differences between technology in education and technology of education

Context of Technology in Education Technology of Education

Differentiations

Theoretical aspect Technology in education is mainly Technology of education is theoretically

based on behavioral science and
psychological principle
Approach It is mainly based on the software
approach of ET
Application This approach is focused on learning aids
Dynamism and This approach is more dynamic and
flexibility flexible
Scope This approach is more scientific and aims
to understand the need of learners to
achieve the educational goal
based on physical, engineering, and
mechanical science
It is based on a hardware approach
It is related to teaching aids
It a fixed and rigid approach
This approach is more effective in the
context of mass education

Type Silverman called this approach of This approach of educational technology

educational technology “constructive is also called “relative technology”
educational technology”

Cost This approach is less costly This is expensive due to the use of
various hardware devices

major assumptions of teaching technology are the three basic vital domains of educational
objective—cognitive, affective, and psychomotor—that can be achieved by the use of tech-
nology and can be organized through three levels of teaching—memory, understanding,
and reflective. Furthermore, teaching technology is the combinational knowledge of phi-
losophy, sociology, and scientific knowledge of education.
Instructional technology: Instruction is a very important aspect of the human learning process. In
a narrow concept “instruction” denotes communication of various information, except for
by the teacher. For instance, web-based learning or an open education system communi-
cates with learners through mediums such as radio, television, press, etc. One of the major
aims of instructional technology is the development of the cognitive aspect of the learner.
Instructional technology as a form of educational technology mainly is the application
aspect of scientific and psychological principles. Programmed instruction is one of the most
essential examples of instructional technology. It is also imperative to say that instructional
technology is based on the assumption that every individual is unique and has different
needs and capacities, and therefore the process of instruction needs to be personalized to
serve the major aims of education. Instructional technology also believes that the student is
a more active component and assumes that students can learn without a teacher if instruc-
tion is provided effectively and scientifically. The major proponents of instructional tech-
nology are Skinner, Glaser, Crowder, Gilbert, etc.
Behavioral technology: Behavioral technology is based purely on psychological principles. It is
based on the behavioral science of learning. Behavioral technology places teachers as a sec-
ondary component. It believes that communication is one of the major components in the
educational process. This form of educational technology is focused on scientific knowl-
edge or modification of teacher behavior. This form of technology is also called “train-
ing technology”. Major exponents of behavioral technology are B. F. Skinner, Anderson,
Amidon, etc. Behavioral technology is based on the assumption that the behavior of a

16
 Conceptual Orientation

teacher should always be as social as well as psychological and that teacher behavior can be
modified by training and reinforcement.

References
AECT. (1977). The definition of educational technology. Washington, DC: AECT.
Aggarwal, J. C. (1995). Essentials of educational technology.Vikas Publishing House.
Association for Educational Communications and Technology. (1977). The definition of educational technology.
Washington, DC: Association for Educational Communications and Technology.
Bloomer, J. (1973).What have simulation and gaming got to do with programmed learning and educational
technology? Programmed Learning and Educational Technology, 10(4), 224–234. https://doi​.org​/10​.1080​
/1355800730100402.
Cleary, A. et al. (1976). Educational technology: Implications for early and special education. New York: John Wiley
and Sons.
Collier, K. G. et al. (1971). Colleges of education learning programmes:A proposal (working paper no. 5).Washington,
DC: National Council for Educational Technology.
Dewey, J. (1916). The school and society. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Dieuzeide, H. (1971). Educational technology: Sophisticated, adaptive and rational technology.
Gentry, C. G. (2016). Reflection Paper on Educational Technology, Instructional Technology, and Material development
by Merve BÖLÜKBA. https://bolukbasmervew​.wordpress​.com​/2016​/05​/15​/educational​-technology​
-written​-by​-cass​-g​-gentry/
Januszewski, A. & Molenda. (2008). Educational technology:The development of a concept. Libraries Unlimited.
Kulkarni, S. S. (1986). Introduction to educational technology. Oxford: Lott Publishing Co. New Delhi.
Kumar, K. L. (1996). Educational technology. New Age International.
Kumar, K. L. (2002). Internet-based interactive design for students, teachers and practitioners, proceedings
of the international conference. In A millennium dawn in training and continuing education (pp. 379–380).
Bahrain.
Lumsdaine, A. A. (1964). Educational technology, programmed learning and instructional science. Theories
of learning and instruction, 63rd yearbook of NSSE.
McDermott, J. (1981). Technology: The opiate of the intellectuals. In A. Teich (Ed.), Technology and man’s
future. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
Reiser, R. A., & Ely, D. P. (1997). The field of educational technology as reflected through its definitions.
Educational Technology Research and Development, 45(3), 63–72. https://doi​.org​/10​.1007​/bf02299730.
Richey, R. C., Silber, K. H., & Ely, D. P. (2008). Reflections on the 2008 AECT definitions of the field.
TechTrends, 52(1), 24–25.
Richmond, W. K. (1970). The teaching revolution. London: Methuen.
Rowntree, D. (1973). What is educational technology? A problem-solving approach to education. London: Open
University, Institute of Educational Technology, Harper and Row.
Sakamoto, T. (1971). United nations educational, scientific, and cultural organization, Bangkok (Thailand).
Regional office for education in Asia and Oceania. In The development of educational technology.Washington,
DC: Distributed by ERIC Clearinghouse. Retrieved from https://eric​.ed​.gov/​?id​=ED084795
Simon,Y. R. (1983). Pursuit of happiness and lust for power in a technology society. In D. C. Mitcham &
R. Mackey (Eds.), Philosophy and technology. New York: Free Press.
Silverman, R. E. (1968). Two kinds of technology. Educational Technology, 8(1), 3–3.
Silverman, R. E. (1968). Using the SR reinforcement model. Educational Technology, 8(5), 3–12.
Smith (1991). https://journals​.sagepub​.com​/doi​/abs​/10​.1177​/030​5829​8910​200031001
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.pdf.
UNESCO (2001). Information and communication technologies in teacher education: a planning guide -
UNESCO Digital Library. https://unesdoc​.unesco​.org​/ark:​/48223​/pf0000129533

Suggested Readings
Educational Technology. (2010). Word reference random house unabridged dictionary of American English.
Frant, A. S. (1991). Instructive instructional strategies:Ways to enhance learning by TV in designing for learner access:
Challenges & practices. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin.

17
 Fundamental Concepts and Theories

HRD Ministry, Govt. of India. (1986). Report of national policy on education. New Delhi: Department of
Education.
IGNOU. (2000). ES-361: Educational technology, B.Ed. Programme (pp. 9–11). New Delhi: IGNOU.
IGNOU. (2009). MES-031, introduction to educational technology? (pp. 1–19). New Delhi: IGNOU. (Unit-1).
Katherine, S. C., John, D. S., & Ertmer, P. A. (2010). Technology integration for meaningful classroom use:
A standard based approach. Cennamo Ross Ertmer, xvii, 4–11.
Kulkarni, S. S. (1986). Introduction to educational technology (pp. 143–144). New Delhi: Oxford & IBH
Publishing Co.
Kumar, K. L. (1997). Educational technology: A practical textbook for students, teachers, professionals and trainers.
New Delhi: New Age International.
Mahandiratta, M. (1997). Encyclopaedia dictionary of education (Vol. I, p. 252). New Delhi: Sarup & Sons.
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grating technology in teacher knowledge. Teachers College Record, 108(6), 1017–1054.
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CIET.
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(eds) Cultural Perspectives on the Mathematics Classroom. Mathematics Education Library (Vol. 14, pp. 7–35).
Dordrecht: Springer.
Rao, R. R., & Rao, D. B. (2006). Methods of teacher training (p. 416). New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House.
Sharma, R. A. (2004). Technological foundations of education (3rd ed.). Meerut: R. Lal Publications.
Skinner, B. F. (1968). The technology of teaching. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Walia, J. S. (1997). Educational technology (pp. 104–120). Jalandhar: Paul Publishers.
Wikipedia. (2012). Educational technology. Retrieved December 14, 2012, from http://edutechwiki​.unige​
.ch​/en​/Educational​_technology.

18
 3
HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF
EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

It is not an overwhelming assumption that after reading the previous two chapters of this
book one may have built some reasonable and comprehensive knowledge about “Educational
Technology (ET)”, including its application and impact in education. From the previous dis-
cussion, it is explicit that educational technology helps in the advancement of the instruction
and assessment process and provides a pathway for preparing scientific instructional procedure
and framework at all levels of instructions such as formal, non-formal, and informal aspects of
education. In addition, it also encourages the use of a wide range of media and upgraded tech-
nological innovations in various instructional environments such as in an audiovisual teaching-
learning environment, in modern Web 3.0 technology, in textbook-based learning approaches,
in online-based teaching-learning communication, etc. However, the modern development of
educational technology is certainly an innovation, it has a long history, and day by day this field
has been gradually enriching from various concepts from the multidisciplinary fields while
communicating across different innovations and frameworks. Moreover, it is also notable that the
advancement of technology (specifically media-based innovation) draws a parallel advancement
of the field of ET in the context of global innovation including innovation in India. Therefore,
to know more about the origin of ET a learner must gain comprehensive knowledge about the
historical overview of ET from the early aspect of human society. This chapter is designed to
provide an explicit knowledge of technological innovation in the context of instruction. This
chapter will provide more about the global context of the development of educational technol-
ogy from the root level of innovation to the application of ET in the context of India.

Global Historical Development of Educational Technology

To obtain comprehensive knowledge about ET, it is imperative to go back to the early stages of
innovation. This section will discuss the innovation of technology in the context of education
from the period of the Stone Age to the age of information and communication technology.
Following are the evolutionary phases of educational technology and innovations.

Stone Age Period

If we take drawing and writing as an early phase of educational technology, then the man of the
Stone Age will be recognized as a progenitor of ET because they used to draw various day-to-

DOI: 10.4324/9781003293545-4 19
 Fundamental Concepts and Theories

day activities and their thoughts on the surface of rocks on cave walls or on a flat surface. It is
notable that in this stage transfer of the knowledge of the use of stones, pebbles, counting sticks,
slabs, etc. was the most primary aspect of instruction.

The Age of Book and Chalkboard

This is a great revolutionary time of educational technology. This phase is revolutionary in the
sense that, in 1456, Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing machine. With this innovation,
the exploration of information, expansion, and access of knowledge was more open and inter-
esting because of “one-to-one” and “self-learning” which was impossible before the innovation
of printing technology. Therefore, printing technology is a more obvious and essential innova-
tion in the context of teaching and instruction.
Furthermore, another essential innovation at the end of this period is the chalkboard which
is popularly known as a blackboard.This innovation changed the way of instruction and opened
the pathway of group communication in a specific place. This innovation also provides a space
for teachers and instructors to write down important points, diagrams, or symbols and com-
municate with the group of students.

Mass Communication Age

Another milestone of the historical age of educational technology is the age of media innova-
tion for mass communication. The innovation of radio and television is an historic point of
advancement of technology in the global context. Before this innovation, communication with
a mass audience was extremely limited. Therefore, the innovation of early-stage mass media like
radio and television expanded the opportunity for mass instruction.

The Information Communication Age/Computer Age

The development of the microcomputer is more recent and one of the most effective innova-
tions in the field of educational technology. This innovation surprisingly changed the way of
instructional processes throughout the world. The innovation of computers expanded the scope
for access to more data from anywhere at a low or no cost. Therefore, this is also called the
“Information Age”. Conway (1990) discussed some of the specific development that takes place
through the advancement of computer technology in the context of education or instruction,
as follows:

• Blackboard converted to white smart board with advanced features of the touch pen
• Multimedia-based system added with sound blaster and speakers
• CD-ROM player and DVR-ROM player
• A personal computer equipped with a videodisc player and a videotape controller
• Conference-based computer on PC‒PC
• Touch screen and voice-recognizing/communication devices
• The innovation of digital cameras and editing features of digital images
• The innovation of virtual reality

The next section will discuss very specific evolutionary aspects of ET from the year 1500 BC
to AD 2018.

20
 Historical Evolution

Technological Development (1500 BC to AD 2018)

This section is intended to align an overview of technological innovation in the context of
education from 1500 BC to AD 2018. In this context, Tony Bates in his blog post listed vari-
ous technological innovations from 1500 BC. Table 3.1 presents the innovation of educational
technology from 1500 BC to AD 2013 (for an extract from the blog post of Tony Bates see his
site at www​.tonybates​.com).

Table 3.1 Technology for teaching (1500 BC‒AD 1990)

Development Year

Teacher 1500 BC
Printed book 1450
Postal service 1850
Blackboard 1850
Telephone 1890
Radio 1920
Film 1920
Broadcast television 1950
Cable television 1950
Audiocassettes 1965
Computer-based instruction 1970
Satellite television 1975
Laser videodiscs 1975
Audioconference 1975
Personal computer 1980
Audio-graphics 1980
Viewdata/teletext 1980
Computer conferencing 1980
Compact discs 1985
E-mail 1985
Videoconferencing 1990
Projector 1990
Smart board 1990
Internet 1990
World Wide Web 1990
Simulation and games 1990
Learning management system 1995
Browser/web portal 1995
Wireless network 1995
Mobile phones 1995
Learning objects/open education resources (OERs) 1995
Fiber-optic cable 2000
DVDs 2000
Search engine 2000
Virtual reality 2003
E-portfolios 2005
Clickers 2005
YouTube 2005
Lecture capture 2008
E-books 2009
Cloud computing 2010
Learning analytics 2011
MOOC (massive open online course) 2013

21
 Fundamental Concepts and Theories

Some Cornerstone Innovations in Education and Technology

The above discussion provides a general outline of the evolution of educational technology
from 1500 BC to AD 2018.The next section discusses in detail some of the technological inno-
vations since the inception of the abacus in 3000 BC.

Abacus: This is an early-stage innovative device for calculating. The abacus is marked as the first
computer, invented in 3000 BC (see Figure 3.1)
Suan pan: This is a surviving early-stage counting board which dates back to 400 BC. In China,
it is called a saun pan and in Japan it is called a soroban. A soroban is a type of abacus still
used for calculation (see Figure 3.2).

Figure 3.1 
Abacus math. (Image Credit ‒ Peter Griffin. Source: pub​licd​omai​npictures​​.net).

Figure 3.2 
Old Chinese abacus or counting frame which was used as the original calculator. It consists of
a wooden frame with wooden beads and bamboo rods (Image Credit: Catalogocollezioni (in
it). Source: Museoscienza​.or​g. Museo Nazionale della Scienza e della Tecnologia Leonardo da
Vinci, Milano).

22
 Historical Evolution

Stonehenge: Stonehenge is the earliest form of astronomical calculator. It was created around 2300
BC and took 2000 years to complete. Stonehenge is in Southern England (see Figure 3.3).
Leonardo da Vinci calculator: Around 1502, the first mechanical calculator was invented by
Leonardo da Vinci. It is now known as “Codex Madrid”. In the year 1968, IBM hired Dr
Roberto Guatelli to make a replica of the da Vinci design of a calculator.
Gutenberg printing press: Between 1452 and 1456, Johannes Gutenberg developed the printing
press. This is one of the greatest innovations of all time. The first book published by the
Gutenberg printing press was the Bible (see Figure 3.4).
Napier’s bones: John Napier is the inventor of logarithms and he developed an aid for calcula-
tion in 1617 known as “Napier’s bones”. Napier described a method of multiplication by
using his innovative “numbering rods”. The numbering rods look like bones and are made
of ivory (see Figure 3.5).
Slide rule: In 1654 Robert Bissaker invented the slide rule which is an early innovation of the
electronic calculator (see Figure 3.6).
Magin Cataoprica: The Magin Cataoprica is a kind of magic lantern which was invented in
around 1646. It is also called a magic lantern and used to play slide shows or educational
material in the classroom.The Magin Cataoprica is an early-use projection media for theat-
ers or home events.
Jacquard loom: It is amazing to know that modern computer programming was influenced by the
innovation of Joseph-Marie Jacquard namely by the “Jacquard loom”. It is a mechanism of
punched cards that control the machine as required. This punch-card mechanism is one of
the fundamental ideas of the first computer (see Figure 3.7).
Educational film: Educational film is one of the greatest innovations in the field of teaching and
instruction. The early innovation year of educational film is controversial. Some research-

Figure 3.3 
Image of Stonehenge standing in Southern England. (Source: www​.flickr​.com​/photos​/
garethwiscombe​/1071477228​/in​/photostream​/Aut​horg​aret​hwiscombe).

23
 Fundamental Concepts and Theories

Figure 3.4 
Gutenberg printing press. (Source: https://commons​.wikimedia​.org​/wiki​/File​:Gutenberg​
.press​.jpg. Author: Ghw at English Wikipedia).

Figure 3.5 
Napier’s bones. (Source: https://commons​.wikimedia​.org​/wiki​/File​:Napier​%27s​_calculating​
_tables​.JPG. Author: Kim Traynor).

24
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
insects, and come back to eat them, nor to the lovely little Humming
Birds of America, which poise themselves so deftly on the wing, while
their slender bill searches the long-tubed flowers for insects or seizes
these as they pass. These living jewels of nature build beautiful and
delicate nests of leaves and grass and spiders’ webs interwoven like
fairy cradles; while the swift makes a far stronger home of hair and
105
feathers, grass and moss, glueing them together with saliva from
his mouth, and fastening them under the eaves or on the top of some
tall waterspout. It is easy to see why the swift chooses such lofty spots,
for his slender weak toes are ill-fitted for standing on the ground, and
he rises with great difficulty when once he has alighted there, but from
a height he can drop easily on to the wing, and skim the air for his
food.
Now the swift, which visits us only in summer to build his nest,
when insects are plentiful, and spends the rest of his time in Africa, is a
type of a whole army of birds, lovely, bright, and gay, with short weak
feet, long wings, and a gaping mouth surrounded by bristly hairs,
which swarm in hot countries where insects are to be found all the year
round. Among these are the beautiful little Bee-eaters and Rollers of
the East and Africa, which revel in insect food, and sometimes visit us
in the summer, coming over to the south of Spain, or even, in the case
of the rollers, as far north as Sweden; while in South America the dull-
coloured Puff-birds, the brilliant Jacamars with their metallic-looking
feathers, the delicate little Todies, the bright green Motmots, and the
lovely Humming-birds, swarm in countless numbers, hiding among the
dense foliage, or darting in the bright sunshine after bee or butterfly, or
other unwary insects.

* * * * *
But we must not pause too long among these smaller groups of
birds, for the multitude of perching birds, which form nine-tenths of the
whole bird kingdom, await us with their delicate nests and their happy
family life. Ah! now we are really coming to nature’s feathered
favourites, for what can be sweeter than the song of the nightingale,
the skylark, or the thrush? or more touching than the fact that the
young ones learn from their father the loving notes; that they, in their
turn, may be able to woo and win some gentle mate to share their
nests and bring up their young ones? It is for this that they have gained
that wonderful singing instrument which they have deep down in their
throat. For they do not produce their sounds as we do, just below the
back of the mouth, but at the lower end of the windpipe, just where it
divides into two branches, one going to each lung. There, where the
rush of the air is strongest, is found a complicated apparatus, moved
by a whole set of muscles, upon which the little fellow plays, and
seems never to be exhausted, so much air has he in all parts of his
body. And as the song pours through the windpipe there again he can
help to give it its soft mellow tones, for while in hoarse-crying birds, like
the sea birds and the waders, this tube is long and stiff, in the sweet
singing birds it is short, and the bony rings composing it are thin and
far apart, with soft delicate membrane between them, which can be
shortened or lengthened to modulate the tones. And so we hear them
in the springtime pouring forth their full tide of song to tempt a young
wife to come and help them to build a nest; or, in the full pleasure of
success, trilling out their delight in the warm bright sunshine, and
calling on all the world to be as happy as they.
Yet it is not by any means all the perching birds which have this
wonderful gift of song. Even among our own birds, the jay, the crow,
the raven, and others, use their musical instrument for talking in a way
that is no doubt useful to them, but scarcely pleasant to hear; and in
America there is a whole group of songless perching birds—the bright
coloured chatterers, the fly-catching tyrant-birds, the American ant-
thrushes, which have not even developed a true singing instrument in
their throat, and only utter shrill or bell-like cries. Yet they all build nests
and cherish their helpless young ones; and so large and varied is the
group of perching birds, whether in the Old or New World, that they fill
all the stray nooks and corners of bird-life, often imitating the habits of
the other smaller groups so as to get at food of all kinds. Thus, while
the Finches with their delicate matted nests, the Warblers, and a large
number of the smaller birds, lead a true tree and bush life, feeding on
fruits and insects, the Thrushes, Blackbirds, Crows, Redbreasts, and
Larks are ground-feeders, which, though they do not scratch with their
feet like the partridges, turn up the ground with their bills and pick out
the worms and grubs.
 For this reason the Song-thrushes love to build their nest of twigs
and moss lined with soft wood chips, in some thick hedge near to a
meadow or garden, where they can drop down and pull up the
unfortunate worms before they have gone home underground after
their nightly rambles, or pounce upon unwary snails, and, taking them
in their beak, crack the shell upon a stone, and carry off the dainty
morsel to their brood; while the Lark, with her long hind toe, so well
fitted for walking, hides her nest in a furrow on the ground; and the
greedy cunning Magpie, feeding, as she often does, on young animals,
seems to fear the same fate for her own brood, and builds a large egg-
shaped dome of thorny branches, with the thorns sticking out on all
sides, and lined with mud and soft roots, leaving only a small hole for a
door. Lastly, the sagacious Rooks, though ground-feeders, build strong
homes which last from year to year, in the top of the high elms, and set
out in companies in the early morning to their feeding grounds.
 Fig. 45.

Nest of the Common Wren.106

Then, as there are ground-feeders among the perchers, so, too,

there are climbers, for the Creepers, the Wryneck, and the Nuthatch,
run up and down the trees, feeding on insects and nuts, which the
nuthatch breaks so cleverly with his beak; and we might almost fancy
them to be first cousins to the woodpeckers, if it were not for their three
toes in front and long claw behind, and their short thick beak and tail.
Even the little Wren, with her cocked-up tail, imitates the climbers as
she creeps through the hedges and underwood, though she is a true
perching bird, and builds one of the most perfect of nests of moss and
grass, woven into the shape of a ball, with a tiny hole for a door. Then,
to match the darting birds, we have the Swallow and the Fly Catcher
which follow insects on the wing, so that the swallow and swift were
long confounded together, though the skeleton of the swallow shows
that it belongs to perching birds. Again, the Shrike imitates the birds of
prey, feeding on small mice, reptiles, and birds, and impaling them
upon a sharp thorn while he tears them to pieces with his beak. Yet he
is a true percher, singing as beautifully as many of the smaller birds,
and he is even said to use his power of song to lure victims within
reach. Lastly, and perhaps most curious of all, the little Dipper or
Water-Ouzel, with his clear loud song, and his structure so like to the
thrushes, has actually taken to the habits of water-birds, and dives into
the depths of the river, running along upon the bottom and feeding on
water-snails and water-insects.
All these we find among English birds; and if we had space to
speak of other countries, we should find the same history there, for the
more we study bird-life the more we find that these Perchers are its
highest types, and have learned to make the most of their kingdom. It
is they who build the most perfect nests, from the rough strong basket-
work of the crow or the magpie, to the wren’s thickly-woven ball, or the
finches’ matted cups; while in America the Hang-nests weave their
lovely pear-shaped homes, and suspend them like fruit from the tips of
the branches; and in India and China the Tailor-birds actually sew
leaves together with cotton fibre or cobweb threads, which they draw
through with their slender bill and strengthen with saliva.
The smaller the bird and the more delicate its feet and bill, the
more closely woven, as a rule, is its nest. Yet all are built with care; the
mother bird, as a rule, choosing the position and laying the twigs, while
the father helps her to collect the materials. So rapidly do these little
creatures work, that among our smaller English birds the early morning
sees the work begun, and by evening it is ended. Other birds are
longer, according to the amount of material they have to collect; but all
labour industriously till the cradle is finished, and then begins the
laying, the sitting, the tender care of the
mother for her little ones, and of the father Fig. 46.
for his wife and brood.

* * * * *
And indeed there is much need both of
skill in nest building and of watchfulness for
many a long day after, for if the perchers
are the highest, they are not by any means
the strongest of birds; and while they feed
on insects and smaller creatures, they have
to guard their little ones with anxious care
against the larger birds of prey which rule
as masters in the higher regions of the air.
It is on rocky pinnacles and in the clefts of
inaccessible heights among the mountains
that we must look for the nests of the
Eagle, the Vulture, and the Falcon. Strong,
powerful, and untiring in flight, they sail
majestically high up in the air, not to sing a
joyful song like the lark, but with piercing
eye to search every corner for miles
around, for animals of all sizes, from the
dead ox or mule to the tiny living mouse or
bird, which can serve for a meal.

Nest of the Tailor-Bird107

of India or China.
 Fig. 47.

The Eagle bringing food to its young.—(From a

coloured lithograph by Keulemann.)

It needs only a glance at them to see that they are strong

destroyers, with their powerful wings, their sharp hooked beaks, their
long toes with pointed claws, and their strong muscular thighs; and
because most men admire strength and power, we call such birds
noble, though their nobility chiefly consists in loving their little ones,
and asking neither pity nor shelter from others, as they themselves are
pitiless in return. Those which we are apt to like the least, the carrion-
feeding Vultures of hot countries, are really the most useful and
harmless, for they feed chiefly on dead animals and clear the land of
carrion; and for this reason neither their beak nor their claws are as
strong as those of the fighting birds. But though they are grand in flight
they are but repulsive-looking birds when compared with the lordly
eagles. The beautiful Golden Eagle of Europe, with its dark plumage
and the golden sheen on its back and tail, is indeed a splendid object,
as

“He clasps the crag with hooked hands,

Close to the sun in lonely lands,”

or still more, as he sweeps along with steady flight, circling round and
glancing with searching eye over the plain beneath. Suddenly his
attitude changes; he closes his wings, and, head downwards, drops to
earth slantingwise with a rushing noise, seizing in his claws the startled
fawn as it dashes by at full speed, the frolicking rabbit darting into its
hole, or the terrified bird upon whom his choice has fallen. Then, with a
powerful stroke he rises up again, and is lost to sight as he soars aloft
and regains the rocky peak where his eyrie is built and his children are
clamouring for food.
So, too, the dexterous Falcon swoops upon his prey swift as an
arrow, his pointed wings striking the air, and then closing at once upon
his body, while his long rounded tail guides him in his flight. Who would
think that such a powerful and bold robber could have anything in
common with the soft feathered owl which sits blinking its large eyes in
the hollow of the tree till the twilight falls? And yet the Owl, with very
little change in structure, has become as fitted to follow prey at night as
the falcon is by day—

“What time the preying owl, with sleepy wing,

Sweeps o’er the cornfield, studious.”
 The soft, round, broad wings, which would serve badly for striking
a quarry from on high, are exactly fitted for gliding in the silence of the
night, as, guided by wide open eye and ear, he skims over the fields or
round the stacks in the yard to pounce noiselessly upon the unwary
mouse or to seize the flying beetles and bats. Then the sharp claws
appear quickly from under the downy feathered feet, and clutch the
smallest prey with needle-like precision; and away the owl flies to his
nest, so quietly that even the other animals close by are not alarmed,
but in ignorant security remain till he comes to strike again.
And as the day and the night by land have their relentless
freebooters, so the sea too has its eagle king; for the Osprey, with its
nest on a high rock, hovers over the open sea, and, dashing into the
deep, returns with a large fish in its claws; and, as it tears the flesh
from under the glittering scales, reminds us that there is no spot on the
earth in which some bird does not seek its prey.
We have now in very brief outline followed the feathery tribe from
the flightless penguin to the boldly-soaring eagle, the king of the air.
Those feathers which in the swimming bird are scarcely more than
finely-divided scales, and in the ostrich mere loose nodding plumes,
have become in the albatross, the vulture, and the soaring falcon,
flying instruments of such power and strength that the earth and the
water are as nothing to them compared with the free ocean of air;
while even the tiny graceful swallow flies for hundreds of miles to its
winter home.
Indeed, we have here one of the great secrets of bird success; for
while most animals must roam within limited districts, and get their
food there as best they can, thousands and tens of thousands of birds
set off, when the colder weather makes food scarce in any one region,
and travel hundreds of miles to more genial climates, where insects
are still to be found, and the trees are still covered with fruit and
leaves. How strange it is to think that while we are making the best of
our winter, the swallow has taken her unerring flight to Africa, the
swans and cranes have long since made their southward journey, and
myriads of small birds have gone in search of food and warmth, to
return next spring as certainly to their old haunts, where they can
breed in cool and comfortable quarters!
 If we could only get the birds to tell us how they have learned the
routes they take, and by what rules they are guided! One thing we
know, that each kind of bird makes its nest in the coldest region which
it visits, and where, at the time its young brood are ready, insect and
other life is abundant; so that while the wild duck and goose, the
woodcock, snipe, and field-fare, go to the far north to lay their eggs,
and come to us in the sharper weather to feed when there is nothing
but ice and snow in the home they have left, the swallow, the cuckoo,
the swift, and the wheatear, on the other hand, visit us in the spring to
build, and when autumn comes on take their flight to Africa and the
East; and even many of the song-thrushes and robin-redbreasts which
remain with us in England start off from Germany to warmer climates.
Others, again, such as some of the Reed-warblers, the Stint, and the
Ortolan Bunting, only make our island a house of call between the
arctic regions where they breed in the summer when mosquitoes are
swarming there, and the south where they winter after flying thousands
of miles.
It would take too long to discuss here why and how they go, even if
we knew it with certainty; but it is most probable that their ancestors
first learned the routes now taken when Europe and Africa had not so
wide a sea between them, and we can see that it must be a great
advantage to be able to travel from climate to climate, so as to find a
plentiful table spread at all times of the year; while they may return to
the north to breed, not merely because there is food there, but also
because in still earlier times, when the northern countries were much
warmer than they are now, they doubtless lived there altogether, and,
though now obliged to go south, have never lost the tradition of their
old home.
Thus the birds, with their feathery covering and powerful wings,
have left their early friends, the reptiles, far far behind. Taught by their
many dangers, many experiences, and many joys, they have become
warmhearted, quickwitted, timid or bold, ferocious or cunning,
deliberate as the rook, or passionate as the falcon, according to the life
they have to lead; or, in the sweet tender emotions of the little song-
birds, have learned to fill the world with love and brightness and song.
If mere enjoyment were all that could be desired in life, where could we
expect to find it better than in the light-hearted skylark as she rises in
the early summer morning to trill forth her song of joy, or in the happy
chuckle of the hen as her little ones gather around her.
Yet we cannot but feel that, happy as a bird’s life may be, it still
leaves something to be desired; and that, with their small brain and
their front limbs entirely employed in flying, they cannot make the
highest use of the world. The air they have conquered; and among the
woods and forests, over the wide sea, and above the lofty mountains,
they lead a busy and happy existence, bringing flying creatures to their
highest development, and showing how Life has left no space unfilled
with her children. Yet, after all, it is upon the ground, where difficulties
are many, conditions varied, and where there is so much to call for
contrivance, adaptation, and intelligence, that we must look for the
highest types of life; and while we leave the joyous birds with regret,
we must go back to the lower forms among the four-footed animals, in
order to travel along the line of those that have conquered the earth
and prepared the way for man himself.
HOME OF THE EARLIEST KNOWN MILK GIVERS
 CHAPTER VIII.
THE MAMMALIA OR MILK-GIVERS.

The Simplest Suckling Mother, the Active Pouch-

bearers, and the Imperfect-Toothed Animals.

Our backboned animals have now travelled far along the journey of
life. The fish, in many and varied forms, have taken possession of the
seas, lakes, and rivers; the amphibia, once large and powerful, now in
small and scattered groups, fill the swamps and the debateable ground
between earth and water; the reptiles, no longer masters of the world,
but creepers and skirmishers still holding their own in many places
either by agility, strength, or the use of dangerous weapons, swarm in
the tropics, and even in colder countries glide rapidly along in the
warm sunshine, or hide in nooks and crannies, and sleep the winter
away. And the birds,—the merry, active, warmhearted birds,—live
everywhere, making the forests echo with their song, rising into the
heights of the clear atmosphere, till the world lies as a dim panorama
below them, crowd the water’s edge with busy fluttering life, and even
wander for days and weeks over the pathless ocean, where nothing is
to be seen but sky and water.
Yet still the great backboned division is not exhausted; on the
contrary, the most powerful if not the most numerous group is still to
come; that group which contains the kangaroos and opossums, the
dreamy sloths, the night-loving moles and hedgehogs, the gentle
lemurs and the chattering monkeys, the whales, seals, and walruses
for the water; the herds of wild cattle and antelopes, of noble elephants
and fleet horses, for the forests, mountains, and plains; and the
ferocious beasts of prey, which make these gentler animals their food;
while last, but not least, comes man himself, the master and conqueror
of all.
 Where, then, shall we look for the beginning of this vast multitude
of warm-blooded, hairy, and four-limbed animals? If we turn back to
the past, we get but little help; for though in that early time, when huge
reptiles overran the world and swam in the waters, we find small
animals (see Fig. 48), probably of the marsupial or pouched family,
living in the forests, yet even if these were the earliest of their race,
which is not at all likely, they would tell us very little about the
beginning of the milk-givers, since only their lower jaws remain, and
we can only guess at their relationship by these having that peculiar
inward bend which we still find in all pouched animals.

Fig. 48.

A, Jaw of Dromatherium; B, Tooth of

Microlestes; both milk-givers, probably marsupials,
found in beds of the same age as those containing
the ancient swimming lizards.

No! for the few scattered facts about the lowest mammalia or milk-
giving animals we must inquire of our own day, to learn something as
to the causes of their success in life. And first let us notice two
important changes which give them an advantage over other
backboned creatures. We have seen that, as we have gradually risen
in the scale of Life, parents have taken more and more care of their
eggs and their young ones. Among the boneless animals which we
studied in Life and her Children, it was not (with very few exceptions)
till we reached the clever, industrious, intelligent insects, that we found
them taking any thought for the weak and helpless infants. There we
did find it, for insects in their own peculiar line stand very high among
animals; when, however, we turned back again to begin with the first
feeble representatives of the backboned family, we found the fish
casting their eggs to the bottom of the sea, or on the pebbly gravel of a
flowing stream, and, as a rule, taking no more thought of them. The
tiny stickleback with his nest, and the lumpsucker watching over his
young ones, were quite exceptions among the finny tribe. So it was
again with the frogs, so with the reptiles (the turtles, lizards, and
snakes), whose eggs, even when carefully buried by the mother, are
often devoured by thousands before the little ones have a chance of
creeping out of the shell. But when we come to the birds, there, as with
the insects, we find parental care beginning—the nest, the home, the
feeding, the education in flying, in singing, in seeking food, the warm-
hearted love which will risk death sooner than forsake the little ones.
Yet still these same little ones have many perils to run even before
they break through the shell. In spite of their parents’ care, more eggs
probably are eaten by snakes or weasels, field-rats, and other
creatures, than remain to be hatched; while, even if they escape being
devoured, the eggs must not be allowed to grow cold; and should the
parents be too long away or be scared off the nest by some enemy, or
should a damp cold season spoil the warm dry home, the young bird is
killed in the egg before it has ever seen the light.
It is not difficult to see, therefore, that if the mother could carry the
egg about with her till the little bird was born, as we found our little
common lizard doing (see p. 105), it would be much safer than when
left in the nest exposed to so many dangers.
Now something of this kind takes place with all that great group of
animals we are going to study. The cat and the cow, as we all know, do
not lay eggs as birds do; but the mother carries the young within her
body while they are going through all the changes which the chicken
goes through in the egg. Thus they go wherever she goes, the food
which she takes feeds them, and they lie hidden, safe from danger, till
they are born, perfectly formed, into the world. Nor is this all; for when
at last her little ones see the light, the mother has nourishment ready
for them; part of the food which she herself eats is turned into milk, and
secreted by special glands, so that the newly-born calf or kitten is
suckled at its mother’s breast till it has strength to feed itself.
These two advantages, then,—namely, that the young have no
dangerous egg-stage, but are sheltered by their mother till they are
perfect, and that their mother has milk to give them for food,—at once
divide the Mammalia or milk-giving group of animals from the rest of
the backboned family.
But how will this help us to learn where that great group begins? Is
it possible that such creatures as these can have anything in common
with reptiles and birds? To answer these questions we must travel to a
part of the world which has long been separated from the great
continents of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, and where the low
and feeble milk-giving animals had a chance of still keeping a place in
the world.
Take a map and look at Australia, New Guinea, and Tasmania, and
you will see that they are separated by a number of scattered islands
from the great continents, which are not only large in themselves, but
are all nearly joined together, with only narrow straits dividing them.
Moreover, Australasia stands even more alone than appears at first
sight; for Mr. Wallace has pointed out that a very deep sea separates
New Guinea and Australia on the one hand from Borneo and China on
the other; so that the land might rise several thousand feet, and yet the
Australasian islands would not be joined to the great continents.
Now, if the milk-givers once had feeble beginnings, and gradually
branched out, as the ages went on, into all the many forms now living,
it is clear that on the great battlefield of Europe, Asia, Africa, and
America, the first poor weak forms would gradually be destroyed by
the stronger ones that overran these great continents. They would be
crushed out, as so many of the reptiles and newts and fishes had been
before them; and only their bones, if any remained, would tell us that
they had once lived. But if some of them could find a refuge in a
domain of their own, where after a time they had a good open sea
between them and their stronger neighbours, they might have a
chance of living on and keeping up the old traditions.
And this is just what we have reason to believe has been their
history; for it is exactly in Australasia that we find that curious group of
108
pouched animals, the kangaroos and other Marsupials, as they are
called, which are different from all the other milk-giving animals in the
world, except the opossums of America, whom we shall speak of by-
and-by.
 And together with these marsupials we also find the simplest milk-
giving animals now living. Come with me in imagination to a quiet
creek in one of the rivers of East Australia. It is a bright summer day,
and the lovely acacias are hanging out their golden blossoms in
striking contrast to the tall graceful gum-trees and dark swamp oaks in
the plain beyond. Come quietly, and do not brush the reeds growing
thickly on the bank; for the least noise will startle the creature we are in
search of, and he will dive far out of sight. There he is, gently paddling
along among the water plants. His dark furry body, about a foot and a
half long, with a short broad tail at the end, makes him look at first like
a small beaver. But why, then, has he a flat duck’s bill on the tip of his
nose, with a soft fold or flap of flesh round it, with which he seems to
feel as he goes? Again, he has four paws, with which he is paddling
along; but though these paws have true claws to them, they have also
a thick web under the toes, stretching, in the front feet (C Fig. 50), far
beyond the claws, yet loose from them, so that while it serves for
swimming it can be pushed back when the animal is digging in the
ground. His hind feet have a much shorter web, and a sharp spur
behind, like that of a game cock.
And now, as this animal turns his head from side to side you can
see his sharp little eyes, but not his ears, for they are small holes
which he can close quite tightly as he works along in the water,
pushing his bill into the mud of the bank, just as a duck does, and
drawing it back with the same peculiar jerky snap; for he too has ridges
in his beak like the duck family, through which he sifts his food; while,
at the same time, he has in his mouth eight horny mouth-plates,
peculiar to himself.
What, then, is this four-footed animal with a beaver’s fur and tail,
and teeth in his mouth, and yet with a duck’s bill and webbed feet? He
is the lowest and simplest milk-giving animal we know of in the world—
the duck-billed Platypus or Ornithorhynchus, called by the settlers the
Water-mole.
 Fig. 49.

The Duck-billed Platypus109 swimming and rolled up, with its

underground nest laid open behind; on the right hand bank is
an Echidna.110

If we could search along the bank we should find, somewhere

below the water’s edge, a hole, and again, a few feet back on the land,
another among the grass and reeds; and both of these lead into a long
passage, which ends in a snug underground nest—a dark hole lined
with dry grass and weeds—where in the summer time (about
December) we should find the mother platypus, with two or four tiny
naked young ones, not two inches long, cuddled under her. How these
little ones begin life we do not know. The natives talk about finding soft
eggs like those of reptiles; but it seems more likely that these eggs
break just as they are laid, like those of our common lizard (see p.
105), and the naked little ones come out alive into the nest.
 And how are they fed? Their
mother has no teat, like the cow, Fig. 50.
to put into their mouth, for she is a
very primitive creature; only in one
spot amid her fur are a number of
little holes, and from these she
can force out milk for them to drink
as they press against her with
their soft flat bills. So here, in a
dark underground nest, away from
the world, because she cannot,
like the higher animals, carry her
little ones till they are perfect, the
duck-billed platypus, which may
well be called “paradoxical” (see
Fig. 49), enables us to picture to
ourselves how, in ages long gone
by, mothers first began to feed
their little ones with their own milk. A, Head of Ornithorhynchus,
And now, perhaps, you will be showing serrated bill; B, Hind foot
with claw a, found on the males only;
struck by this animal’s likeness to C, Webbed fore foot.
a bird, especially when you hear
that the little baby water-moles
have a soft horny knob on their
nose, just where young birds have a hard knob for breaking through
the shell; and you will ask if milk-giving animals came from birds. Not
at all; young tortoises, too, have such a knob, and so have crocodiles;
and, moreover, these duck-billed moles have many parts of their
skeleton, especially the shoulder bone and the separate bones of the
skull, very like our living reptiles, and still more like some which lived in
111
ages long gone by. And yet at the same time they differ essentially
both from reptiles and birds in many points besides those we have
been able to mention, and in one in particular, which we can
understand now we have studied these groups, namely, that the
platypus, like all milk-giving animals, is without that curious quadrate
bone (q, Figs. 23 and 33) which we find in all reptiles and birds.
 Now, notice the frog, which is an amphibian and therefore lower
than the reptiles, has not got this quadrate bone, though his
companions the newts have; and he seems to tell us that among those
old amphibians which roamed in the coal-forests of ages past, there
must have been some which,—while they had that great mass of
cartilage which imperfect, unborn, milk-giving animals have even now,
out of part of which this bone is formed,—yet never went so far as to
have the bone itself. If this is so, then here at last, in the distant past—
so remote that we cannot even guess how long ago it may have been
—we have a point from which the earliest ancestors of the milk-giving
animals may have gone off in one direction, and those of reptiles and
birds in another. And this would explain how it is that they have so
many points in common, while yet the mammalia are without that
special bone and other characters which are found both in reptiles and
112
birds.
Be this as it may, here is our lowest mammalian form, and he has
a relation, the Echidna, very like him in many respects, but who has
made a decided step forward; for on the sandy shores and in the rocky
gorges of Australia, creatures about a foot long, covered with prickly
spines like hedgehogs, and called by the settlers “Porcupine Ant-
eaters” (see Fig. 49), shuffle along in the twilight, thrusting out their
long thin tongues from the small mouth at the end of their beak-like
snout, and feeding on ants and ants’ eggs. These do not belong,
however, to the real ant-eater family, but are near relations to the
platypus; and they are well protected by their spines in the battle of life,
for when attacked they either roll themselves up into a ball like a
hedgehog, or burrow down into the sand so fast that they seem to sink
into it, leaving only the points of their prickles sticking out to pierce the
feet of their enemy. Now these creatures have a little fold of skin under
their body, which forms two little pouches over the milk-giving holes,
and the little echidna when very tiny is put into this pouch, and keeps
its head there while its body grows larger and sticks out beyond. In this
way the Echidna can carry her child about with her, and she only turns
it out to shift for itself when its prickles are hard and sharp.

* * * * *