ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

Joseph Kamaloni
MPH, BSc. PT, Cert. Med Ed

Email: josephkamaloni@yahoo.com
INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY
& PHYSIOLOGY

What is anatomy?
What is physiology?
Why learn anatomy & physiology? – course
objectives
What is the relevance of anatomy and
physiology to health practice?
 What is Anatomy?
• Study of the STRUCTURE of the Human Body
• Closely related to PHYSIOLOGY!
• Physiology is the study of the FUNCTION of
the human body
• Anatomy – the study of the structure and
shape of the body and body parts & their
relationships to one another. The term
anatomy comes from the Greek words
meaning to cut (tomy) apart ( ana) .
– Gross anatomy( m1acroscopic anatomy) –
the study of large, easily observable
structures (by naked eye), such as the heart
or bone.
– Microscopic anatomy (cytology, histology) –
the study of very small structures, where a
magnifying lens or microscope is needed.
• Physiology – the study of how the body
and its parts work or function
physio =nature , ology = the study of.
• Like anatomy , physiology has many
subdivisions. For example,
neurophysiology explains the working of
the nervous system , and cardiac
physiology studies the function of the
heart.
 Relationship between Anatomy
and Physiology

Anatomy and Physiology are always related .

Structure determines what functions can take
place. For example, the lungs are not muscular
chambers like the heart and can not pump
blood, but because the walls of lungs are very
thin, they can exchange gasses and provide
oxygen to the body.
 Anatomical Organization
• Molecules (chemical level)
• Cells
• Tissues
• Organs
• Organ Systems
• Organism
 Divisions of Anatomy
• Gross Anatomy • Microscopic Anatomy
• Structures that can be • Structures that cannot
seen with the eye be seen with the eye
• Muscles, bones, various • Need to use a
organs microscope
• Cytology = study of cells
• Histology = study of
tissues
 INTRODUCTION
- Physiology is the science that deals with the
functions of the living organism and its parts
- The term is a combination of 2 words;
physis=nature and logos=study
- As a science, physiology can be subdivided
according to;
1. Type of organism involved, such as human
physiology or plant physiology
2. Organizational level studied, such as molecular
or cellular physiology
3. A specific systematic function being studied such
as neurophysiology, respiratory physiology, or
cardiovascular physiology
 INTRODUCTION
Characteristics of life
- As opposed to non living organisms, living
organisms have the following characteristics
1. Responsiveness
2. Growth
3. Respiration
4. Digestion
5. Absorption
6. Secretion
7. Excretion
8. Reproduction, etc
 Organ Systems
• 1. Integument
• 2. Skeletal
• 3. Muscular
• 4. Nervous
• 5. Endocrine
• 6. Cardiovascular
• 7. Lymphatic
• 8. Respiratory
• 9. Digestive
• 10. Urinary
• 11. Reproductive
The Language of Anatomy
 Anatomical Position
– Standing erect
– Feet parallel
– Arms hanging at the sides
– Palms facing forward
Anatomical position – body is erect with the
feet parallel and the arms hanging at the
sides with the palms facing forward. (It’s
important to note throughout this course,
most terminology refers to this position
regardless of the position the body
happens to be in at the time)
Directional terms
• Superior (cranial or cephalad) – toward the head
end or upper part of a structure or body; above
• Inferior (caudal) – away from the head end or
toward the lower part of a structure or body; below
• Anterior (ventral) – toward or at the front of the
body; in front of
• Posterior (dorsal) – toward or at the backside of the
body; behind
• Medial – toward or at the midline of the body; on
the inner side of
• Lateral – away from the midline of the body; on the
outer side of
• Proximal – close to the origin of the body
part or the point of attachment of a limb
to the body trunk.
• Distal – farther from the origin of a body
or the point of attachment of a limb to
the body trunk.
• Superficial (external) – toward or at the
body surface.
• Deep (internal) – away from the body
surface; more internal.
Examples:

1. The heart is posterior to the breastbone

2. The arms are _____________to the chest
3. The elbow is proximal to the wrist
4. The skin is _______________to the skeleton
5. The forehead is ____________ to the nose
6. The breastbone is anterior to the spine
7. The heart is medial to the arm
8. The armpit is intermediate between the breastbone and the
shoulder
9. The knee is ____________to the thigh
10. The lungs are _______________ to the rib cage
Body planes and sections
A section is a cut made along a plane
• Sagittal – cut made along the lengthwise or
longitudinal plane of the body dividing it into left and
right parts
• Midsagittal (median) plane – right and left parts are
of equal size
• Frontal (coronal) plane – cut made along a
lengthwise plane that divides the body into anterior
and posterior parts
• Transverse plane (cross section) – cut made along a
horizontal plane dividing the body or organ into
superior and inferior parts
Planes and Sections
 Planes
• Sagittal Plane – divides
body into right and left
parts.
• Midsagittal =median
plane –divides body
into two equal halves.
 Planes
• Frontal = coronal plane
– divides body into
anterior and posterior
parts
 Planes
• Transverse plane = cross
Section= horizontal
section divides into
upper and lower parts
Regional terms
There are many visible landmarks on
the surface of the body:
- Anterior body landmarks
- Posterior body landmarks
Body Cavities
There are two sets of internal body cavities
called the dorsal and ventral body cavities.
These cavities are closed to the outside.
1-Dorsal Body Cavity
Which protects the fragile nervous system
organs has two subdivisions. The cranial cavity,
in the skull, encases the brain. The vertebral, or
spinal, cavity, which runs within the bony
vertebral column, encloses the delicate spinal
cord. The cranial and spinal cavities are
continuous with one another
2- Ventral Body Cavity
The more anterior and larger of the closed body
cavities is the ventral body cavity .It has two major
subdivisions, the thoracic and the abdominopelvic
cavities. It houses internal organs collectively called
the viscera .
They are separated by the diaphragm, a dome-
shaped muscle important in breathing.
The abdominopelvic cavity, as its name suggests, has
two parts not physically separated by a muscular or
membrane wall.
The inferior part, the pelvic cavity, lies in the bony
pelvis .
THE CELL
 CELLULAR PHYSIOLOGY

- A cell is the basic biological and structural unit of

the body consisting of a nucleus surrounded by
cytoplasm and enclosed by a membrane
- Almost all human cells are microscopic in size
- The exact size and shape of specific cells is such
that it suits the function of that cell
- Despite the differences in size and shape, a
typical or composite cell describes the structures
that are found in almost all cells
Composite cell...
Cell structure and function
- Each cell is surrounded by a plasma membrane
that separates the cell from its surrounding
- The inside of the cell is composed largely of
cytoplasm which is made up of various
organelles and molecules suspended in a watery
fluid called cytosol or sometimes intracellular
fluid
- The nucleus is at the centre of the cell – usually
considered to be part of the cytoplasm
Composite cell...
Cell structure and function
- The main cell structures are:

1. The plasma membrane

2. Cytoplasm (including all cell organelles)
3. The nucleus
 CELLULAR PHYSIOLOGY

Cell membranes
- A typical cell contains a variety of membranes
- The outer boundary of the cell, plasma
membrane, is just one of these membranes
- All organelles are surrounded by membranes
- Membranes are made in such a way that they
are selectively permeable
 CELLULAR PHYSIOLOGY

Membrane function

- Serves as the boundary of the cell

- Maintains its integrity
- Proteins embedded in the plasma membrane
perform various functions such as markers,
receptors, transport mechanisms
 CELLULAR PHYSIOLOGY

Cytoplasm and organelles

- Cytoplasm is the gel-like internal substance of

the cell that contains many suspended
structures called organelles
 CELLULAR PHYSIOLOGY

Cell organelles and their functions

1. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
- Two types, rough and smooth ER
- Ribosome are attached to rough ER
- Function as circulatory system for the cell,
proteins move through the canals of ER
- Ribosome attached to ER synthesise proteins
which enter the canals of ER and move to the
golgi apparatus, some leave the cell
- Smooth ER synthesize certain lipids and
carbohydrates, transport Calcium ions
 CELLULAR PHYSIOLOGY

2. Ribosomes

- Protein synthesis
- Ribosomes attached to ER synthesise proteins
mainly for export to other areas
- Ribosomes free in the cytoplasm synthesise
proteins for use within that cell
 CELLULAR PHYSIOLOGY

3. Golgi Apparatus
- Synthesis of carbohydrates
- Processing and packaging of proteins for export
from the cell

4. Lysosomes
- These contain digestive enzymes which break
down defective cell parts and ingested particles
 CELLULAR PHYSIOLOGY

5. Proteasomes
- Found throughout the cytoplasm
- Responsible for breaking down abnormal and
misfolded proteins from ER, as well as
destroying normal regulatory proteins in the
cytoplasm that are no longer needed
- Unlike lysosomes which destroy large groups
of proteins all at once, proteasomes destroy
protein molecules one at a time
 CELLULAR PHYSIOLOGY

6. Peroxisomes
- Also contain enzymes
- Detoxify harmful substances that may enter the
cell
- Often seen in kidney and liver cell
- Contain the enzymes peroxidase and catalase
which are important in metabolic reactions
involving hydrogen peroxide ( a chemical toxic to
cells)
 CELLULAR PHYSIOLOGY

7. Mitochondria
- ATP synthesis
- Called the cell’s power house because of this function
- Found in abundance in cells that need more energy to
do their work, such as muscle cells,
- They increase in number in some cells when energy
consumption increases e.g. Frequent aerobic exercise
can increase the number of mitochondria in skeletal
muscle cells
 CELLULAR PHYSIOLOGY

8. Nucleus
- One of the largest cell structures
- The functions of the nucleus are primarily
functions of DNA
- DNA molecules dictate both the structure and
function of cells
 CELLULAR PHYSIOLOGY

9. Cytoskeleton

- Is the cell’s internal supporting framework

- Made up of rigid, rod-like pieces that provide
support and allow movement
 Plasma Membrane
Structure and Function
 Outline
• Phospholipid Bilayer
• Membrane Proteins
• Diffusion
• Facilitated Diffusion
• Osmosis
• Bulk Transport
• Active Transport
 Membrane Functions
• Protection
• Communication
• Selectively allow substances in/out
• Respond to environment
• Recognition
 Plasma Membrane
• Boundary that separates the living cell from it’s
non-living surroundings.
• Phospholipid bilayer
• Amphipathic - having both:
hydrophilic heads
hydrophobic tails
• ~8 nm thick Phospholipid

• Is a dynamic structure
Fluid-Mosaic Model
 Proteins—Functions
• Transport
• Receptors
• Enzymes
• Signal Transducers
• Support
Plasma Membrane Proteins

PROTEINS CAN
MOVE IN THE
MEMBRANE,
TOO!
Channel protein
Carrier protein
Cell recognition protein
Receptor protein
Permeability of the Cell Membrane-
Differentially Permeable
Permeability of the Cell Membrane
Movement of Substances Across
Cell Membranes
 Definitions

• Solution – mixture of dissolved molecules in a liquid

• Solute – the substance that is dissolved

• Solvent – the liquid in which a solute will dissolve

 CELLULAR PHYSIOLOGY

- If a cell is to survive, it must be able to move

substances to places where they are needed
- Both within the cell and outside the cell across
the plasma membrane

1. Passive transport processes – no energy is

required, substances move down their
concentration gradient
2. Active transport processes – energy is required,
substances move against their concentration
gradient
Passive vs. Active Transport
 CELLULAR PHYSIOLOGY

1. Passive Transport Processes

a) Simple diffusion - movement of particles through a phospholipid
bilayer or through channels from an area of high concentration to
an area of low concentration – i.e. Down the concentration
gradient
b) Osmosis - diffusion of water molecules through a selectively
permeable membrane – there is al least one impermeable solute
c) Channel-mediated passive transport ( facilitated diffusion) –
diffusion of a particle through a membrane by means of channel
structures in the membrane (particles move down their
concentration gradient)
d) Carrier-mediated passive transport – diffusion of particles through
a membrane by means of carrier structures in the membrane
(particles move down their concentration gradient)
 DIFFUSION
• Diffusion
– the passive movement of molecules from a
higher to a lower concentration until
equilibrium is reached.
– How can we explain diffusion?
– Gases move through plasma membranes by
diffusion.
• Osmosis– A special case of diffusion
Process of diffusion
Gas exchange in lungs by diffusion
 Question:
What’s in a Solution?
Answer:

• solute + solvent → solution

• NaCl + H20 → saltwater

 Osmotic Solutions – Tonicity
(tonos = tension)
• Isotonic – equal solute on each side of the membrane
• Hypotonic – less solute outside cell, water rushes into cell and
cell bursts
• Hypertonic – more solute outside cell, water rushes out of cell
and cell shrivels
 Hypertonic
• A solution with a greater solute concentration
compared to another solution.

Which
way
will 3% NaCl solution
the 97% H2O 5% NaCl
water 95% H2O
move? Red Blood Cell
 Hypotonic

• A solution with a lower solute concentration

compared to another solution.

Which
way
will 3% Na solution
the 97% H2O
1% Na
water 99% H2O
move? Red Blood Cell
 Isotonic
• A solution with an equal solute concentration
compared to another solution.

Which
way
will 3% Na solution
the 97% H2O 3% Na
water 97% H2O
move? Red Blood Cell
 Osmosis

• The movement of water from region of low solute

concentration (high water concentration) to an area of
high solute concentration (low water concentration)

• Driving force is the osmotic pressure caused by the

difference in water pressure
ISOTONIC SOLUTION
HYPOTONIC SOLUTION
HYPERTONIC SOLUTION
 Carrier Proteins
• Function—Transport. Are specific,
combine with only a certain type of
molecule.
• Types
–Facilitated transport--passive
–Active transport—requires energy
Facilitated Transport
Active Transport
 CELLULAR PHYSIOLOGY
2. Active transport processes
a) Pumping – movt of solute particles against their
concentration gradient by means of an energy-
consuming pump structure in the membrane
b) Phagocytosis (endocytosis) – movt of cells or
other large particles into the cell by trapping it in
the section of plasma membrane that pinches
off to form an intracellular vesicle – a type of
vesicle-mediated transport
c) Pinocytosis (endocytosis) – same as
phagocytosis, except it involves movt of fluids
d) Exocytosis – same as phagocytosis, except
substances move out of the cell
 2. Active Transport
Active transport
• Requires energy – ATP is used directly or
indirectly to fuel active transport
• Able to moves substances against the
concentration gradient - from low to high
concentration
- allows cells to store concentrated substances
• Requires the use of carrier proteins
86
 Active Transport
• Carrier proteins used in active transport
include:
-uniporters – move one molecule at a
time
-symporters – move two molecules in
the same direction
-antiporters – move two molecules in
opposite directions

87
 Active Transport
Sodium-potassium (Na+-K+) pump
• An active transport antiport mechanism
• Uses an antiporter to move 3 Na+ out of the
cell and 2 K+ into the cell
• ATP energy is used to change the
conformation of the carrier protein
• The affinity of the carrier protein for either
Na+ or K+ changes so the ions can be carried
across the membrane
88
 Active Transport
Sodium-potassium (Na+-K+) pump
• Used by animal cells to maintain a high
internal concentration of K+ ions and a low
internal concentration of Na+ ions

• Maintains a concentration gradient that is

used to power many other important
physiological process

89
Fig. 5.15-1
Fig. 5.15-3
93
The sodium-potassium pump
 Bulk Transport (Transport in vesicles)
• Polypeptides and proteins, as well as many
other molecules, are too large to be
transported through a membrane by carrier
proteins
• Examples of protein molecule excreted in
vesicle include hormones, lipoproteins, and
neurotransmitters
 Bulk transport
• There are three main types of bulk flow
(a) EXOCYTOSIS
(b) ENDOCYTOSIS
i. Phagocytosis
ii. Pinocytosis
iii. Receptor mediated endocytosis
(c) TRANCYTOSIS
 (a) Exocytosis
• Bulk movement of substances out of the cell into
extracellular environment by fusion of secretory
vesicles with the plasma membrane
• The material for secretion is packaged within
intracellular transport vesicles, which move
toward the plasma membrane.
• When the vesicle and plasma membrane come
into contact, the lipid molecules of the vesicle
and plasma membrane bilayers re-arrange
themselves so that the two membranes fuse.
 (a)Exocytosis
• The fusion of these lipid bilayers requires the
cell to expend energy in the form of ATP
• Following fusion, the vesicle contents are
released to the outside of the cell
• E.g. the release of digestive enzymes by
pancreatic acini into the pancreatic duct for
transport to the small intestine.
• E.g. the release of neurotransmitters into the
synaptic cleft by neurons.
 (a)Exocytosis
• The fusion of these lipid bilayers requires the
cell to expend energy in the form of ATP
• Following fusion, the vesicle contents are
released to the outside of the cell
• E.g. the release of digestive enzymes by
pancreatic acini into the pancreatic duct for
transport to the small intestine
• E.g. the release of neurotransmitters into the
synaptic cleft by neurons.
Exocytosis
(b)Endocytosis
• Extracellular macromolecules and large
particulate matter are packaged in a vesicle that
forms at the cell surface for internalization into
the cell
• A small area of plasma membrane folds inward to
form a pocket(invagination)which deepens and
pinches off as the lipid bilayer fuses
• New intracellular vesicle is formed containing
material that was formerly outside the cell
 Endocytosis
• Three types of endocytosis :
• Phagocytosis
• Pinocytosis
• Receptor-mediated endocytosis
 (i)Phagocytosis(Cell eating)
• Is a nonspecific process that occurs when a
cell engulfs a large particle external to the cell
by forming membrane extensions
(pseudopodia) or false feet,to surround the
particle
• the particle is engulfed then packaged within an
enclosed membrane sac
• The contents of the vesicle are broken down
(digested) after it fuses with a lysosome which
contains specific digestive enzymes that split
large molecules into smaller ones
 (i)Phagocytosis
• Process by which bacteria, dead tissue, or
other bits of microscopic material are
engulfed by cells such as the
polymorphonuclear (multi lobed nucleus)
leukocytes of the blood and macrophages in
connective tissue
 (ii) Pinocytosis(cell drinking)
• Nonspecific process that occurs when the
cell internalizes a very small droplet of ECF
into tiny internal vesicles
• Within the cell, the vesicle fuses with a
lysosome, where enzymes degrade the
engulfed solutes
• The resulting smaller molecules, e.g amino
acids and fatty acids, leave the lysosome to
be used elsewhere in the cell
 (ii)Pinocytosis
• Occurs in cells of capillary wall, where vesicles
fill with a fluid droplet containing small
solutes from the blood , carry this droplet to
the other side of the cell, and then expel its
contents outside the capillary wall e.g.
transportation of fatty acids from plasma into
adipose tissue(fatty cells).
(iii) Receptor mediated endocytosis
• Movement of specific molecules from the
extracellular environment into a cell by way of a
newly formed vesicle
• It begins when molecules in the ECF bind to their
specific integral membrane protein receptors.
• It is a specific mechanism because endocytosis is
stimulated by binding of the specific molecules to
their specific membrane receptors
(iii) Receptor mediated endocytosis
• The receptor proteins then cluster in one
region of the membrane to begin the process
of endocytosis
• The plasma membrane housing the bound
specific molecules from the ECF folds inward
to form a pocket(invagination)
• This membrane pocket deepens and pinches
off as the lipid bilayers fuse.
(iii) Receptor mediated endocytosis
• E.g.
• Human cells contain receptors that bind to
and internalize cholesterol, which is required
for new membrane synthesis
• Cholesterol travels in our blood bound to
proteins called low-density lipoproteins (LDLs)
• LDL particles bind to LDL receptors in the
membrane
 (c) Trancytosis
• This is transport in vesicles which involve successive
movement of a substance into, across, and out of a
cell.
• In this active process, vesicles undergo endocytosis on
one side of a cell, move across the cell, and then
undergo exocytosis on the opposite side
• Occurs most often across the endothelial cells that line
blood vessels and is a means for materials to move
between blood plasma and interstitial fluid e.g.
movement of maternal antibodies cross the placenta
into the fetal circulation.
Receptor-mediated Endocytosis
Body Tissues - Histology
 Tissues
• Tissue:
– Similarly specialized cells that perform a common
function in the body.

• 4 main tissue types in the human body:

– 1. Epithelial: covers body surface and lines body
cavities.
– 2. Connective: binds and supports body parts.
– 3. Muscular: Moves body parts
– 4. Nervous: Receives, interprets and sends signals.
 Epithelial Tissues
• Found in different areas
– Body coverings
– Body linings
– Glandular tissue
• Functions
– Protection
– Absorption
– Filtration
– Secretion
 Functions of Epithelial Tissue
• Protection
– Epithelial cells from the skin protect underlying tissue from mechanical
injury, harmful chemicals, invading bacteria and from excessive loss of
water.

• Sensation
– Sensory stimuli penetrate specialised epithelial cells. Specialised
epithelial tissue containing sensory nerve endings is found in the skin,
eyes, ears, nose and on the tongue.

• Secretion
– In glands, epithelial tissue is specialised to secrete specific chemical
substances such as enzymes, hormones and lubricating fluids.

• Absorption
– Certain epithelial cells lining the small intestine absorb nutrients from
the digestion of food.
 Functions of Epithelial Tissue
• Excretion
– Epithelial tissues in the kidney excrete waste products from the body
and reabsorb needed materials from the urine. Sweat is also excreted
from the body by epithelial cells in the sweat glands.

• Diffusion
– Simple epithelium promotes the diffusion of gases, liquids and
nutrients. Because they form such a thin lining, they are ideal for the
diffusion of gases (eg. walls of capillaries and lungs).

• Cleaning
– Ciliated epithelium assists in removing dust particles and foreign
bodies which have entered the air passages.

• Reduces Friction
– The smooth, tightly-interlocking, epithelial cells that line the entire
circulatory system reduce friction between the blood and the walls of
the blood vessels.
 Classification of Epithelium
• Based on number of
cell layers
– Simple – one layer
– Stratified – more than
one layer

Figure 3.17a
 Classification of Epithelium
• Based on shape of
cells
– Squamous – flattened
– Cuboidal – cube-
shaped
– Columnar – column-
like

Figure 3.17b
 Simple Epithelium
• Simple Squamous
– Single layer of flat
cells
– Usually forms
membranes
• Lines body cavities
• Lines lungs and
capillaries

Figure 3.18a
 Simple Epithelium
• Simple cuboidal
– Single layer of cube-
like cells
– Common in glands
and their ducts
– Forms walls
of kidney tubules
– Covers the ovaries

Figure 3.18b
 Simple Epithelium
• Simple columnar
– Single layer of tall cells
– Often includes goblet
cells, which produce
mucus
– Lines digestive tract

Figure 3.18c
 Simple Epithelium
• Pseudostratified
– Single layer, but some
cells are shorter than
others
– Often looks like a double
cell layer
– Sometimes ciliated, such
as in the respiratory tract
– May function in
absorption or secretion

Figure 3.18d
Histology of Nervous Tissue
Histology of Nervous Tissue
Nervous system

Ppt #2
 Structure of a Neuron Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Dendrites

• Neurons are the basic functional units of

nervous tissue.
• They are highly specialized to transmit
Soma
Nucleus

nerve impulses.
Nucleolus

Trigger zone:
Axon hillock
Initial segment

• Nervous tissue is made up of just 2 types

of cells: Axon
Axon collateral

• Neurons Direction of

• Neuroglia (glial cells) (supporting

signal transmission

Internodes

cells) Node of Ranvier

Myelin sheath

Schwann cell

Terminal
arborization

Figure 12.4a
Synaptic knobs
12-
(a) Figure 12.4a 136
 Supporting cells of the CNS
• Glial cells of the CNS=
• Astrocytes
• Oligodendrocytes…myelination
• Microglial
• Ependymal cells

12-137
Supporting cells (glial cells) of the PNS
• Schwan cells
• Satelite cells

• These supporting “glial” brace and protect the

fragil neuron cells
• Act as phagocytes
• Control the chemical environment around the
nerve cells.
• More about supporting cells later

12-138
All nerve cells have a cell body, also called the soma.

This is the control center of the cell .

• the cytoplasm contains mitochondria,
lysosomes, a Golgi complex, numerous
inclusions, and extensive rough endoplasmic
reticulum(Nissl bodies) and cytoskeleton
• cytoskeleton consists of dense mesh of
microtubules and neurofibrils (bundles of
actin filaments)

12-139
 Structure of a Neuron Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• dendrites – Are RECEPTIVE Dendrites

• REGIONS
• vast number of branches coming from a
few thick branches from the soma
Soma
Nucleus
Nucleolus

– resemble bare branches of a tree in

winter Trigger zone:
Axon hillock
Initial segment

– primary site for receiving signals

from other neurons Axon
Axon collateral

– the more dendrites the neuron has,

the more information it can receive Direction of
signal transmission

and incorporate into decision making Internodes

– provide precise pathway for Node of Ranvier

the reception and Myelin sheath

Schwann cell

processing of neural
information Terminal
arborization

Figure 12.4a
Synaptic knobs
12-
(a) Figure 12.4a 140
 Structure of a Neuron Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• axon (nerve fiber) cylindrical, Dendrites

relatively unbranched for most of its

length
Soma
Nucleus

• Generate and conduct nerve

Nucleolus

impulses Trigger zone:

Axon hillock
Initial segment

– but branch into co-laterals Axon collateral

– Schwann cells and myelin

Axon

sheath enclose axon Direction of

signal transmission

– The Axon ends in many small Internodes

structures called Axon terminals Node of Ranvier

or synaptic knob (terminal Myelin sheath

Schwann cell

button) – little swelling that

forms a junction (synapse) with
the next cell Terminal
arborization

• contains synaptic vesicles full of

Figure 12.4a
Synaptic knobs
12-
neurotransmitter (a) Figure 12.4a 141
• Axons are covered with a fatty material called myelin.
• Axons in the PNS are heavily myelinated.
• This is done by the Schwann Cells
• These Schwann cells layer around the axions and
squeeze their cytoplasm out creating many layers of
plasma membrane tissues (proteins/lipids)
surrounding the axion. This is the Myelin sheath.
• Areas of neuron not covered are called Nodes of
Ranvier.
• Myelin insulates the nerve fibers and greatly
increases the speed of neurotransmission by nerve
fibers.

12-142
• Each axon terminal (synaptic knob) is seperated from the cell
body or dendrites of the next neuron by a tiny gap…synaptic
cleft.
• Neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft and
diffuse across to bind to membrane receptors on the next
neuron..initiating an electrical surrent or synaptic potential.

12-143
 Axonal Transport
• many proteins made in soma must be transported to axon and
axon terminal
– to repair axolemma, serve as gated ion channel proteins, as enzymes or
neurotransmitters

• axonal transport – two-way passage of proteins, organelles, and

other material along an axon
– anterograde transport – movement down the axon away from soma
– retrograde transport – movement up the axon toward the soma

• microtubules guide materials along axon

– motor proteins (kinesin and dynein) carry materials “on their backs”
while they “crawl” along microtubules
• kinesin – motor proteins in anterograde transport towards outside
• dynein – motor proteins in retrograde transport towards center

12-144
 Neuroglial Cells
• about a trillion (1012) neurons in the nervous system
• neuroglia outnumber the neurons by as much as 50
to 1
• neuroglia or glial cells
– support and protect the neurons
– bind neurons together and form framework for nervous
tissue
– in fetus, guide migrating neurons to their destination
– if mature neuron is not in synaptic contact with another
neuron is covered by glial cells
• prevents neurons from touching each other
• gives precision to conduction pathways
12-145
 Six Types of Neuroglial Cells
• four types occur only in CNS
– oligodendrocytes
• form myelin sheaths in CNS
• each arm-like process wraps around a nerve fiber forming an
insulating layer that speeds up signal conduction
– ependymal cells
• lines internal cavities of the brain
• cuboidal epithelium with cilia on apical surface
• secretes and circulates cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
– clear liquid that bathes the CNS

– microglia
• small, wandering macrophages formed white blood cell called
monocytes
• thought to perform a complete checkup on the brain tissue several
times a day
12-146
• wander in search of cellular debris to phagocytize
4 Types of Neuroglial Cells in the
1. astrocytes CNS
• most abundant glial cell in CNS
• cover entire brain surface and most nonsynaptic regions of the
neurons in the gray matter of the CNS
• diverse functions
– form a supportive framework of nervous tissue
– have extensions (perivascular feet) that contact blood capillaries that stimulate
them to form a tight seal called the blood-brain barrier
– convert blood glucose to lactate and supply this to the neurons for nourishment
– nerve growth factors secreted by astrocytes promote neuron growth and
synapse formation
– communicate electrically with neurons and may influence synaptic signaling
– regulate chemical composition of tissue fluid by absorbing excess
neurotransmitters and ions
– astrocytosis or sclerosis – when neuron is damaged, astrocytes form hardened
scar tissue and fill space formerly occupied by the neuron

12-147
12-148
2 Types of Neuroglial Cells in the
PNS
– Schwann cells
• envelope nerve fibers in PNS
• wind repeatedly around a nerve fiber
• produces a myelin sheath similar to the ones produced by
oligodendrocytes in CNS
• assist in the regeneration of damaged fibers

– satellite cells
• surround the neurosomas in ganglia of the PNS
• provide electrical insulation around the soma
• regulate the chemical environment of the neurons

12-149
 Neuroglial Cells of CNS
Copyright © The McGraw -Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Capillary Neurons

Astrocyte
Oligodendrocyte

Perivascular feet Myelinated axon

Ependymal cell Myelin (cut)

Cerebrospinal fluid Microglia

Figure 12.6
12-150
 Glial Cells and Brain Tumors
• tumors - masses of rapidly dividing cells
– mature neurons have little or no capacity for mitosis and
seldom form tumors

• brain tumors arise from:

– meninges (protective membranes of CNS)
– by metastasis from non-neuronal tumors in other organs
– most come from glial cells that are mitotically active
throughout life

• gliomas grow rapidly and are highly malignant

– blood-brain barrier decreases effectiveness of
chemotherapy
– treatment consists of radiation or surgery
12-151
 More facts about Myelin
• myelin sheath – an insulating layer around a nerve
fiber
– formed by oligodendrocytes in CNS and Schwann cells
in PNS
– consists of the plasma membrane of glial cells
• 20% protein and 80 % lipid

• myelination – production of the myelin sheath

– begins the 14th week of fetal development
– proceeds rapidly during infancy
– completed in late adolescence
– dietary fat is important to nervous system development

12-152
 Myelin
• in PNS, Schwann cell spirals repeatedly around a single nerve
fiber
– lays down as many as a hundred layers of its own membrane
– no cytoplasm between the membranes
– neurilemma – thick outermost coil of myelin sheath
• contains nucleus and most of its cytoplasm
• external to neurilemma is basal lamina and a thin layer of fibrous
connective tissue – endoneurium

• in CNS – oligodendrocytes reaches out to myelinate several

nerve fibers in its immediate vicinity
– anchored to multiple nerve fibers
– cannot migrate around any one of them like Schwann cells
– must push newer layers of myelin under the older ones
• so myelination spirals inward toward nerve fiber
– nerve fibers in CNS have no neurilemma or endoneurium
12-153
 Myelin
• many Schwann cells or oligodendrocytes are needed to cover
one nerve fiber

• myelin sheath is segmented

– nodes of Ranvier – gap between segments
– internodes – myelin covered segments from one gap to the next

– initial segment – short section of nerve fiber between the axon hillock
and the first glial cell

– trigger zone – the axon hillock and the initial segment

• play an important role in initiating a nerve signal

12-154
 Myelin Sheath in PNS
Copyright © The McGraw -Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Schwann cell
Axoplasm nucleus

Axolemma
Neurilemma

Figure 12.4c

(c) Myelin sheath

nodes of Ranvier and internodes 12-

155
 Diseases of Myelin Sheath
• degenerative disorders of the myelin sheath
– multiple sclerosis
• oligodendrocytes and myelin sheaths in the CNS deteriorate
• myelin replaced by hardened scar tissue
• nerve conduction disrupted (double vision, tremors, numbness, speech
defects)
• onset between 20 and 40 and fatal from 25 to 30 years after diagnosis
• cause may be autoimmune triggered by virus

– Tay-Sachs disease - a hereditary disorder of infants of Eastern European

Jewish ancestry
• abnormal accumulation of glycolipid called GM2 in the myelin sheath
– normally decomposed by lysosomal enzyme
– enzyme missing in individuals homozygous for Tay-Sachs allele
– accumulation of ganglioside (GM2) disrupts conduction of nerve signals
– blindness, loss of coordination, and dementia
• fatal before age 4 12-156
Connective Tissue
 Connective Tissue
• Found throughout the body; most abundant
and widely distributed in primary tissues
– Embryonic
– Connective tissue proper
– Cartilage
– Bone
– Blood
 Functions of connective tissue
• Storage of energy

• Protection of organs

• Provision of structural framework for the body

• Connection of body tissues

• Connection of epithelial tissues to muscle fiber.

• Supply of hormones all over the body

• Nutritional support to epithelium

• Site of defense reactions

• Repair of body tissues

Connective Tissue

Figure 4.5
 Characteristics of Connective Tissue
• Connective tissues have:
– Mesenchyme as their common tissue of origin
– Varying degrees of vascularity
– Nonliving extracellular matrix, consisting of
ground substance and fibers
 Structural Elements of Connective
Tissue
• All connective tissues share similar strucutral
elements which are listed below
– Ground substance – unstructured material that
fills the space between cells
– Fibers – collagen, elastic, or reticular
– Cells – fibroblasts, chondroblasts, osteoblasts, and
hematopoietic stem cells
 Ground Substance
• Interstitial (tissue) fluid
• Adhesion proteins – fibronectin and laminin
• Proteoglycans – glycosaminoglycans (GAGs)
• Functions as a molecular sieve through which
nutrients diffuse between blood capillaries
and cells
Ground Substance: Proteoglycan
Structure

Figure 4.6b
 Fibers
• Collagen – tough; provides high tensile
strength
• Elastic – long, thin fibers that allow for stretch
• Reticular – branched collagenous fibers that
form delicate networks
 Cells
• Each Type of connective tissue has to be made by
a certain cell type. In an immature stage each cell
below secrets the fibers needed for its connective
tissue.
• Fibroblasts – connective tissue proper
• Chondroblasts – cartilage
• Osteoblasts – bone
• Hematopoietic stem cells – blood
• White blood cells, plasma cells, macrophages,
and mast cells
 Connective Tissue: Embryonic
• Mesenchyme – embryonic connective tissue
– Gel-like ground substance with fibers and star-
shaped mesenchymal cells
– Gives rise to all other connective tissues
– Found in the embryo
Connective Tissue: Embryonic

Figure 4.8a
 Connective Tissue Proper
• Besides bone, cartilage and blood all mature
connective tissues belong to the Connective
Tissue Proper class.
• We can break these into loose connective or
dense connective.
 Connective Tissue Proper: Loose
• Areolar connective tissue
– Gel-like matrix with all three connective tissue
fibers
– Fibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells, and some
white blood cells
– Wraps and cushions organs
– Widely distributed throughout the body
Connective Tissue Proper: Loose

Figure 4.8b
 Connective Tissue Proper: Loose
• Adipose connective tissue
– Matrix similar to areolar connective tissue with
closely packed adipocytes
– Reserves food stores, insulates against heat loss,
and supports and protects
– Found under skin, around kidneys, within
abdomen, and in breasts
– Local fat deposits serve nutrient needs of highly
active organs
Connective Tissue Proper: Loose

Figure 4.8c
 Connective Tissue Proper: Loose
• Reticular connective tissue
– Loose ground substance with reticular fibers
– Reticular cells lie in a fiber network
– Forms a soft internal skeleton, or stroma, that
supports other cell types
– Found in lymph nodes, bone marrow, and the
spleen
Connective Tissue Proper: Loose

Figure 4.8d
 Connective Tissue Proper: Dense
Regular
• Parallel collagen fibers with a few elastic fibers
• Major cell type is fibroblasts
• Attaches muscles to bone or to other muscles,
and bone to bone
• Found in tendons, ligaments, and
aponeuroses
Connective Tissue Proper: Dense
Regular

Figure 4.8e
 Connective Tissue Proper: Dense
Irregular
• Irregularly arranged collagen fibers with some
elastic fibers
• Major cell type is fibroblasts
• Withstands tension in many directions
providing structural strength
• Found in the dermis, submucosa of the
digestive tract, and fibrous organ capsules
Connective Tissue Proper: Dense
Regular

Figure 4.8f
 Connective Tissue: Cartilage
• Hyaline cartilage
– Amorphous, firm matrix with imperceptible
network of collagen fibers
– Chondrocytes lie in lacunae
– Supports, reinforces, cushions, and resists
compression
– Forms the costal cartilage
– Found in embryonic skeleton, the end of long
bones, nose, trachea, and larynx
Connective Tissue: Hyaline Cartilage

Figure 4.8g
Connective Tissue: Elastic Cartilage
• Similar to hyaline cartilage but with more
elastic fibers
• Maintains shape and structure while allowing
flexibility
• Supports external ear (pinna) and the
epiglottis
Connective Tissue: Elastic Cartilage
• Similar to hyaline cartilage but with more
elastic fibers
• Maintains shape and structure while allowing
flexibility
• Supports external ear (pinna) and the
epiglottis

Figure 4.8h
 Connective Tissue: Fibrocartilage
Cartilage
• Matrix similar to hyaline cartilage but less firm
with thick collagen fibers
• Provides tensile strength and absorbs
compression shock
• Found in intervertebral discs, the pubic
symphysis, and in discs of the knee joint
 Connective Tissue: Fibrocartilage
Cartilage
• Matrix similar to hyaline cartilage but less firm
with thick collagen fibers
• Provides tensile strength and absorbs
compression shock
• Found in intervertebral discs, the pubic
symphysis, and in discs of the knee joint

Figure 4.8i
 Connective Tissue: Bone (Osseous
Tissue)
• Hard, calcified matrix with collagen fibers
found in bone
• Osteocytes are found in lacunae and are well
vascularized
• Supports, protects, and provides levers for
muscular action
• Stores calcium, minerals, and fat
• Marrow inside bones is the site of
hematopoiesis
Connective Tissue: Bone (Osseous
Tissue)

Figure 4.8j
 Connective Tissue: Blood
• Red and white cells in a fluid matrix (plasma)
• Contained within blood vessels
• Functions in the transport of respiratory
gases, nutrients, and wastes
Connective Tissue: Blood

Figure 4.8k
 Connective Tissue Types

• Bone (osseous tissue)

– Composed of:
• Bone cells in lacunae
(cavities)
• Hard matrix of
calcium salts
• Large numbers of
collagen fibers
– Used to protect and
support the body

Figure 3.19a
 Connective Tissue Types

• Hyaline cartilage
– Most common
cartilage
– Composed of:
• Abundant collagen
fibers
• Rubbery matrix
– Entire fetal skeleton is
hyaline cartilage

Figure 3.19b
 Connective Tissue Types
• Elastic cartilage
– Provides elasticity
– Example: supports the external ear
 Connective Tissue Types

• Fibrocartilage
– Highly
compressible
– Example: forms
cushion-like discs
between
vertebrae

Figure 3.19c
 Connective Tissue Types
• Areolar connective
tissue
– Most widely
distributed
connective tissue
– Soft, pliable tissue
– Contains all fiber
types
– Can soak up excess
fluid
Figure 3.19e
 Connective Tissue Types

• Adipose tissue
– Matrix is an areolar tissue
in which fat globules
predominate
– Many cells contain
large lipid deposits
– Functions
• Insulates the body
• Protects some organs
• Serves as a site of
fuel storage

Figure 3.19f
 Connective Tissue Types
• Blood
– Blood cells
surrounded by fluid
matrix
– Fibers are visible
during clotting
– Functions as the
transport vehicle for
materials

Figure 3.19h
Muscle tissues
 Topics
• Smooth, skeletal, and cardiac muscle tissues
• Structure and function of skeletal muscle cells.
• Sarcomeres structure
• Actin and myosin
 Muscle Tissue
I. Striated Muscle - regularly arranged contractile units
A. Skeletal Muscle - long, cylindrical multinucleated cells with peripherally placed
nuclei. Contraction is typically quick and vigorous and under voluntary control. Used
for locomotion, mastication, and phonation.

B. Cardiac Muscle - elongated, branched cells with a single centrally placed

nucleus and intercalated discs at the ends. Contraction is involuntary, vigorous, and
rhythmic.

II. Smooth Muscle - possesses contractile machinery, but it is irregularly arranged (thus,
non-striated). Cells are fusiform with a central nucleus. Contraction is involuntary, slow,
and long lasting.
 Muscle Similarities
• Muscle types: skeletal, cardiac, smooth
• Skeletal and smooth muscle cells are elongated and
are called muscle fibers
• Muscle contraction depends on two kinds of
myofilaments – actin and myosin
• Muscle terminology is similar
– Sarcolemma – muscle plasma membrane
– Sarcoplasm – cytoplasm of a muscle cell
– Prefixes – myo, mys, and sarco all refer to muscle
 Classification of Muscle Cells
• Striated (muscle cells with a banded
appearance) or nonstriated (not banded)
• Muscle cells can have a single nucleus or be
multinucleate
• Muscle cells can be controlled voluntarily
(consciously) or involuntarily (automatically)
 Skeletal Muscle
• Striated, “voluntary”, and multinucleated
• Cells can be very long
• Contracts rapidly but tires easily
• Is extremely adaptable and can exert forces ranging
from a fraction of an ounce to over 70 pounds
• Satellite cells: Like a muscle “stem cell,” can divide to
become new skeletal muscle cells (adult skeletal
muscle cells do not divide).
 Cardiac Muscle Cells
• Occurs only in the heart
• Is striated, not voluntary, uni- or bi- nucleate
• Contracts at a fairly steady rate set by the heart’s pacemaker
cells
• Cells are called cardiac myocytes
• Form branching networks connected at intercalated disks
• Neural controls allow the heart to respond to changes in
bodily needs

Limited capacity for repair

 Smooth Muscle Cells
• Nonstriated, involuntary, and have a single nucleus
• Smooth muscle cells are small and tapered
• can divide and regenerate
• Found in walls of hollow organs and blood vessels
• Contract alone or under nervous system control
• Smooth muscle helps maintain blood pressure, and
squeezes or propels substances (i.e., food, feces)
through organs
 Functional Characteristics of Muscle
Tissue
• Excitability, or irritability – the ability to
receive and respond to stimuli
• Contractility – the ability to shorten forcibly
• Extensibility – the ability to be stretched or
extended
• Elasticity – the ability to recoil and resume the
original resting length
Characteristics of Skeletal, Cardiac, and
Smooth Muscle

Table 10–4
 The Muscular System
• Includes only skeletal muscles
– attached to the skeletal system
– allow us to move
• Muscle tissue (muscle cells or fibers)
• Connective tissues
• Nerves
• Blood vessels
 Functions of Skeletal Muscles
1. Produce skeletal movement
2. Maintain body posture
3. Support soft tissues
4. Stabilize joints
5. Guard body openings
6. Generate heat
7. Any other???
Skeletal Muscle

Figure 9.2a
Organization of Connective Tissues
• Muscles have 3 layers of connective tissues:
–Epimysium – an overcoat of dense regular and irregular
connective tissue that surrounds the entire muscle;
Separates muscle from surrounding tissues
–Perimysium – fibrous connective tissue that surrounds
groups of muscle fibers called fascicles; Contains blood
vessel and nerve supply to fascicles
–Endomysium – fine sheath of connective tissue composed
of collagen and reticular fibers surrounding each muscle
cell/fiber; Contains capillaries and nerve fibers contacting
muscle cells; Contains satellite cells (stem cells) that repair
damage
Levels of organization
Level 1: Skeletal Muscle

Figure 10–6 (1 of 5)
Level 2: Muscle Fascicle

Figure 10–6 (2 of 5)
Level 3: Muscle Cell (Fiber)

Figure 10–6 (3 of 5)
Level 4: Myofibril

Figure 10–6 (4 of 5)
Level 5: Sarcomere

Figure 10–6 (5 of 5)
 Summary – muscle orgnaization
• Epimysium surrounds muscle (which are
bundles of fascicles)
• Perimysium surrounds fascicles (which are
bundles are fibers/cells)
• Endomysium surrounds muscle fibers (which
are filled with myofibrils)
• Myofibrils are long cylinders of sarcomeres
• Sarcomeres contract to shorten muscles.
(Made up of myofilaments)
 Muscle Attachments
• Direct – epimysium of the muscle is fused to
the periosteum of a bone
• Indirectly – connective tissue wrappings
(endomysium, perimysium, and epimysium)
come together at ends of muscles and extend
beyond it as a tendon (bundle) or aponeurosis
(sheet)
 Innervation and Vascularization
• Nerves
– Skeletal muscles are voluntary muscles, controlled
by nerves of the somatic nervous system
• Muscles have extensive vascular systems:
– supply large amounts of oxygen and nutrients
– carry away wastes
Formation of Skeletal Muscle Fibers
• Skeletal muscle cells are called fibers
• Myoblasts join to form muscle fibers

Figure 10–2
 Skeletal Muscle Fibers
• Are very long cylindrical cell with hundreds of
nuclei just beneath the sarcolemma
• Each cell is a syncytium produced by fusion of
embryonic mesodermal cells (myoblasts)
• Fibers are 10 to 100 m in diameter, and up to
hundreds of centimeters long
 Organization of
Skeletal Muscle Fibers

Figure 10–3
 Myofibrils
• Myofibrils are densely packed, rodlike
contractile elements
• Make up most of the muscle cell volume
• Made up sarcomeres, which are themselves
bundles of protein filaments (myofilaments)
 Sarcomeres
• The smallest contractile unit of a muscle
• The region of a myofibril between two successive Z
discs
• Composed of myofilaments made up of contractile
proteins
• The repeating pattern of myofibrils notice the
presence of a repeating portion known as a
sarcomere
 Myofilaments

• Myofibrils and sarcomeres consist of thick and thin

myofilaments
• These filaments are responsible for the striations of
muscle, which are alternating dark and light bands
• Myofilaments are responsible for muscle contraction
– Thin filaments:
• made of the protein actin
– Thick filaments:
• made of the protein myosin
Sarcomeres

Figure 10–4
 Sarcomeres
• The contractile units of muscle
• Structural units of myofibrils (that is,
myofibrils are made up of many sarcomeres
postioned end to end)
• Form visible striated patterns within
myofibrils:
– alternating dark, thick filaments (A bands) and
light, thin filaments (I bands)
Sarcomere
 M Lines and Z Lines
• M line:
– the center of the A band
– at midline of sarcomere
• Z lines/discs:
– the centers of the I bands
– at 2 ends of sarcomere (like z is at the end of the alphabet)
– coin-shaped sheet of proteins (connectins) that anchors
the thin filaments and connects myofibrils to one another
 Zone of Overlap
• The densest, darkest area on a light
micrograph
• Where thick and thin filaments overlap
 The H Zone
• The area around the M line
• Has only thick filaments but no thin filaments
 Titin
• Strands of protein that reach from tips of thick
filaments to the Z line
• Stabilize the filaments
Sarcomere
Sarcomere Structure

Figure 10–5
 Special names for skeletal muscle cell
structures
• Sarcolemma: plasma membrane
• Sarcoplasm: cytoplasm
• Sarcoplasmic reticulum (like smooth ER)
New to skeletal muscle cells:
• Transverse tubules (T tubules) are
extensions of the sarcolemma that join
with the SR at specialized regions
 The Sarcolemma
• The cell membrane of a muscle cell
• Surrounds the sarcoplasm (cytoplasm of
muscle fiber)
• Muscle contractions are started by a change in
transmembrane potential (electrical charge on
either side of the membrane)
 Transverse Tubules (T tubules)
• T tubules are continuous with the sarcolemma
and have the same properties
• They conduct action potentials to the deepest
regions of the muscle
• These impulses signal for the release of Ca 2+
from adjacent terminal cisternae
• Allow entire muscle fiber to contract
simultaneously
 Zone of overlap and T tubules
• Transverse tubules encircle the sarcomere
near zones of overlap (why?)
• Ca2+ released by SR causes thin and thick
filaments to interact
 Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
• An elaborate membranous structure that runs
longitudinally, surrounding each myofibril
• Similar in structure to smooth endoplasmic
reticulum
• Helps transmit action potential to myofibril
• Forms chambers (terminal cisternae) attached
to T tubules that release calcium during
muscle contraction
 Terminal Cisternae
• Concentrate Ca2+ inside (via ion pumps)
• When stimulated by an action potential, they
2+
release Ca into sarcomeres to begin muscle
contraction
 A Triad
• Structure formed by 1 T tubule and 2 terminal
cisternae (thickenings of the SR)
• T tubules and SR provide tightly linked signals
for muscle contraction
• T tubule proteins act as voltage sensors
• SR has receptors that regulate Ca2+ release
from the terminal cisternae
 Organization of
Skeletal Muscle Fibers

Figure 10–3
 Muscle Contraction
• Is caused by interactions of thick and thin
filaments
• Structures of protein molecules detemine
interactions
Thin and thick filaments

Thin

Thick
 Myofilaments: Thick Filaments
• Composed of the protein
myosin (approximately 500)
• Each myosin molecule has a
rod-like tail and two globular
heads
– Tails – two interwoven, heavy
polypeptide chains, bound
together, pointing towards the M
line
– Heads – two smaller, light
polypeptide chains that reach
out and grab onto actin
The Myosin Molecule

Figure 10–7d
 Myofilaments: Thin Filaments
• Thin filaments are chiefly composed of the
protein actin held together by nebulin
• The subunits contain the active sites to which
myosin heads attach during contraction
• Tropomyosin strands block active sites
• Troponin holds tropomyosin and actin together
(at rest)
 Arrangement of the Filaments in a
Sarcomere
• Longitudinal section within one sarcomere

Figure 9.4d
 Troponin and Tropomyosin
• Troponin binds tropomyosin to actin
– consists of three subunits
• TnI: binds to actin
• TnT: bonds to tropomyosin
• TnC: binds calcium
– controlled by Ca2+, kind of like the “lock” and
Ca2+ is the “key”
 Cardiac Muscle
Tissue Features:
• Striated (same contractile machinery)
• Self-excitatory and electrically coupled
• Rate of contractions modulated by autonomic nervous system
– innervation is neuroendocrine in nature (i.e. no “motor end plates”)
Cell Features:
• 1 or 2 centrally placed nuclei
• Branched fibers with intercalated discs
• Numerous mitochondria (up to 40% of cell volume)
• Sarcoplasmic reticulum & T-tubules appear as diads at Z lines
– Sarcoplasmic reticulum does not form terminal cisternae
– T tubules are about 2x larger in diameter than in skeletal muscle
• transport Ca2+ into fibers
Cardiac Muscle (longitudinal section)

glycogen &
secretory granules

Source Undetermined
Cardiac Muscle (longitudinal section) Cardiac Muscle (transverse section)

Gartner and Hiatt. Color Atlas of Histology. Figure 2 and Figure 4 from Plate 6.8
Transverse Section of Cardiac Muscle versus Skeletal Muscle

Ross and Pawlina Figure 3 from Plate 18 on right. Left U-M Histology Collection
Cardiac Muscle (TEM)

T Tubule/SR Diads

Left from Junquiera. Figure 10-24.

Right: Source Undetermined
 Smooth Muscle
• Fusiform, non-striated cells
• Single, centrally-placed nucleus
• Contraction is non-voluntary
• Contraction is modulated in a neuroendocrine manner
• Found in blood vessels, GI and urogenital organ walls, dermis of skin

Junquiera. Figure 10-1.

Smooth Muscle (longitudinal section)

Gartner and Hiatt. Color Atlas of Histology. Figure 1 from plate 6.6 on left. Figure 2 from plate 6.6.
Smooth Muscle Viewed in Transverse
and Longitudinal Section

Color Atlas by Gartner and Hiatt. Figure 4 from plate 6.6.

Junquiera. Figure 10-30.
 Ultrastructure of Smooth Muscle:
• actin and myosin filaments
• intermediate filaments of desmin (also vimentin in vascular smooth muscle)
• membrane associated and cytoplasmic dense bodies containing  actinin (similar to Z lines)
• relatively active nucleus (smooth muscle cells make collagen, elastin, and proteoglycans)

May, Naftel, and Ard. University of Mississippi Digital EM Atlas. Plate 17A.
 Smooth
Muscle
Viewed in
Cross Section
(TEM)

What is the structure

marked by * ?

Also, note collagen –

SMC secrete ECM:
* collagen (I,III, IV),
elastin, and
*
proteoglycans

May, Naftel, and Ard. University of Mississippi Digital EM Atlas. Plate 17B
 More Ultrastructure of Smooth Muscle Cells:

• microtubules (curved arrows) • dense bodies (desmin/vimentin plaques)

• actin filament (arrowheads) • caveoli (membrane invaginations & vesicular
• intermediate filaments system contiguous with SER –functionally
analogous to sarcoplasmic reticulum )

Cross and Mercer. Inset of plate 114.

 Smooth Muscle Contraction:
also Ca+ dependent, but mechanism is different than striated muscle
1. Ca2+ ions released from caveloae/SER and complex with calmodulin
2. Ca2+-calmodulin activates myosin light chain kinase
3. MLCK phosphorylates myosin light chain
4. Myosin unfolds & binds actin; ATP-dependent contraction cycle ensues.
5. Contraction continues as long as myosin is phosphorylated.
6. “Latch” state: myosin head attached to actin dephosphorylated causing decrease
in ATPase activity –myosin head unable to detach from actin (similar to “rigor
mortis” in skeletal muscle).

Triggered by:
• Voltage-gated Ca+ channels
activated by depolarization
• Mechanical stimuli
• Neural stimulation

• Ligand-gated Ca+ channels

Ross and Pawlina. Figure 11.23.

 Mechanics of Smooth Muscle
Contraction

• Dense bodies are

analogous to Z lines
(plaques into which actin
filaments insert)
• Myosin heads oriented in
“side polar” arrangement
• Contraction pulls dense
Image of smooth
bodies together
muscle cell
contraction
removed Additional notes:
• Contraction cycle generally about ~10%
as fast as skeletal muscle
• Visceral (unitary) smooth muscle cells
may be electrically coupled via gap
junctions and exhibit either rhythmic or
tonic contraction –innervation generally
MODIFIES smooth muscle activity
rather than initiating it.
• Multiunit smooth muscle cells are
innervated individually and can contract
rapidly for more precise control.
• Innervation is always at a distance
(no motor end plates)
 Smooth Muscle (vascular)

Source Undetermined Source Undetermined

Relaxed Contracted
 Smooth Muscle
VERSUS

Color Atlas of Histology. Figure 1 from plate 8.2.

Nerve Color Atlas of Histology. Figure 3 from plate 6.6

VERSUS

Connective
Tissue

Color Atlas of Histology. Figure 1 from plate 7.5 Color Atlas of Histology. Figure 3 from plate 7.5
 Epithelium Slide 250 vagina

B.V
B.V..
CT

SM
CT
Nerve
CT
SM

SM
U-M Histology Collection slide 250.
 10-100m in
diameter
Up to 30cm in
length

10-15m in diameter
80-100m in length

0.2-2m in diamete
20-200m in length
Junquiera. Figure 10-1.
Skeletal Muscle Cardiac Muscle Smooth Muscle

Left: Ross and Pawlina. Figure 2 from plate 18.

Middle: Unknown
Right: Unknown
 Muscle Regeneration and Growth
Skeletal Muscle
• Increase in size (hypertrophy)
• Increase in number (regeneration/proliferation)
• Satellite cells are proposed source of regenerative cells

Smooth Muscle
• Increase in size (hypertrophy)
• Increase in number (regeneration/proliferation)
• Smooth muscle cells are proliferative
(e.g. uterine myometrium and vascular smooth muscle)
• Vascular pericytes can also provide source of smooth muscle

Heart Muscle
• Increase in size (hypertrophy)
• Formerly thought to be non-proliferative
• Post-infarction tissue remodeling by fibroblasts (fibrosis/scarring)
• New evidence suggests mitotic cardiomyocytes and regeneration
by blood or vascular-derived stem cells
Skeletal Muscle Satellite Cell

Source Undetermined
Activated satellite cell in skeletal muscle

Source Undetermined
 Learning Objectives
1. Be able to identify the three types of muscle at the light and
electron microscope levels, including distinctive features of each,
such as the intercalated disk of cardiac muscle.

2. Be able to describe the structural basis of muscle striation.

3. Know the structural elements that harness muscle contraction (i.e.,

the shortening of myofibrils) to the movement of a body part (i.e.,
via connection to bone) as well as the mechanism by which
muscle cells contract.

4. Understand the function and organization of the connective tissue

in muscle (endo-, peri-, and epiysium).

5. Be familiar with the regenerative potential of each muscle type.

 Muscle Tissue Types
• Skeletal muscle
– Can be controlled
voluntarily
– Cells attach to
connective tissue
– Cells are striated
– Cells have more than
one nucleus

Figure 3.20a
 Muscle Tissue Types
• Cardiac muscle
– Found only in the heart
– Function is to pump blood
– Involuntary muscle
– Cells attached to other
cardiac muscle cells at
intercalated disks
– Cells are striated
– One nucleus per cell

Figure 3.20b
 Muscle Tissue Types
• Smooth muscle
– In the walls of hollow organs, blood
vessels, eye, glands, uterus, skin
– Some functions: propel urine, mix food
in digestive tract, dilating/constricting
pupils, regulating blood flow,
– In some locations, autorhythmic
– Controlled involuntarily by endocrine
and autonomic nervous systems
– Attached to other smooth
muscle cells
– No visible striations
– One nucleus per cell
Figure 3.20c
 Nervous Tissue
• Neurons and nerve
support cells
• Function is to send
impulses to other
areas of the body
– Irritability
– Conductivity

Figure 3.21
 Regeneration of Tissues
• Tissues that regenerate easily
– Epithelial tissue
– Fibrous connective tissue and bone
• Tissues that regenerate poorly
– Skeletal muscle
• Tissues that are replaced largely with scar tissue
– Cardiac muscle
– Nervous tissue within the brain and spinal cord