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Environmental sustainability: challenges and viable solutions

Article in Environmental Sustainability · December 2018
DOI: 10.1007/s42398-018-00038-w

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Environmental sustainability: challenges and viable solutions
Naveen Kumar Arora1 · Tahmish Fatima2 · Isha Mishra2 · Maya Verma2 · Jitendra Mishra3 · Vaibhav Mishra4

Received: 3 November 2018 / Revised: 17 November 2018 / Accepted: 21 November 2018

© Society for Environmental Sustainability 2018

Abstract
Since last century or so anthropogenic activities have intensely metamorphosed the earth’s ecosystem and resulted into
major environmental changes. Widespread interference of human related activities have resulted in major problems
including environmental pollution, land degradation, global warming/climate change, paucity of potable water supply and
biodiversity loss. These issues have directly affected the quality and sustainability of the ecosystems. In addition, these
activities have resulted in loss of habitats resulting in mass extinction of species which in itself is a matter of great concern.
Studies and data clearly show that if present trends continue the conditions are expected to worsen in the coming time and
human civilization itself will be in trouble. To minimize this crisis, possible green solutions like use of microbes and
biotechnological tools are gaining importance and need further attention in order to lessen or remediate the harmful effects
of anthropogenic activities thus ensuring environmental sustainability.

Keywords Environmental sustainability · Anthropogenic activities · Climate change · Greenhouse gases · Pollution ·
Microorganisms · Bioremediation · Biotechnology · Biofuels · Sustainable agriculture
Introduction
Earth is the only celestial body in the universe where life is
known to exist and that too with such a huge diversity.
However, it is now becoming more and more inhabitable
for most of the species as indicated by steep decline in
diversity of flora and fauna. The main reasons behind the
worsening conditions for life on earth are the
anthropogenic activities. The human interference has
resulted in increase in concentration of greenhouse gases
(GHGs), climate change, degradation of land, pollution of
air water and soil, depletion of
* Naveen Kumar Arora
nkarora.bbau@gmail.com
1
Department of Environmental Sciences, School for
Environmental Sciences, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar
University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 226025, India
2
Department of Environmental Microbiology, School for
Environmental Sciences, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar
University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 226025, India
3
DST Policy Centre, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar
University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 226025, India
4
King George Medical University, Lucknow 226001, Uttar
Pradesh, India
non-renewable resources, loss of biodiversity,
accumulation of harmful recalcitrant chemicals and several
related issues.
Since the last few decades the impact of environmental
problems has been highlighted at several forums. In 1960s,
the United Nations (UN) discussed the environmental costs
of growth-centered or conventional development. In the
report ‘Our Common Future’ (known as the Brundtland
Commission), released in 1987 by the World Commission
on Environment and Development (WCED), it was stated
that development is only ‘sustainable’ if it ‘meets the needs
of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs’ (WCED 1987).
WCED global agenda was an initiative to work on
sustaining the planet for better future. Similarly, the UN
Conference on the Environment in Stockholm and on
Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro
(1992) accepted that the un-sustained human activities
towards environment will cause huge, irreversible damage
to life on earth (http://www. un.org/genin fo/bp/envir
o.html). The UN Agenda 21 was to promote sustainable
development undertaken at the Earth Summit held at Rio de
Janeiro. The agenda formed the basis for a “global
Environmental Sustainability
partnership” to encourage cooperation among nations for
sustaining life on earth by protecting the environment while
simultaneously resulting in growth. For reducing the
climate change, countries of the world adopted the Paris
Vol.:(0123456789) 13
Agreement (COP21) in 2015 to work out and limit global
temperature rise below 2 °C. However, very recently
United States (US) pulled out of the Paris agreement citing
its own reservations putting the whole accord in jeopardy.
Paris agreement was advanced further by UN Framework
Convention for Climate Change in Bonn, Germany in 2017
to achieve the targets and for attaining sustainable goals
(UNFCCC 2017). In Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs), out of the 8 goals, that all UN member states had
agreed to try to achieve by the year 2015, Goal 7 or MDG7
was to ensure “environmental sustainability”
(http://www.fao.org/ susta inabl e-devel opmen t-goals
/mdg/goal-7/en/). Out of all the targets only a miniscule has
been achieved so far. To succeed the MDGs, the UN
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were launched in
2015 which are related to climate change, innovation,
sustainable consumption, elimination of poverty, and
creation of peace and security.
Indeed, the state of knowledge for defining the term
“environmental sustainability” is remarkably imperfect and
thoughts and considerations of different groups or
individuals in various professions show discrepancy. More
often, the term exhibits a relationship of economy, society
and environment. According to Vezzoli and Manzini
(2008) the term “environmental sustainability” refers to
systemic conditions where neither on a planetary or
regional level do human activities disturb the natural cycles
more than the natural resilience allows, and at the same
time do not impoverish the natural capital that has to be
shared with future generations. The increasing
environmental problems faced by the world are mostly in
lineation with the increasing human activities. The scenario
of land availability, quality environment and biodiversity
has been continuously deteriorating with predictions of
even worst conditions by 2050. It is imperative to include
the ecological and biological aspects to achieve the targets
of environmental sustainability, which have been lacking
so far. An integrated approach is required at an urgent and
continuous basis to curate the earth of anthropogenic
issues. Biological approaches have to be the front runners
and need to be utilized at maximum to achieve the targets
of environmental sustainability. In this review, major
environmental issues are discussed in the first half of
article, followed by the solutions involving biological
approaches so as to achieve environmental sustainability,
which have been explored and projected.
Environmental issues
Environmental issues are one of the top priorities of all the
governments and researchers around the globe. At present
the situation is somewhat grim (Arora 2018a, b). The way
things are moving we are going to face several critical
issues related to environment some of which are even
threatening to the human civilization. Several serious
problems related to environment are plaguing the planet at
present and these have very serious impact on the
biological forms. Most striking issues of the environment
are discussed in this section.
Pollution
Environmental pollution is a global menace influencing
every nook and corner of the earth. All types of life forms
are in one way or the other affected by the impact of
pollution. Organisms living at poles or deep under the sea,
where humans do not even inhabit are also impacted by the
effects of pollution. In the last few decades, various types
of pollutants have appeared due to anthropogenic activities,
adversely affecting the ecosystems (Rockström et al. 2018).
Conditions in developing countries are more debilitating as
the rampant industrialization, high rate of deforestation and
urbanization are deteriorating the ecosystems.
Approximately 92% of pollution-related deaths are
reported from the developing countries (Landrigan et al.
2017). Urban locations have become congestion hotspots
jeopardizing the mobility and quality of air, water and soil
(Solé-Ribalta et al. 2016). According to a UN report, the
urban population is expected to double by 2030 (UN 2014).
Financial losses due to pollution are estimated to be US$
4.6 trillion per year accounting for 6.2% of global
economic output. Environmental risk factors mainly due to
air pollution and non-communicable diseases are driving up
health care costs, which consume nearly 10% of global
gross domestic product (GDP) (WHO http://apps.
who.int/nha/datab ase 2017). In low and high-income
countries various types of pollutions can increase annual
budget of health-care by 1.7% and 7% respectively
(Landrigan et al. 2017). Whereas the actual costs of
remediation of natural resources such as water, air and soil
are yet to be estimated and worked out.
Each year a wide range of pollutants are released in the
environment through industrial emissions. The data reveals
that more than 1,40,000 new chemicals and pesticides have
been synthesized since 1950 (Landrigan et al. 2017) and
only a very few of them like; polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs), dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT),
polyethylene, hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) have been critically assessed
for toxicity. Role of CFCs in ozone layer depletion is very
well known. Thankfully, CFCs causing trouble in the ozone
13

layer were expelled by the Montreal protocol (https
://www.nasa.gov 2018). However, in the last few years,
research on ozone depletion revealed thinning in the lower
stratosphere over the non-polar areas (Hansen 2018).
Researchers now suspect the role of chemicals used in paint
industries to be responsible for ozone depletion in non-
polar regions (Carrington 2018). Fossil fuel consumption
for supply of energy demand of globe is very high and it is
one of the major reasons of air pollution and global
warming which is discussed in subsequent sections.
Plastics are another example of man-made xenobiotic
and recalcitrant pollutants which are causing havoc on
earth. Plastics are ecological and environmental scourge
because of the damaging effects on the ecosystems around
the globe. Each year about 79,000 tonnes of plastics are
dumped in the Pacific Ocean alone. The ‘great Pacific
garbage patch’ floating in the Pacific Ocean is three times
the size of France (Pettit 2018). In a very recent report,
Wieczorek et al. (2018) declared that 73% of mesopelagic
fish caught in Northwest Atlantic Ocean had microplastics
in their gut. As mesopelagic fishes are food for a variety of
marine animals, there are fair chances of circulation of
microplastics through the food chain in the ecosystem. A
similar study was also conducted by Borrelle et al. (2017)
highlighting risks of plastics on filter feeders in the oceans.
Despite the horrible consequences of plastics the
production of these hazardous chemicals is still increasing
by the minute and earth has become a dumping yard of
these non-degradable entities.
Among major anthropogenic activities oil spills are also
causing great harm to the marine ecosystems of the planet.
Millions of barrels of oil have been dumped into the oceans
every year due to offshore oil rigs, damaged tankers and
pipelines or accidents (National Research Council 2003;
Chang et al. 2014). Oil spilled over the oceans cuts off
oxygen supply, prevents the sun’s light from entering the
water body and result in accumulation and dispersal of
toxic components which cause the death of flora and fauna,
reducing population of useful microbes and even extinction
of keystone species. Oil spills affect environment at local,
regional and global scale with short and long term
destruction effects (Liu and Kujawinski 2015). Spilled oil
has various types of components such as polar and non-
polar, volatile and nonvolatile with diverse impacts on the
flora, fauna and ecosystem as whole (Nounou 1980). Some
mechanical injuries of organisms and habitats are also
attributed to oil spills due to physical effects such as
coating, smothering and persistence (O’Brien and Dixon
1976; Lee et al. 2015).
Rapid urbanization, industrialization and related
anthropogenic activities have been polluting land and water
with toxicants such as heavy metals (Yadav 2010).
Although addition of heavy metals is natural yet
anthropogenic activities are increasing their concentration
13
Environmental Sustainability
to exceeding levels (Mishra et al. 2017). Industrial and
agricultural wastewater, domestic sewage, spillages of
petroleum hydrocarbons, mining, industrial processes
including refineries, metal processing, fossil fuel burning,
nuclear power stations, metal corrosion, plastics, textiles,
lead based paints, electronic wastes, smelting, use of
pharmaceutical chemicals, agrochemicals, waste
incineration and vehicle exhausts are the main sources of
heavy metals in soil (WHO 2010; Yan et al. 2018). The
contamination of heavy metals has been found in both soil
and water ecosystems throughout the globe. In Flint
(Michigan), North America in 2014, the source of water
was changed from Lake Huron to Flint River because of
the lead pollution reported in the lake. The problem further
contaminated the water source and in January 2016, the
President of US declared emergency because of severe lead
contamination of drinking water (Wendling et al. 2018). In
Karachi, Pakistan, about 89% of sampled drinking water
were found to be contaminated with lead exceeding the
World Health Organization (WHO) recommended limit of
10 µg/l (Sanchez-Triana 2016). About forty-two rivers in
India have been found to be contaminated with toxic heavy
metals exceeding the permissible limits (https ://weath
er.com/ en-IN/india /pollu tion/news/2018-05-16-heavy -
metal -toxic ity-india -river s). About 10% of China’s total
land has been reported as excessively polluted by heavy
metals (https :// phys.org/news/2011-11-exces s-heavy -
metal s-china .html). Latin America has been marked with
most polluted cities of the world and the reason being
poorly conducted mining of heavy metals (https
://www.conse rvati onins titut e.org/10most-pollu ted-citie
s-in-the-world /). Contamination of mercury (Hg) and other
trace elements has been reported in surface soils of Arctic.
Parts of Arctic including Svalbard, the Pechenga-Nikkeli
district and Siberia have mining activities which lead to
contamination of soils with heavy metals
(http://www.npolar.no/en/them es/poll utant s/the-arct
ic/sour c es.html; Halbach et al. 2017). Apart from this,
there is recent report showing that even Mount Everest has
been polluted with heavy metals with samples showing
presence of As and Cd at levels higher than the acceptable
limits as decided by US Environmental Protection Act
(USEPA) (http://www. dnain dia.com/techn ology /repor t-
mount -evere st-soil-pollu ted-by-dange rous-level s-of-
arsen ic-cadmi um-14765 05). Yeo and Langley-Turnbaugh
(2010) reported that the collected samples of soil and snow
between 5334 and 7772 m showed high levels of
contamination and the expected reason being the
transportation of trace elements in the troposphere (mainly
from anthropogenic sources) to Mt. Everest. Climate
change and global warming
The climate of the earth is controlled by various factors
such as output of energy from the sun, volcanic eruptions,
Environmental Sustainability
concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere and aerosols.
There is no doubt that global climate is changing
continuously particularly since industrial revolution. Due to
increase in anthropogenic activities such as
industrialization, urbanization, deforestation, modern
agriculture practices, change in land use pattern and many
more the climate change is now occurring at a very fast
pace (Mahato 2014). Climate change usually refers to
change over time in variables such as precipitation, wind,
with temperature as main focus (Parry et al. 2007).
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) stated
that human influence has been the dominant cause of the
global warming since the mid-20th century (Cook et al.
2016). Rate of carbon dioxide ( CO 2) emissions and climate
change have strong correlation with each other (Davis
2017). Currently climate change is happening mainly due
to increased emission and accumulation of GHGs such as
(CO2), methane ( CH4), nitrous oxide ( N2O), water vapors
(H2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons
(PFCs) and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) (Fig. 1) (IPCC 2013).
As per the estimates atmospheric GHGs concentration has
increased; such as CO 2 from 280 to 395 ppm, CH 4 from
715 to 1882 ppb and N 2O concentration from 227 to 323
ppb since 1750–
2% 2012 (IPCC
6% 11% 2013). It is
16%
65%
Fig. 1 Contribution of GHGs in global warming (F-gases -HFC, PFC
and SF6)
and 2014 (Fig. 3) (Boden et al. 2017). Rapid deforestation
and land-use change have large impact on climate change
as well (Ramankutty and Foley 1999; Scott et al. 2018).
Destruction of wetlands, especially peatlands, mining and
Fig. 2 Major CO2 producing
countries/regions of the world
(Source Carbon Dioxide
Information Analysis Center
Carbon dioxide level (mil. tonnes)
(CDIAC), Consultancy.uk
analysis 2017)
reported that GHGs are now at their highest levels in the
history of earth, with continuous increment and even if
emissions are stopped immediately, climate change will
still continue for years to come.
It is now projected that changes in temperature to
extremes over different areas of earth are likely to occur
earlier than was expected (Li et al. 2018). The average
global surface temperature has increased by 0.74 °C since
the late 19th century and is expected to increase by 1.4–5.8
°C by 2100 with significant regional variations (IPCC
2014; Harris et al. 2017). It is well known that the most
important GHG is CO 2 which currently constitutes 76% of
the total global warming impact. CO 2 production is
increasing by most of the countries of the world and some
countries with major contribution (%) in total CO 2
emission are depicted in Fig. 2. Although global CO 2 level
is increasing but Bhutan is the only country with negative
carbon value due to highest percentage of forest cover
region (Climate Council 2017). Fossil fuel consumption is
the main reason of carbon emission. It was estimated that in
2015 fossil fuel consumption accounted for 82% of total
primary energy supply (Boden et al. 2017). Global carbon
emissions are increasing due to coal burning (42%), liquid
fuels (primarily oil) (33%), combustion of natural gas
(19%), cement production and gas flaring (6%) (Boden and
Andres 2016). It is reported that annual CO2 emission due
Carbon Dioxide (Forestry
deforestation add significantly to the increased release of
and other land use)
Carbon Dioxide (Fossil GHGs because these are carbon stores on earth (Bergkamp
fuel
and industrial processes) and Orlando 1999).
Methane
Climate change is causing conditions such as unusually
Nitrous Oxide warmer weather, melting glaciers, polar warming, coralreef
F- gases bleaching, heavy precipitation events, longer droughts and
dry periods, a rise in sea level, changes in plant and animal
distribution, increased environmental degradation and
natural disasters (Loehman 2010; Kraaijenbrink et al.
2017). It is reported that Arctic’s ice has shrunk
continuously since 1979, with 1.07 million km 2 of ice loss
every
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
13
0
China United European India Russia Japan Germany Iran South Canada
States Union Korea
 Environmental Sustainability
35 al. 2017). Wu et al. (2016) reported that climate change has
30 impact on infectious diseases of humans by affecting the
pathogens, vectors, hosts and their habitats. Climate change
25
CO2 (Gt) and extreme weather affect the spreading and intensity of
20 major pathogens (Epstein 2001; Ostfeld and Brunner
15 2015).
Rising global temperatures are likely to increase the rate
10
of soil organic matter (SOM) decomposition resulting in
5 substantial CO2 release subsequently resulting in loss of
0 fertility of soil (Hopkins et al. 2012; Karmakar et al. 2016)
1870 1890 1910 1930 1950 1970 1990 2014 and has the potential to accelerate climate change by up to
Year 40% (Cox et al. 2000). Changes in climatic factors affect
agricultural productivity and food security through direct
Fig. 3 CO2 emissions due to fossil fuel combustion (1870-2014) and indirect actions (Tripathi et al. 2016) and the details
(Source Boden et al. 2017) have been discussed in the subsequent section.
70 In respect to severity of climate change Ban Ki-Moon,
Sea level variaon (cm) the UN Secretary-General stated that “We don’t have a
60
Plan B, because there is no Planet B” in the UN’s 22nd
50 conference in 2016, on climate change in Marrakesh,
Morocco (Ki Moon 2016). Thus it can be said that in
40
relation to adverse impact of anthropogenic activities,
30 global warming and climate change are right on top and
20
need to be tackled very quickly to restore the balance and
biological alternatives/solutions can play very important
10 role in combating climate change.
0
1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2025 2065 2100
Year Land degradation and agricultural constraints

Fig. 4 Increase of sea levels due to global warming (Source IPCC
2007)
decade (Vaughan et al. 2013). Global mean sea level has
risen by 12–22 cm in the last century and is predicted to
rise further by 24–30 cm by 2065 and 40–63 cm by 2100
shrinking the land area (IPCC 2007) (Fig. 4). Global
warming has resulted in warming of oceans leading to
oceanic thermal expansion, further worsening the scenario
and attenuating the availability of lands (Cazenave and
Llovel 2010; Khan 2018). Global warming is also
responsible for decreasing permafrost region resulting in
decrease of about 20–35% and 30–50% area of permafrost
region by 2050 and 2080 respectively, thereby releasing
dangerous pathogenic bacteria and viruses which are buried
in resting form (Wright 2017).
Climate change affects soil microbe–microbe and plant
microbe interactions directly and indirectly and also causes
reduction in soil microbial diversity (Bradford et al. 2008;
Classen et al. 2015). Climate change is also accelerating
the release of dissolved organic matter (DOM) and
occurrence of pathogens on the globe which has increased
exposure of infectious diseases in humans as well as
wildlife and even spread of phytopathogens (Williamson et
Land degradation is a problem confined not only to the
compromised quality of soil but also linked to the
diminution of the entire ecosystem along with the
associated biodiversity, ecological cycles, ecosystem
provisions like carbon sequestration, even affecting food
prices, and forced migrations, affecting all life forms (Lal
2004; ELD-Initiative 2013). Land degradation has been
categorized as a global issue by the UN Convention to
Combat Desertification (UNCCD) resulting in alarming
consequences on the health and productivity of soil
resources (UNCCD 2002). According to estimates of
Global Assessment of Land Degradation and Improvement
(GLADA) a quarter of land area is declared to be degraded
(Lal et al. 2012), with the economic loss of about US$ 230
billion annually (Nkonya et al. 2016). Of the total, 25% of
land area is highly degraded, 8% moderately or slightly
degraded, 36% stable and 10% improving (FAO- State of
the World’s Land and Water Resources for Food and
Agriculture (SOLAW) 2011). Hamdy and Aly (2014)
stated that globally land degradation is directly influencing
the lives of 1.5 billion people; annually there is a loss of 15
billion tons of fertile soils, whereas Global Soil Partnership
(led by FAO) reports that 75 billion tonnes (Pg) of soil
from arable land are degraded every year with financial
loss of about US $400 billion (FAO-Global Soil

13
Environmental Sustainability
Partnership 2017). There are several such reports available
from time to time addressing the menace of land
degradation, suggesting causes and remedies but still the
estimates are spurious and improvement is not taking place
as well.
The vulnerability is also faced by agro-ecosystems
where croplands alone contribute to 20% of the total
world’s degraded lands corresponding to the income loss of
about US$ 10.8 billion (http://www.un.org/en/event s/deser
tific ation _decad e/whyno w.shtml ). The pitfalls of
demographic pressures and un-sustainable agricultural
practices have curtailed the productivity of agro-
ecosystems. Low-income countries show higher percentage
of marginal lands (about 20%) in comparison to high-
income countries (19%) and middle-income countries
(18%) (Fischer et al. 2010).
Climatic variability is playing a major role and is
directly linked to land degradation and in reducing the
productivity and fertility of agricultural lands (Tewari et al.
2016; FAO 2017). Climate change has been challenging
various terrestrial ecosystems reducing the vegetation
density, negatively affecting the soil microbial biomass,
which is an important component of agro-ecosystems and
thereby leading to desertification of lands because of high
temperatures, scarce rainfall and accompanied soil and
water erosion (Lal 2012). According to the report of FAO
(2016) due to warmer climate, major agricultural crops
(particularly the Rabi crops such as wheat) have
experienced significant yield reductions globally.
According to the IPCC for each degree rise in temperature,
grain yields decline by about 5% (FAO 2016). The present
heat wave and abnormal temperature rise in Europe has
devastated crops, and has shown worst harvests ever since
the end of Second World War. European countries
including Hungary, Bulgaria and Romania which were
once major exporters are now importing food. Ukraine
formerly known as breadbasket of the erstwhile Soviet
Union, showed a 75% decrease of wheat production in
2018 as compared to average. Also due to irregular
precipitation patterns and increased global temperature,
severe weather events such as drought and floods have
been a recurrent phenomenon further exacerbating wind or
soil erosion (UNCCD Press Release 2015; FAO-IPCC
2017).
Drought is another menace which is engulfing more and
more areas of the globe. Climate change has resulted in
frequent cycles of drought and floods, and caused long
periods of water scarcity resulting in desertification. Over
the last 40 years there has been notable increase in droughts
throughout the globe, particularly in tropics and sub-tropics
(http://clima tica.org.uk/deser tific ation -land-degra datio
n-changing-clim at e). Ever since the beginning of
Anthropocene era, the world is facing water stress and
environmental challenges mainly attributed to
anthropogenic activities. The most obvious impact of
drought is on the uptake of nutrients, as water is the
transporting medium for nutrients in plants; increase in soil
temperature leading to loss of beneficial microbial
communities; drought also affects SOM decomposition
causing increased carbon dioxide emission and also
influences increased release of nitrate as its absorption by
plants is reduced due to lack of moisture. These negative
impacts cause long term soil infertility, due to imbalanced
C, N contents and microbial diversity (Geng et al. 2015).
Drought also causes damage to habitats through
biodiversity loss, wildfires and soil erosion. African
countries including Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia
have been majorly affected by droughts since last 12 years,
Australia suffered multi-droughts between 2002 and 2010
and currently (in 2018) is facing second most severe
autumn drought with reduced rainfall of 56.54 mm in
comparison to average autumn’s rainfall of 102.3 mm
(https ://www.skyme tweat her.com/conte nt/globa
l-news/austr alia-under goes-secon d-most-sever e-autum
n-droug ht-in-a-centu ry/). The 2010 drought of Russia was
the worst in the past 38 years of its history; US great grain
belt drought of 2012 was responsible for increasing food
prices by 3–4% (http://www.fao. org/docre p/017/aq191
e/aq191 e.pdf) and the 2014 Spanish drought was reported
by country’s meteorological agency, Aemet, as the longest
and one of the most intense in the span of last 150 years
(https ://www.thelo cal.es/20140 519/ mega-droug ht-threa
tens-spain ). The recent heat wave in Europe has increased
the temperature above 40 °C and is also causing drought
and wildfires across the continent. The emerging scenario
of groundwater loss in India is also alarming, resulting in
desertification. According to NASA report, Northern India
is showing the highest groundwater declination in
comparison to anywhere across the globe. NASA reported
108 cubic kilometers loss of groundwater in Haryana,
Punjab, Rajasthan, and Delhi between 2002 and 2008 and
the future consequences predict huge shortage of water
leading to severe drought in these areas (http://www.
wri.org/blog/2015/06/globa l-tour-7-recen t-droug hts).
Even the major lakes and wetlands are stressed by drought
due to increased withdrawals and other anthropogenic
disturbances. For example, the area of Lake Urmia (second
largest saltwater lake) has decreased by 80% since past 40
years, and major reduction has occurred between 2009 and
2015, major cause being construction of around 20 man-
made dams around the lake to divert the flow to
agricultural lands. As a result of this major desiccation the
surrounding land has become degraded due to saline storms
from the hypersaline lakebeds (https ://eos.org/edito rs-
vox/anthr opoge nicdrought-how-huma ns-affe ct-the-glob
al-ecos yste m). Similar scenario has also emerged in
central Asia with the drying of Aral Sea which has shrunk
to 10% of the former size. Soviet Union’s agricultural
13
 Environmental Sustainability
policies in the 1950s initiated the deterioration of Aral Sea irrigated lands are under the influence of salinity which is
(https ://www.bbc.com/news/ business-4415 912 2). The responsible for producing one-third of world’s food
menace of drought and desertification each year leads to (Machado and Serralheiro 2017). Salinity highly depresses
the land loss of 12 million hectares the growth and yield of crops especially of vegetables
(http://www.unccd.int/List s/Site Docum entLi which show very less tolerance to salt stress (Tewari and
brary/WDCD / Arora 2014a, b; Ahmad et al. 2016). Saline soils are
DLDD%20Fac ts.pdf). For the given rise of temperature by characterized by low moisture holding capacity, high
3–4 °C, the drought incident risk will increase from 10 to electrical conductivity (EC) (4 dS/m or above), nutrient
40% in the coming years (Stern 2006). Drought has also imbalance and the land becomes more vulnerable to flood,
negatively influenced the agricultural lands reducing the drought and soil erosion (Mishra et al. 2018). Salinity leads
crop production. According to the report of FAO (2017), to Na+, Cl− toxicity, osmotic imbalance, ethylene stress,
between 2005 and 2014 there has been approximately USD plasmolysis, nutrient deficiency, reduced photosynthetic
93 billion loss in crop and livestock production in rate, partial closure of stomata and generation of reactive
developing countries and agricultural sector suffered 23% oxygen species (ROS) in plants (Drew et al. 1999; Mishra
of the total loss due to droughts. The frequency and et al. 2018). Salt toxicity also hampers the abundance,
duration of drought affects microbial community due to diversity, functioning and properties of beneficial soil
interrupted nutrient cycles (Santos-Medellín et al. 2017). microbes. If the situation continues at the present rate more
Drought leads to impaired availability of water to plants than 50% agricultural land will become saline by 2050
resulting in various physiological impacts and complete (Bartels et al. 2005). Figure 6 shows the distribution of
destruction of the crops (Mayak et al. 2004). salt-affected lands (in million hectares) on globe.
Soil salinization is also a major reason of land
degradation influencing most of the countries, with an
approximate area of 1 billion ha (FAO 2015). Salinization
of lands is interconnected with drought (Tewari and Arora
2013). The major causes of land salinization have been the
use of improper irrigation methods and agricultural
practices. Irrigation with low quality of water leads to
accumulation of salts in soils, accompanying this, poor
drainage worsens the scenario. Figure 5 highlights the
influence of humans on increasing salinity correlated with
CO2 emission, showing that with the increase in
population, salinity and CO 2 emission have enhanced
simultaneously. The positive correlation coefficient (r) of
0.928 for population and salinity and of 0.937 for
population and CO 2 emission shows the dependency of the
two on increase in human numbers on earth. Also the
positive correlation of 0.9996 between CO 2 and salinity
depicts that salinity has even been influenced by carbon
dioxide emission indirectly through various events caused
by its effect. The injudicious use of chemical pesticides and
fertilizers is also responsible for increasing soil salinity.
Since 1945, about 17% of agricultural lands have lost
fertility due to salinization because of the use of

Fig. 5 60

pesticides (Mishra et al. 2018). The stability of pesticides

like parathion has been reported to increase in saline soils
rendering them non-fertile (Reddy and Sethunathan 1985).
Salinization has affected agricultural lands influencing the
plant productivity and food security. The agricultural land
degraded by salinity each year accounts for about 10
million hectares (Pimentel et al. 2004). About 20% of

13
Environmental Sustainability
Floods harm the quality of lands and disturb the
vegetation and productivity of agro-ecosystems. Floods
have been more recurrent phenomenon ever since 1950s
correlating with the impact of climate change (Oh et al.
2014). Flooding causes major damage to fertile land due to
severe erosion, denudation or landslides in hilly areas,
accumulation of sediments, loss of plant nutrients,
biochemical changes due to stagnant water, water logging,
pollution
losses in crops and livestock production occur due to floods
translating to about USD 34 billion. Cramer et al. (2011)
mentioned that globally about 13% of world area is
jeopardized by flooding and submergence.
Figure 7 depicts the recent occurrence of different
disasters (flood, drought, storms, and extreme
temperatures) around the globe.

Showing increment in
salinity stress and CO2 emis-
sion rate in correspondence to 50
increase in population through
1924 1899
years. Data source: Munns and
Tester (2008); Yan et al. (2008); Increase
40 in
%
1802
FAO ( 2008 ); UNPD 2017; https
://www.statista.com/char tofthe 30 3107
day/ (2018)
2039 20

2011
10

0
1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 2060
Populaon increase Year Correlation coefficient (r)
Africa Asia, the Pacific and AustraliaSalinityEurope Population and Salinity r = 0.928
La n Near East CO2 Emission rate
North America Population and CO emission r = 0.937
2
CO emission and salinity = 0.9996
America 2

Fig. 7 1400

Heavy metal pollution of land through various

Fig. 6 Distribution of salt-affected soils in different regions of globe
(in million hectares) Data source: FAO (2013)
with harmful chemicals present in water etc. In plants,
hypoxia due to water-logging causes poor root growth
thereby leading to reduced water and nutrient absorption
and stomatal conductance leading to wilting and
productivity loss (Banga et al. 1995; Tewari and Arora
2016). As per FAO (2017), 37% cumulative production
anthropogenic resources as mentioned earlier (in
“Pollution” section) is also a reason for degradation of
fertile land.
Ever since the onset of green revolution, prodigious
concentration of agrochemicals including pesticides,
fertilizers have been tracked in various ecosystems. The
acute toxifying effect started when the chemicals being
used injudiciously during the era of green revolution started
polluting majority of agro-ecosystems (Pingali 2012).
These chemicals, particularly the pesticides remain in the
soil for long because of their poor solubility, toxic nature,
complex association with organic soil sediments, low
degradability and deleterious impact on the soil
microorganisms (Hunting et al. 2016). These
agrochemicals influence the non-targeted species, cause
pollution and incidence of various diseases in plants,
animals and humans (Taylor et al. 2003; Arora et al. 2010).
Being recalcitrant in nature pesticides accumulate in the
food chain and cause great harm. Since 1940s, the concept
of pesticides became popular with an increase of about
11% per year intensifying to more than 5 million tons in
13

2000 from 0.2 million tons in 1950s (FAO 2017; Carvalho
2017). But over the years their toxicity, fate in environment
and influence on other biota were reported leading to the
ban of many pesticides including DDT (Griswold 2012).
Intensive use of harmful pesticides in the past has resulted
in infertile soils due to loss of useful soil micro-fauna
(Bezchlebová et al. 2007; Mishra et al. 2015). Boldt and
Jacobsen (1998) reported that herbicide metsulfuron methyl
was reported to be toxic to beneficial soil microorganisms
even at very low concentration. Panda and Sahu (2004)
concluded the negative impact of butachlor, a herbicide on
earthworms. Insecticides have shown greater influence on
soil biota through changing the microbial composition,
affecting the earthworm reproduction cycle and lowering
collembolans population (Endlweber et al. 2005; FAO
2015). The application of agrochemicals has also altered
the soil biological and physical properties and contaminates
the soil with harmful chemicals (EEA 2013). Some
organochlorine pesticides also inhibit biological nitrogen
fixation. Pesticides have been found to be interfering with
the flavonoid signaling in leguminous plants which are
important in establishing symbiotic relationship by
attracting rhizobia to the root systems (Potera 2007).
Pesticides also reduce bacterium’s respiration rate and
nitrogenase activity (Mrkovaaki et al. 2001; Gulhane et al.
2015). In parallel to the application of chemical
antagonists, chemical fertilizers were also excessively used
from 19th century (Gilland 2015). To enhance the nitrogen
(N), phosphorous (P), potassium (K) content of soil,
bridging the gap between increasing population and food
production, synthetic fertilizers have been applied and still
are being used indiscriminately in agricultural fields. In
fact several countries have subsidized fertilizers so as to
make them cheaply available to the farmers and feed the
ever-increasing human population. With short span
benefits, these agrochemicals initially support excessive
cultivation but later lead to soil salinization, acidification,
desertification and biological imbalance. Agrochemicals
have also been a prominent source of sulfur (S), nitrogen
oxides and other trace element emissions (FAO 2015).
Exceeding content of N, P in soils due to indiscriminate use
of fertilizers are often weathered by soil, wind erosion and
floods reaching other ecosystems like aquatic bodies
leading to eutrophication and loss of water bodies.
Bouwman et al. (2005) calculated that 16% of the N input
is lost due to weathering and erosion thereby affecting
associated environments. Ammonium based fertilizers lead
to acidification of soils and are a major threat in several
countries (FAO 2015). In spite of the reported drawbacks,
agrochemicals are still heading the agro-markets
throughout the globe. Application of urea as nitrogen based
fertilizer has increased to almost 100 folds in last four
decades with doubling evidenced in past decade (Gilbert et
al. 2006; Azizullah et al. 2011). The ever increasing
13
Environmental Sustainability
demand for food is pressurizing intensive cultivation,
exploiting agro-ecosystems and reducing the fertility of
lands. Over-cultivation has been responsible for
degradation of 30% of global land area with the loss rate of
10 million hectares per year. Waggoner and Ausubel
(2001) projected that the continued intensified production
would lead to loss of 230 million hectares of global
cropland by 2050 (an area thrice the size of France).
Increasing disposal of wastes on lands from factories,
farms, hospitals, offices, mines, nuclear power plants etc.
are accelerating the content of toxicants and non-
degradable moieties on land. Before 20th century the
wastes added to the lands were mostly natural and
degradable. But with the introduction of non-degradable
and toxic wastes the land degradation increased to
unprecedented and unforeseen levels.
About 13 tons of hazardous wastes are produced every
second throughout the globe. In just one generation there is
an increment by about 40,000% of man-made chemicals
and a great part of these eventually goes into land and
water bodies degrading them to a very dismal condition
(http:// www.theworldc ounts.com/coun ters/wast e_poll
ution_fact s /hazar dous_waste _stati stics ).
Apart from the aforementioned abiotic stresses, biotic
stresses have also played a major role in impeding the
quality of land, making them unfit for cultivation, reducing
their availability for the future use. The presence of pests
has always been a hassling issue impeding the agricultural
growth rate and quality of soil (Singh and Arora 2016;
Mishra and Arora 2017). FAO (2015) reported 20–40%
annual reduction of the global crop yield due to pests and
plant diseases. Globally pre-harvest pests are responsible
for an average of 35% potential crop yield loss (Oerke
2006), along with high food chain losses (IWMI 2007).
The synergism of biotic and abiotic stresses amplifies the
detrimental responses of pests and phytopathogenic
microbes (Jedmowski et al. 2015; Lamichhane and Venturi
2015). Drought stress is known to enhance the infection
risk of phytopathogens in crop plants (Suleman et al. 2001;
Goudarzi et al. 2011). Climate change also has noticeable
impact on distribution of phytopathogens. The changing
climatic conditions in European countries have drastically
increased the population of insects which were once not
reported in these regions, mainly because of increase in
global temperature. Pests have started shifting towards
north and south poles over the last fifty years in lineation
with the climate change. On an average the recorded rate of
2.7 km per year, since 1960, has been observed for crop
pests moving towards poles and in particular fungi and
oomycetes show worrying movement rate of 7 and 6 km
per year respectively (Bebber et al. 2013). A weather
sensitive beetle Denroctonus ponderosae, which was
earlier the native of mountain pines has now marched
northwards, destroying pine forest in US Pacific north-
 Environmental Sustainability
west. The other trans-boundary pests include cottony
cushion scale (Iceryapurchasi) found to be shifting
cies Abundance (MSA
1700 1900 2000 2050
Year
northwards (Watson and Malumphy 2004); Western corn
rootworm Diabrotica virgifera from Europe has been
extending eastwards and northwards (Baker et al. 2003); in
addition impact of Ralstonia solanacearum, causative
agent of brown rot has become much serious with global
warming; Dickeya, genus including mainly pathogens
which were primarily endemic to tropical and warm
climate, may now cause diseases even in Europe (Laurila et
al. 2008) (FAO 2008). Agro-ecosystems are thus facing
multitude of stresses due to mal-practices, huge input of
chemicals and climate change. This is also resulting in loss
of useful microbes from the soil. Need is to replenish the
soils and practice eco-friendly methods in agro-ecosystems
apart from reducing the impact of global warming and
dangerous pollutants.
Habitat and biodiversity loss
The loss of biological diversity has become a complex and
unceasing problem. This has resulted in reduction of
biological heterogeneity which in turn results in an
unprecedented decrease in terrestrial and marine species
including flora and fauna affecting overall stability of the
ecosystems (Constanza et al. 1997; Arora 2018b). Reports
of World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) (2014) suggest
that 52% of global biodiversity has been lost since the year
1970–2010. Extinction of plant species is the major
concern as they play a key role in maintaining a balance in
the ecosystem and directly affect its functioning by
providing habitats to numerous other organisms (Monteiro
et al. 2018). Extinction, although, is a natural phenomenon
but wide range of human activities inducing the decline of
biological diversity cannot be denied (Bitencourt et al.
2016). Extinctions caused by humans have intensified since
last 40,000 years (Dirzo and Raven 2003). If these trends
continue, it is suggested that within 240 years the earth will
probably face its sixth mass extinction (Barnosky et al.
2011). In fact some researchers suggest that the sixth mass
extinction of species has already begun and it is purely
attributed to anthropogenic activities. According to
estimates, 43% of the global terrestrial surface has been
facing disturbances and the natural vegetation is taken over
by manmade habitats (Barnosky et al. 2012). Rates of
extinction are expected to rise to double the order of
magnitude in this century and with increase in climate
change this may speed up even further (Pereira et al. 2010;
Barnosky et al. 2012). The historical trends in biodiversity
loss across the world are shown in Fig. 8. The factors that
are known to increase pressures on biodiversity are loss of
habitat and its fragmentation, climate change,
overexploitation, environmental pollution, spread of
diseases, invasive alien species and hunting/fishing (Baillie
et al. 2010; Beumer and Martens 2014; Keziah and Devi
2017; Arora 2018b).
Fig. 8 Historical trends of 120%
Habitat loss and fragmentation are the major threats to
biodiversity and both are interdependent on each other
(Brooks et al. 2002; Hanski 2011). The increasing demand
for resources such as land use for agricultural purposes and
expansion in cattle raising, mining activities and building
infrastructures due to population explosion have led to the
metamorphosis of natural habitats, resulting in their
degradation and have posed serious threats to the habitats
of plants and animals (de Sherbinin et al. 2007; Hanski
2011). This drastic change in land cover area can lead to a
loss of up to 40% of species diversity in most biologically
diverse areas worldwide (Pimm and Raven 2000).
However, apart from this, other anthropogenic activities are
also playing key role in diminishing the biodiversity on
earth.
Forests/natural habitats around the globe are facing
issues such as climate change, pollutants, faulty
agricultural practices, causing loss of biodiversity at an
alarming rate. Temperate forests in South America, one of
the 35 global hotspots have been reduced by 70% (Myers
13

et al. 2000; EcheverrõÂa et al. 2006). Similarly, tropical
forests, another rich source of biodiversity have been lost
up to 10% in past 25 years with a depletion rate of 0.8%
per year as a result of man-made activities (Arora 2018b).
Recently, Islam and Bhuiyan (2018) reported how the
largest mangrove delta of the world, the Sunderbans
mangrove forests, are shrinking and degrading resulting in
huge impact on the depletion of the biodiversity of the
region.
Approximately 72% of the surface of the earth is
covered by oceans and this constitutes greater than 95% of
the total biosphere (UNEP- United Nations Environment
Programme 2017). According to Organization for
Economic and Co-operative Development (OECD) (2016),
nearly 2.6 billion people are dependent on oceans for
protein uptake which accounts for 16% of total global
animal protein. Vegetated ocean habitats and mangroves
are known as “Blue Carbon” sinks which trap 25% of the
CO 2 generated from fossil fuels and keep coastal
communities safe from floods and storms [World Bank-
UNDESA (United Nations Department of Economic and
declining Mean Species
Abundance (MSA) from the
year 1700 predicted to 2050
Adopted from NEAA (2010)
Social Affairs 2017)]. However, due to anthropogenic
activities the oceans around the globe have been impacted
(Swan et al. 2016). This has resulted in the impairment in
the capacity of oceans to provide ecosystem services, and
the cushion to the environment against the anthropogenic
activities is now in danger (Halpern et al. 2015; Nguyen et
al. 2018). In fact oceans and poles are now amongst the
most fragile ecosystems on the earth.
Global climate change is directly hampering the
biodiversity and causing degradation of habitats (Kappelle
et al. 1999; Pereira et al. 2012). Environmental conditions
are changing in a drastic and non-sequential manner that
can have serious consequences on the ecosystems around
the globe (van Nes et al. 2016). It is now estimated that
34% of the total biodiversity loss is due to global warming.
Global warming and climate change as pointed in earlier
section as well, create a shift in species distribution and
have hiked the risk of extinctions of species particularly in
the habitats which are shrinking due to climate change
(Thomas et al. 2004; Parry et al. 2007). If reports are to be
believed, owing to global warming it is estimated that 15–
37% terrestrial species will face extinction by 2050 (Tang
et al. 2018). Several meta-analysis studies reveal that there
is an alteration in the life events of species due to rising
temperatures (Miller-Rushing and Primack 2008; Forrest et
al. 2010). Marine species are at even higher risk due to
rising temperatures and events of heat waves which are
increasing by the day (both on land and in oceans). This is
because marine life is acclimatized for fewer variations to
13
Environmental Sustainability
temperature in comparison to land organisms (Costello and
Chaudhary 2017). Investigations on tropical streams show
that warmer temperature affects the communities of
macroalgae (Bojorge-Garcia et al. 2010), cause shifts in
fish physiology and diversity (Rolla et al. 2009), and as a
result, causes a destabilization in food web of the aquatic
systems (Motta and Uieda 2005). Deoxygenation of ocean
is a major issue due to climate change. Oxygen loss by over
2% have been recorded in the open ocean at global level in
last 50–100 years and is projected to continue to greater
extent in next 100 years (Levin 2018). Among the tropical
oceans, a decline of up to 20% of marine phytoplanktons in
Indian Ocean has been observed since past 60 years due to
the effect of warming. This elevated temperature has also
hampered marine productivity (Roxy et al. 2015).
According to currently classified IUCN Red list, there are
1206 marine species which are either critically endangered,
or vulnerable (Webb and Mindel 2015). This report depicts
the situation of only a fraction of marine taxa and in near
future the condition will become worse as predicted by
report of Cheung et al. (2009) which states that climate
change will threaten additional taxa and hence will result in
60% deviation in marine biodiversity across the globe.
Climate change also has other adverse impact as emissions
from GHGs cause coral bleaching (Hoegh-Guldberg and
Bruno 2010). Coral reefs have been lost by up to 38% since
1980 across the globe (Hume et al. 2016). Moreover,
global warming is expected to cause drying of lakes
especially in Africa leading to their degradation and loss of
biodiversity (Campbell et al. 2009).
Pollution of air and water also affect the balance of the
ecosystem and largely affect the biodiversity of the land.
Acidification of lakes and soils, eutrophication of waters
and bioaccumulation of metals/heavy metals in food web
and plethora of other problems occur due to pollution
(Lovett et al. 2009). Pollutants such as polyaromatic
hydrocarbon (PAHs) and PCBs from effluent discharge and
oil spills which when released in water bodies affect
biology of that system. By-products generated by human
interventions like particulate matter, heat and chemicals
have further amplified the chances of extinction of species
in water bodies (Alrumman et al. 2016; UNEP 2017).
Microbial diversity is also affected by environmental
pollution. Microorganisms are the major components in
terms of biomass, genetic diversity and metabolic roles
they play in the ecosystems. Hence the stability of
ecosystems is directly related to the population and
diversity of microbes (Panizzon et al. 2015). Microbes are
also largely responsible for decomposition of organics,
xenobiotics and recalcitrants, and formation of soil
Environmental Sustainability
aggregates (Kennedy 1999). There are approximately 50
million bacterial cells that reside in a gram of soil and in
case of oceans around 90% of its biomass is composed of
microbes (Arora 2018b). It has been reported that as a
result of soil pollution, microbial diversity reduced
drastically (Gans et al. 2005). Genomic studies provide
clear evidence in the shift of synergy and functioning of
microbial biomass (Degrune et al. 2017). Reduction in
microbial diversity can easily affect the sustainability of the
ecosystem because of the shear role these organisms play.
However, it is not easy to determine the microbial diversity
of any ecosystem. Recent studies are though clearly
suggesting the impact of pollutants such as pesticides on
microbial diversity. In a recent study Arora et al. (2018)
reported decline in nodulation in legume crops due to
pollution and salinity. Moreover, excessive use of nitrogen
rich chemical fertilizers have reported to cause
acidification and degradation of SOM which results in
deterioration of soil health making it unproductive (Ju et al.
2009; FAO and ITPS 2015). Therefore, urgent corrective
measures are required to ensure the biodiversity
conservation and habitat loss reduction to sustain the
civilization.
Sustainable solutions
Aforementioned environment issues raised debates about
the corrective measures that have to be taken so as to
prevent further deterioration of environment. Though
scientists and environmentalists have documented the
magnitude and significance of these environmental
problems since decades, little success has been achieved so
far in achieving the targets. Apart from this, sustainable
solutions of environmental problems are more often
overlooked and instead of this, technical approaches are
used. Hence, for creating a sustainable environment a
corrective plan must be implemented which encompasses
biological solutions or greener approaches. This section
discusses sustainable solutions, mainly biological
approaches, to tackle the various problems caused by
anthropogenic activities.
Microbes as key players
Microbes are ubiquitous and present in every part of
biosphere. Microbes are very diverse in nature and their
presence everywhere suggests the roles they can play in
maintaining the ecosystems. Due to their flexible and
adaptive genetic makeup and versatile metabolic
capabilities microbes can be used for the solution of
various environmental issues, particularly related to
treatment of pollution, combating climate change and
global warming, land reclamation, enhancing agricultural
productivity, tackling industrial effluents, remediation of
waste and pollution affected systems (Ahmad et al. 2011;
Mishra et al. 2017; Akinsemolu 2018). Microorganisms,
particularly bacteria and fungi can be employed to tackle
the issues in simple and economical manner by minimal
inputs and issues.
Biodegradation and bioremediation
Application of microbes can serve as a powerful tool in
handling the problem of environmental pollution. Microbes
can be wonderful cleaning agents and can degrade almost
everything (Gupta et al. 2018). Biodegradation involves
removal of pollutants generally at source by the help of
biological means, mainly microorganisms (Abatenh et al.
2018). Microbial techniques are used as suitable
alternatives to various traditional methods for degradation
of waste materials (Błaszak et al. 2011). A diversity of
microorganisms can be utilized for detoxification of
xenobiotic organic compounds in a very sustainable
manner. Khatoon et al. (2017) reported biodegradation as
an important technique for removal of various polymeric
pollutants through microbial applications. In
bioremediation, microorganisms or other biological
systems such as plants (phytoremediation) or plants plus
rhizospheric microbes (rhizoremediation) are utilized for
reclamation of already contaminated habitats by
transformation of pollutants into less-hazardous or non-
hazardous substances (Coelho et al. 2015). Bioremediation
is a very promising, eco-friendly and effective technology
which is applied to remove hazardous pollutants
(pesticides, heavy metals, PAH, PCBs, halogenated organic
solvents and radio nuclides) from the environment (Lal et
al. 2010; Abhilash et al. 2016; Kotoky et al. 2018). On the
basis of their application sites bioremediation is of two
types in situ and ex situ. In ex situ method contaminated
soil or water is excavated and transported to laboratory or
industry for treatment. This method is a bit complicated
and involves more capital input but is a swift process and
can be used for recalcitrant and diverse range of
contaminants under optimum conditions (Philp and Atlas
2005; Azubuike et al. 2016). In in situ remediation of
pollutants is done on the site. This is simpler, cheaper and
convenient in comparison to ex situ method. In in situ
technique native microbes (present at the contaminated
sites) are used to cause remediation by utilization of
sufficient amount of nutrients essential for their
metabolism (Bhatnagar and Kumari 2013). Under suitable
environmental conditions rate of bioremediation is
increased by supporting microbial growth of autochthonous
species (Verma and Jaiswal 2016).
Soil contaminated with pollutants is a major threat to
human health and cause many environmental problems
such as pollution of ground water and reduction in fertility
13

(Fredua 2014; Panagos et al. 2018). Microbes are used as
sustainable tools for the removal of pollutants from
agriculture lands which helps in reclamation of
contaminated soils (Verma et al. 2017). Application of
microbial bioremediation works as low-cost technology for
clean-up of pollutant contaminated sites. Pollution of ocean
and coastal areas is of much concern around the globe due
to increase in intensity of contaminants. Sakthipriya et al.
(2015) and Parthipan et al. (2017) used biosurfactant
producing microorganisms for bioremediation of crude oil
and petroleum contaminants very efficiently. Similarly
Tanzadeh and Ghasemi (2016) reported the application of
microorganisms for bioremediation of oil spills in sea
waters and coastline.
Microbes play very promising role in environmental
sustainability by performing wastewater treatment and
recycling of thermal, agricultural and industrial wastes
(Sharma et al. 2013a; Cydzik-Kwiatkowska and Zielińska
2016). Discharge of industrial effluents is a major problem.
The effluents and the contaminated sites can be remediated
by application of microbes such as Bacillus, Pseudomonas,
Flavobacterium, Alcaligenes, Acinetobacter and Zooglea
sp. (Kumar et al. 2011; Maulin 2017). In this context
Mandal et al. (2012) reported large scale bioremediation of
petroleum hydrocarbon contaminated waste at Indian oil
refineries by application of indigenous microbial
consortium on field and successfully bioremediated 48,914
tons of different types of oily waste. Gonzalez-Martinez et
al. (2018) reported the fullscale biological wastewater
treatment systems in the Polar Arctic Circle region in
Finland by using archaea, bacteria and fungi. Industrial
effluents contain various hazardous components and
microbial treatment cause detoxification of those
components (Shaker-Koohi 2014).
Microbes have strong ability to cause the remediation of
chemical pesticides. Hussain et al. (2016) reviewed the
degradation of various neurotoxic pesticides
(neonicotinoid) from water and soil systems by application
of various bacteria such as Bacillus, Pseudomonas,
Burkholderia, Mycobacterium etc. In this regard Akoijam
and Singh (2015) reported the application of Bacillus
aerophilus for degradation of imidacloprid. Yin et al.
(2012) reported the biodegradation of cypermethrin by a
bacterium Rhodopseudomonas palustris GJ-22 isolated
from activated sludge. In another example scientists
reported the degradation of chloropyrifos from Kashmir
valley, India, due to presence of naturally occurring
Escherichia coli (EC1) and Pseudomonas fluorescens
(PF1) (Altaf 2018). According to Kumar et al. (2018a)
various microbial strains such as Aspergillus,
Pseudomonas, Chlorella, and Arthrobacter, cause the
degradation of organophosphate pesticides. Phenolic
compounds such as bisphenol compounds, phenols, alkyl
phenols and natural steroid hormones produced from
13
Environmental Sustainability
various industries (pesticides, pharmaceuticals,
preservatives, fungicides) are also very dangerous for
environmental health and negatively affect all organisms
on earth (Zhao et al. 2018). Microbes can be used as very
effective tools to degrade these phenolic contaminants (Gu
et al. 2016). Mendonça et al. (2004) reported the
application of fungus Fusarium flocciferum for degradation
of aromatic compounds, namely, gallic, protocatechuic,
vanillic, syringic, caffeic, and ferulic acids and syringic
aldehyde from agro-industrial wastes. Similarly Liu et al.
(2016) and Mohanty and Jena (2017) also reported the
biodegradation of phenol by bacterial strain Acinetobacter
calcoaceticus and a novel bacterium Pseudomonas sp.
(NBM11) respectively. Recently Singh et al. (2016)
reported the application of immobilized Pseudomonas
putida and Pseudomonas stutzeri for very effective and
simultaneous biodegradation of phenol and cyanide present
in coke-oven effluent. Metal contamination from soil can
also be removed by soil microbial activity mainly by geo-
active action (Mishra et al. 2017). According to
Ayangbenro and Babalola (2017) application of microbial
bio-sorbents is used as a new strategy for removal of heavy
metal pollution. In this context Kim et al. (2015) designed a
batch system using zeolite-immobilized Desulfovibrio
desulfuricans for removal of various heavy metals from
contaminated seawater.
Rhizoremediation is a process in which clean-up of the
hazardous pollutants and wastes is done by rhizosphere
microflora of plants (Oberai and Khanna 2018). This
technique can be successfully used for reclamation of
contaminated sites by selecting suitable plant cultivars
along with rhizobacteria (Kamaludeen and Ramasamy
2008; Kotoky et al. 2018). Rhizoremediation is a low cost,
rapid and efficient technique to remediate contaminated
sites. According to Shahzad et al. (2016) this technique is
very useful for remediation of all types of contaminated
sites including oily sludge contaminated soils by enhancing
the oxygen and nutrient availability in soil and improves
the soil texture also.
Some successful stories about bioremediation of major
contaminated sites are reported from around the globe
(Table 1). The global market for bioremediation is
increasing at exponential rate and has a huge potential in
future so as to achieve the targets of environmental
sustainability and tackling pollutants (Abatenh et al. 2018).
According to Transparency Market Research (2018) in
2016 the global market for bioremediation technology and
services was valued at US$ 32.2 billion and is estimated to
reach US$ 65.7 billion by 2025 at a CAGR of 8.3% from
2017 to 2025.
Environmental Sustainability
Combating climate change pasteurii and Bacillus megaterium show great ability of
calcite formation by using CO2.
Reduction in change of climate and impacts of global Cyanobacteria as phytoplanktons have important role in
warming is urgently required for present as well as future. reduction of global warming by consuming CO2. It is
Various types of measures are taken for combating climate reported that cyanobacteria are estimated to be responsible
change and global warming and microbes have great for 20–30% carbon sequestration through photosynthesis
potential to do the task (Willey et al. 2009; Abatenh et al. (Pisciotta et al. 2010). Oceans are known as the largest
2018). Various types of microbes are known for their carbon reservoir on earth and consume about one-third of
application in controlling global warming. Methylotrophs all human carbon emissions. It is reported that about half of
such as Methylobacillus and Methylokorus infernorum the carbon dioxide on earth is sequestered or fixed by
found in geothermal areas in acidic and hot environment cyanobacteria and other ocean microbes mainly through
and anaerobic aquatic conditions (benthic zones of lakes photosynthesis and can be converted into carbon-rich lipids
and sea) help in reduction of GHGs particularly CH 4 by which can be used for biofuel production (Case and Atsumi
using them as growth substrate (Chistoserdova et al. 2009). 2016; Pathak et al. 2018). Cyanobacteria can be used in
Methylotrophs (methanotrophs) present in soil and water photo-bioreactors as an important approach for mitigation
bodies consume large amount of methane (800–1000 kg of CO2 through high fixation rate (Rangel-Yagui et al.
CH 4 per ha per year) from environment which affect the 2004; Singh et al. 2016). Global warming can also be
global methane budget and reduce the impact of global combated by the use of biofuels. Microorganisms such as
warming and climate change (Mohanty et al. 2006; Pandey Sulfolobus
et al. 2015). Some microbes are also able to convert CO 2 solfataricus, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Trichoderma
into insoluble calcium carbonate or calcite that can reduce reesei have been employed for production of biofuels from
their load in atmosphere (Mitchell et al. 2010). Anbu et al. agricultural wastes (Gupta et al. 2014). Microbes also have
(2016) reported that microbial strains of Sporosarcina role in water retention and control of soil erosion by
Table 1 Examples of remediation of major contaminated sites by using microorganisms
S. no. Success stories at major contaminated sites Microbes used References
1. Removal of zinc (Zn) and sulphate in France Consortium of sulfate reducing bacteria Bruschi and Goulhen (2006)
2. Clean-up of chlorinated solvents at the site New Naturally occurring microbes with addition of Schaffner (2004)
Hampshire, United Kingdom biostimulants (mixture of yeast & lactose)
3. Shore-line clean-up of Prince William Sound, Oil degrading indigenous microorganisms Alaska, Boopathy (2000); Das and
after the Exxon Valdez oil spill in U.S. Chandran (2011)
4. Clean-up of Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf Oil degrading indigenous microorganisms Atlas and Hazen (2011)
of Mexico, U.S.
5. Bioremediation of polyaromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) Bacillus and Pseudomonas Pelaez et al. (2013)
polluted soil near Oviedo, Spain
6. Bioremediation treated over 160,000 tonnes of soil Perchlorate reducing bacteria with glycerine‐diam- Evans et al. (2008)
from a 1000 acre Bermite site from Los Angeles, monium phosphate (DAP)
California
7. Remediation of oily sludge of Mathura oil refinery, Acinetobacter baumannii, Burkholderia cepacia and Mishra et al. (2001)
India Pseudomonas
8. Clean-up of mercury contaminated wastewater at Mercury resistant bacteria Leonhäuser et al. (2013)
Electrolysis Factories in Europe and technique
known as BIOlogical MERcury Remediation
(BIOMER)
9. Remediation of diesel contaminated soil at Lysim- Microbial consortium (Pantoea sp. and Pseudomonas Hussain (2016)
eter station Siebers of Austria sp.)
10. Bioremediation of fuel oil contaminants in Florida Commercial microbial inoculum and fertilizer Jones and Greenfield (1991)
11. Treatment of old zinc refining site at Budelco, Sulphate reducing bacteria Hockin and Gadd (2007)
Netherlands
12. Clean-up of Amoco cadiz spill off the coast of Hydrocarbon degrading microbes Atlas (1981)
France
13. Clean-up of surface waters contaminated by the Hydrocarbon degrading microbes Atlas (1981)
IXTOC I in the Bay of Campeche, Mexico
14. Treatment of crude oil contaminated shoreline of Natural microbial inoculum from the site Venosa et al. (1996)
Delaware Bay, US
15. Application of biofilteration to treat gasses from Biofilm with peat OECD (1994)
soybean toasters in Hengelo, Netherland
16. Degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons in a pol- Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter lwoffi Adebusoye et al. (2007)
luted tropical stream in Lagos, Nigeria and Corynebacterium sp.
17. Treatment of azo dyes of wastewater discharged Acetobacter liquefaciens Sharma (2010) 13
from textile and dye industries in Hon Kong
18. Removal of hydrocarbons from oil refinery site in Bacillus subtilis, Aspergillus sp. and Penicillium sp. Nkeng et al. (2012)
West Africa

enhancing the biomass and soil aggregation (Abhilash et al.
2016). Being the major biomass and components of SOM
these autochthonous microbes are the very important sinks
of carbon on land. It is thus very crucial to maintain the
diversity of soil and aquatic microorganisms.
Beneficial soil microorganisms can reduce the impact of
climate change by enhancing the productivity of agro-
ecosystems as well as by reclamation of waste and
marginal lands by making them fertile (Tewari and Arora
2013). These microbes can increase the soil organic content
of wastelands and infertile or stressed soils (Mishra et al.
2016). Climate smart agriculture using plant growth
promoting microbes (PGPM) as biofertilizers and
biopesticides can help in combating the impact of climate
change. It is suggested by various researchers that
applications of microbial inoculants in agricultural crop
productions can be used as sustainable tools to overcome
the negative effects of climate change as well as global
warming (Dimkpa et al. 2009; Nie et al. 2015). Higher
application of microbial inoculants in agriculture
minimizes the chemical load which also reduces risk of
global warming and climate change (Mishra et al. 2016).
Reduction of waste and contaminated lands by application
of microbial bioremediation and biodegradation can also
help in combating the effect of climate change (Sinha et al.
2010).
Role in sustainable agriculture
The fertility of soil is a parameter not only confined to
availability of nutrients but also the microbial flora
flourishing in the soil. Soil microbes maintain the fertility
of agro-ecosystems and sustain the crop productivity by
maintaining the ecological balance. But the problem is that
due to heavy input of chemicals in agro-ecosystems several
of these beneficial microbes are getting depleted or extinct
from the soil. Apart from this there are several other
drawbacks of using chemical fertilizers and poisonous
pesticides which have already been discussed. Hence there
is requirement to augment beneficial soil microorganisms
into the affected as well as un-affected agro-ecosystems so
as to increase the yields in eco-friendly manner.
The area around the plant root was first described by
Hiltner as ‘rhizosphere’. The rhizosphere is a high activity
zone with rich diversity of microbes which are mainly
mutualistic with the host plant and help them in various
ways (Hiltner 1904; Hartmann et al. 2008). Among the
diversity of microbes in the rhizosphere, plant growth
promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) are the most efficient
players in sustaining the productivity of agro-ecosystems.
PGPR are significant colonizers of plant roots present in
notable numbers in rhizosphere (Spaepen et al. 2008). The
term PGPR was first defined by Kloepper and Schroth
(1978) as organisms that on application on seeds could
successfully colonize and positively promote the growth of
13
Environmental Sustainability
plants. PGPR promote or protect the plant health by direct
or indirect mechanisms. Through direct mechanisms PGPR
promote growth of plants by providing nutrients such as N,
P, zinc (Zn), iron (Fe); production of phytohormones, thus
enhancing the growth and yields. Indirect mechanisms
include protection from phytopathogens. Biofertilizers or
biostimulants are the microorganisms which enhance the
growth or crop yields by making nutrients or growth
hormones or growth factors available to the plant (Vessey
2003). North America has the largest global market share
in biofertilizer/biostimulants and is expected to grow
further at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of
16.65% till 2022, Europe stands second with growth at
CAGR of 14.9% till 2022, Asia–Pacific currently is third
highest global shareholder (as per NOVONOUS estimates;
Global Bio Fertilizer Market 2016–2020). Global market of
different types of biofertilizer depicts 78.70% as nitrogen
fixing, 14.6% as phosphate solubilizing and 6.7% as others
(http://blog.agrivi.com/post/biof ertil izers-an-inno v ative -
tool-for-agric ultur e).
Microbial inoculants directly affect the soil fertility by
increasing the SOM and thereby enhancing the yield of
plants. Nitrogen fixing, phosphate and potash solubilizing
microbes are the major biofertilizers used, where nitrogen
fixing biofertilizers hold the largest global market and is
expected to increase at a CAGR of 13.25% till 2020.
Nitrogen (N) is a vital macronutrient required by the plants
for their development and various metabolic processes.
Thus, the unavailability of nitrogen limits the growth of
plants and it is also one of the most important limiting
factors for crops. The most efficient nitrogen-fixing
bacteria are rhizobia which form symbiotic associations
with leguminous plants. Rhizobia-legume symbiosis fixes
approximately 40 million tons of nitrogen into agricultural
systems every year (Herridge et al. 2008). The first
nitrogen fixing biofertilizer ‘Nitragin’ was rhizobia based
(Nobbe and Hiltner 1896). As per present estimates,
approximately 2000 tons of rhizobial inoculants worth US$
50 million are produced every year which are sufficient to
inoculate 20 million hectares of legumes (Ben Rebah et al.
2007). Apart from rhizobia, blue green algae (BGA),
Azotobacter, Azospirillum, Frankia, are also commonly
used as nitrogen fixing biofertilizers throughout the globe.
Phosphorous (P) is another essential element for the
growth and development of plants. Its availability in soil is
the prime determinant of fertility and productivity of
agrocrops (Tak et al. 2012). Although the content of P in
soil is 0.05% (w/w), only 0.1% of it is available to plants
while the remaining is present in insoluble forms (Zhu et
al. 2012). Through a number of transformations and
chelation cascades some PGPM solubilize or chelate
insoluble P making it available for plants (Babalola and
Glick 2012). These groups of microbes are referred as
phosphate solubilizing microorganisms (PSM) (Alori et al.
Environmental Sustainability
2017). P solubilizing biofertilizers hold the second largest
global market share (after N biofertilizers) and their market
is estimated to increase at a CAGR of 20.75% till 2020.
PSM also are responsible for improving fertility and
agricultural efficiency of saline and alkanline soils
avoiding the harmful effects of chemical fertilizers (Alori
et al. 2017). Fungi including Rhizophagus (formerly
Glomus) intraradices and Funneliformis (formerly
Glomus) mosseae have commercially been used as
inoculants in Europe and US (Krüger et al. 2012); the
market of phosphate mobilizing arbuscular mycorrhizal
fungi (AMF) has been significantly rising throughout the
globe (Vosátka et al. 2012). Recently the phosphate
solubilizing abilities of actinomycetes is coming up
because of their capability to survive under extreme
conditions (e.g. drought or salinity) along with contribution
to other plant growth promoting aspects (Hamdali et al.
2008; Sharma et al. 2013b).
Potassium (K) is the third most important mineral which
is generally deficient for plants (after N and P). K is
responsible for growth, metabolism and development of
plants and their deficiency can cause impaired growth of
roots, smaller seeds, reduced yields and higher
susceptibility to diseases (Troufflard et al. 2010; Meena et
al. 2014). With unfeasible and unsustainable aspect linked
to the use of potash as K-fertilizer, the strategy is getting
unpopular in the long run. Thus, switching to the use of
eco-friendly and cheap K bio-fertilizers, is the better
option. The application of K-solubilizing biofertilizers can
be very important for the sustainability of ecosystems
because the quantity of it removed from soil by mining (to
make fertilizers) is much higher and harmful for the
environment (Meena et al. 2014). K-solubilizing bacteria
are able to chelate K from insoluble forms. Examples of
microbial genera showing K-solubilization include
Bacillus, Arthrobacter, Enterobacter, Paenibacillus,
Pseudomonas, Cladosporium, Aminobacter,
Sphingomonas, Burkholderia, Acidothiobacillus,
Aspergillus, Penicillium, Clostridium, Trichoderma and
Serratia (Etesami et al. 2017; Bashir et al. 2017).
‘Hidden hunger’ due to deficiency of micronutrients has
been another major issue faced by world today, which
limits the physical, intellectual and social potential of
individuals. Hidden hunger affects 2 billion people
worldwide (http:// www.fao.org/about/meet
ings/icn2/news-arch ive/news-deta i l/en/c/26524 0/). The
stats of undernourished people are highest in sub-Saharan
Africa and South Asia (http://www. downtoear
th.org.in/news/hidd en-hung er-a-sile nt-epid emic 46924 ).
To combat the problem of hidden hunger, there is need to
elevate the concentration of micronutrients in crops. Thus,
biofortification of staple foods is an urgent need to provide
healthy diet to a vast population while maintaining the
cost-effectiveness and sustainability of agro-ecosystems.
The role of microbes in chelating micronutrients from soils
and enhancing their levels in plants has made them
efficient candidates for biofortification of crops in an eco-
friendly manner. Microbes have successfully shown
chelation of micronutrients like Fe, Zn, Cu, through
synthesis of organic acids, siderophores and other
mechanisms. Nowadays, biofortified crops are gaining
attention in order to meet the nutritional demands of the
population. Changing atmospheric conditions especially the
increase in CO 2 level is leading to reduced micronutrients
concentration in grains (Fernando et al. 2012). Thereby, the
bioavailability of Zn and Fe can be increased by either
application of fertilizers (bio/synthetic fertilizers) or by
genetic breeding. PGP bacteria and cyanobacteria have
been reported as efficient biofortifying agents increasing
the content of micro-nutrients and proteins in staple crops
such as rice and wheat (Rana et al. 2015). Mycorrhizal
fungi and fertilizers have also been used in biofortification
of wheat (Nooria et al. 2014). PGPR are the best options
for biofortification because they have shown sustainability
and better results in comparison to the application of
chemical fertilizers or the use of transgenic varieties.
Abiotic stress management Microbes are successful tools
in ameliorating abiotic stresses in agro-ecosystems.
Microbes have been used to combat the stresses such as
drought, temperature, pH, heavy metal and salinity and
enhance the crop productivity in hostile conditions (Tewari
and Arora 2016). PGPM have shown to be the preferable
option in mitigating the negative impacts of the abiotic
stresses through various tolerance mechanisms such as
synthesis of osmoprotectants (K+, glycine, trehalose,
proline, glutamate), exopolysaccharides (EPS),
phytohormones (indole-3-acetic acid IAA, Gibberellic
acids GA), siderophores, biosurfactants and enzymes such
as ACC deaminase (Barriuso et al. 2008; Mishra and
Arora2017).
Drought stress. PGPM are known to help plants to
survive under drought conditions. Many PGPM produce
EPS which enhance water circulation in plants and also
improve the quality of soil. EPS produced by PGPM
aggregate soil particles trapping water molecules, hydrating
soil and maintaining water retention capacity and nutrient
uptake under drought conditions (Tewari and Arora 2014a,
b; Mishra et al. 2018). PGPM also facilitate drought stress
tolerance through production of cytokinins, antioxidants
and ACC deaminase. Cytokinins are responsible for
accumulation of abscisic acid (ABA) which further leads to
closure of stomata to minimize foliar water loss
(Figueiredo et al. 2008; Ngumbi and Kloepper 2014).
Production of antioxidants by PGPM mitigates the
damaging effect of ROS in plants. The antioxidant activity
thus reduces the damage to cells, biomolecules and
membranes (Grover et al. 2011). With the onset of drought
13

stress, ethylene is produced in the plants. PGPM act against
the synthesis of ethylene by production of enzyme ACC
deaminase which acts as an ACC sink. The mechanism
involves the conversion of ACC (the precursor of ethylene
synthesis) to ammonia and α-ketobutyrate thereby,
extruding ACC from roots to soil (Zahir et al. 2011;
Saleem et al. 2018). The symbiosis between plants and
AMF proves very beneficial in ameliorating drought stress
and protecting the plant by increasing the antioxidant
activity and regulating osmotic balance and root hydraulic
properties, also maintaining the photosynthetic rate
(Yooyongwech et al. 2016; Quiroga et al. 2017). The
extension of hyphal network by AMF also serves as a
stress alleviation strategy increasing the uptake of water
and nutrients by plants (Evelin et al. 2009). At molecular
levels the tolerance mechanism by PGPM involves altered
gene expression such as up-regulation of marker
droughtresponse genes (Gagné-Bourque et al. 2015) which
further control various metabolic cascades through down or
upregulation of associated genes (Naylor and Colemann-
Derr 2017). Apart from stress responses PGPM also are
responsible for their marked functioning i.e. plant growth
promotion. Even under stress conditions, PGPM show
increased production of phytohormones like IAA and GA
enhancing root and shoot growth (Glick 1995), nutrient
recycling by phosphate, Zn solubilization, siderophore
production, diazotrophy, (Kim et al. 2012), leading to
overall improvement of plant growth (Timmusk et al. 2014;
Gagné-Bourque et al.
2016).
Salinity stress Osmotic stress due to hypertonic
environment (resulting from accumulation of Na+ and Cl−)
is the immediate and most critical aspect of salinity which
diminishes the soil quality and inhibits plants growth
(Munns 2002). Plants are more sensitive to salinity as
compared to microbes. Thus, increasing the tolerance of
plants can be achieved by inoculation of salt tolerant
microbes. Through the involvement of intricate
mechanisms and adaptive signaling cascades salt tolerant
PGPM establish mutualistic soil–plant-microbe relationship
even under osmotic stress conditions (Mishra et al. 2017).
The initial osmotic shock experienced by plants after
salinization is mitigated by microbes through synthesis of
osmolytes and phytohormone signaling (Chen et al. 2007).
Osmoprotectants/osmolytes/ compatible solutes are low
molecular intra-cytoplasmic soluble sugar molecules
synthesized by salt-tolerant microbes to counter osmotic
stress (Sleator and Hill 2001). The other adaptive strategy
by salt tolerant PGPM is the synthesis of polysaccharides
to promote adherence to environmental surfaces and form a
local hydrated environment isolating from desiccating
surroundings (Awad et al. 2012; Mishra et al. 2018). EPS
producing bacteria form a protective rhizosheath between
the roots of plants and microbes, acting as a hotspot of
13
Environmental Sustainability
nutrient recycling, ion and water balancing (Sandhya et al.
2009; Bhargava et al. 2016). Under saline conditions, EPS
producing bacterial inoculants also encounter Na + toxicity
by immobilizing the ions and stabilizing the soil ionic
balance. EPS have also been reported in influencing the
biological, physical and chemical properties of soil by
forming stable aggregates with pore spaces trapping water
and nutrients under salt stress conditions preventing
excessive evapo-transpiration (Helliwell et al. 2015;
Ilangumaran and Smith 2017). EPS producing fungi also
are known to mitigate salinity stress by entangling and
enmeshing soil particles in macro-aggregates (Bossuyt et
al. 2001). Salinity stress in plants elevates the ethylene
content retrograding the growth and development of plants
(Ahmad et al. 2011; Mishra et al. 2018). To abate the
detrimental influences of ethylene, microbes initiate the
production of ACC deaminase (as mentioned in drought
stress), sinking ethylene and in return providing nitrogen
and energy to plants (Selvakumar et al. 2012;
Egamberdieva and Lugtenberg 2014). ACC deaminase also
helps the plants in uptake of nutrients like N, P, K, thereby
maintaining the K+/Na+ ratio, a much desired condition in
salt-stressed plants (Nadeem et al. 2009). Furthermore, salt
tolerant microbes also mitigate the adversity of ROS by
synthesis of antioxidants in a similar manner mentioned in
drought stress. Various genera of microbes including both
bacteria and fungi have been reported to show tolerance to
higher salinity (even above 1000 mMNaCl) and in return
supporting growth of plants (Mishra et al. 2018).
Flood stress The application of beneficial soil microbes
has shown promising results in upgrading the plant health
under flooding stress. Plants inoculated with ACC
deaminase producing microbes show lower ethylene
concentration thereby protecting them from damages
caused due to ethylene. The absence of oxygen in
waterlogged plants also affects the development of nodules
and nitrogenase activity (Day and Copeland 1991). Under
such conditions rhizobia which can use nitrogenous oxides
as terminal electron acceptors can survive and support the
nodule formation and also improve nitrogen fixing ability
(Zablotowicz et al. 1978; Tewari and Arora 2016). AMF
are also reported to be efficient candidates in ameliorating
flooding stress in plants (Grover et al. 2011). Tanner and
Clayton (1985) found that submerged aquatic plants with
mycorrhizal colonization showed 20% more P than non-
colonized plants. Under flooding conditions the fungal
mycelium spread the root systems so that more nutrients
are assimilated and better absorption of water can occur
(Harley and Smith 1983). Successful AM colonization has
been observed in rice, soybeans, Populus, Salix, and Nyssa
spp. growing in flooded soils (Keely 1980; Dhillion and
Ampompan 1992; Tewari and Arora 2016). The population
of cyanobacteria are also profoundly found associated with
paddy crops like rice. These efficient cyanobacteria include
Environmental Sustainability
Nostoc linkia, Anabaena variabilis, Aulosira fertilisima, based biopesticide products that are finding agricultural
Calothrix sp., Tolypothrix sp., and Scytonema sp. The applications (Kakar et al. 2014). Microbial inoculants have
association of cyanobacteria with crops plays an important successfully curbed a variety of phytopathogens including
role in enhancing soil fertility and fixing nitrogen under fungi, bacteria, insects, nematodes and have proven to be
waterlogged conditions. The aforementioned genera have ecofriendly as well. Figure 9 depicts the increasing trend of
been used as paddy crop inoculants under both upland and biological market share of agrochemicals over the years.
low land conditions (Sahu et al. 2012). Combating biotic
stress Plant pathogens including bacteria, fungi, viruses, Biotechnological solutions and future prospects
nematodes and insects negatively influence the crop
productivity. However, PGPM with biocontrol traits are Biotechnological tools and applications can provide
used as biopesticides and have proved to be quite effective solutions to an array of environmental issues and problems.
in protecting plants/crops against phytopathogens (Mishra With the introduction of transgenic cultivars, management
et al. 2015). Among the different types of biocontrol agents of pests has become possible in a more specific way than
used 51% are microbial pesticides, 19% beneficial insects, with the use of herbicides and pesticides. A global
16% microbial soil treatment, 14% other biochemicals metaanalysis study conducted by Klümper and Qaim
(https ://cen.acs.org/artic les/92/i37/Growi ng-Profi tsMicro (2014) reveals that the advent of genetic engineering
bes.html?h=15714 92113 ). Among various types of technology reduced the use of pesticides by 37% whereas
microbial biopesticide products available in the market increment in yield of crops was reported by 22% from
60% are bacterial, 27% fungal, 10% viral and 3% others 1995 to 2014. These genetically modified (GM) crops
(Kabaluk et al. 2010). The microbial biocontrol agents being narrower in their mechanism of action do not affect
provide defense against pathogens through cellular burst, non-target organisms. The toxins that are produced by such
cell wall destruction, synthesis of secondary metabolites crops in order to combat against pests are only produced
such as antibiotics, affecting fungal germination and hyphal within tissues of plants and are targeted against the
extension through production of antifungal compounds pathogens only, hence not causing harm to the ecosystem
(Kumar and Verma 2017; Van Agtmaal et al. 2015). Other (Lozzia 1999; Dively and Rose 2002). Insect resistant Bt
antagonistic approach of PGPM involves synthesis of lytic crops such as Bt maize and Bt cotton are excellent
enzymes which are able to hydrolyze various polymeric examples which are used as green substitutes to broad
compounds like cellulose, chitin, hemicellulose, proteins, spectrum synthetic pest controls. Similarly, there are GM
DNA of phytopathogens (Beneduzi et al. 2012). Lytic herbicide tolerant (HT) varieties (like soybean, canola,
enzymes have successfully been reported to destroy sugar beet). Crops like papaya and squash have been
oomycetes of fungi and inhibiting their spore germination engineered to combat against viral diseases (e.g. against
and germ tube elongation (Frankowski-Lorito et al. 2001; ring spot in papaya) (Brookes and Barfoot 2015). The
Saraf et al. 2014). global data on GM crops shows a substantial increase at
8
Different secondary metabolites are also involved in 7.51
biocontrol against phytopathogens, nematodes and insects
such as hydrogen cyanide (HCN), antibiotics (phenazine-1-
carboxylic acid (PCA), phenazine-1 carboxamide (PCN),
pyrrolnitrin, pyoluteorin, 2,4 diacetylphloroglucinol
(DAPG), Oomycin A, Cepaciamide A. Production of EPS,
biosurfactants, chelation of P, Zn, Fe and niche exclusion
are also involved in biocontrol (Banat et al. 2010; Pathak et
al. 2017). Several bioformulations involving microbes have
also now been developed for combating nematodes and
weeds across the globe (Harding and Raizada 2015).
Biocontrol agents can also initiate defensive
mechanisms in host plants against phytopathogens, also
known as induced systemic resistance (ISR) and systemic
acquired resistance (SAR). ISR involves pathways
regulated by jasmonate and ethylene while SAR involves
gene expression and accumulation of pathogenesis related
(PR) proteins and salicylic acid (SA) (Bari and Jones 2009;
Salas-Marina et al. 2011). The palpable role played by
microbes in combating phytopathogens has been
extensively reported along with various registered microbe-

13
 Environmental Sustainability
Global market share (in US million the development of bacterial population or through co-
7
metabolism (Yong and Zhong 2010). Signal transduction
$) 6 has been an effective technique for biodegradation
processes like aromatic pollutants and treatment of
5 wastewater. Many bacteria capable of quorum sensing
produce a signal during degradation processes using
4
3.3 acylated homoserine lactone (AHL). This type of cell to
3
cell mediated signaling enable bacteria to carry out gene
expression and regulation of phenotypic properties like
2 1.76
EPS secretion and biofilm formation which help in
degradation (Fuqua et al.
1 0.536 0.931 1996; Dobretsov et al. 2009)
A new technique of bioremediation using
0
3.37 transposonmediated ISMoB (it is an integration of genes
into microbial chromosomes) is also being used nowadays
(Garbisu et al. 2017). Microbes with resistant genes are
isolated and are checked for the particular locations of their
resistant operons. It is then determined for the vectors to
carry out transfer of transposons between species. If in
case, the microbe lacks the presence of vector, it is first
transformed with suitable conjugative plasmids. The
microbes possessing resistant transposons are introduced
into polluted sites and act as donors of resistant operons.
The process of horizontal gene transfer between non-
indigenous and indigenous microbes is enhanced by
supplementation of nutrients and activation of ISMoB. This
results in effective mitigation of contaminants by
indigenous microbes (Garbisu et al. 2017; Matsui and Endo
2014 2016 2021
2018). The best example of such a process was observed in
Years
the study by Matsui and Endo (2018) for amelioration of
Biopescides Bioferlizers mercury contamination in Japan (minamata disease).
Likewise, recombinant DNA technology has helped plants
Fig. 9 Biological market share of agrochemicals (Data source in getting rid from serious heavy metal pollutants. An
Markets and Markets (http://news.agrop ages.com/News/NewsD etail arsenate antiporter PvACR3 was expressed in Aradiopsis
—21111.ht m) Cox and Wong (2013); http://www.prnew swire .com/; which resulted in arsenic resistance in the plants and seeds
https ://www.bccresear c h.com/)
engineered with such an antiporter showed greater
tolerance even at higher concentrations (Clemens and Ma
2016). A recent multifaceted hybrid technique known as
farm levels which accounts for about $ 150.3 billion
bioelectrochemical system (BES) has garnered
between the year 1996–2014 with net economic profit
considerable interest in overcoming limitations of the in
equivalent to $17.7 billion in 2014 (Taheri et al. 2017).
situ bioremediation methods of various kinds of wastes
Genetic engineering is also being used successfully in
such as organic, sludge, wastewater, heavy metals and
remediation of contaminants. Microorganisms of interest
VOCs along with generation of energy (electricity,
are engineered to enhance the process of bioremediation
hydrogen or other forms of useful chemicals) (Srikanth et
(via improved cell membrane transportation and reduction
al. 2018). Microbial fuel cells, microbial electrolysis cells
or expansion of substrate spectrum of toxic compounds like
and microbial desalination cells are its other types and are
organophosphates) (Yong and Zhong 2010).
becoming a sustainable approach. Bioelectrical wells have
Multifunctional bacteria known as “superbugs” have been
been designed by researchers for remediation of
developed which have capability to degrade wide range of
contaminants using these microbial electrochemical
pollutants (Yan et al. 2006; Jiang et al. 2007). Under
technologies (Palma et al. 2017).
bioprocess engineering, there are several methods by which
Biofiltration is another technique used for removal of
biodegradation is performed such as additional
pollutants such as PAHs, PCBs, volatile organic
augmentation of carbon sources or its intermediates at
compounds (VOCs), and treatment of wastewater. The
polluted sites, which improves the degradation process by
major advantage of a biofilter is that it’s a cost effective

13
Environmental Sustainability
technique and generates no harmful byproducts like those
in traditional techniques e.g. incineration (http://www.biofi
lter. com/). Biotrickling filter is a common example of a
biofilter (Chaudhary et al. 2003). On the other hand,
biosensor, a biological probe made up of either whole cell,
enzyme, nucleic acids or antibodies are also being used in
monitoring environmental pollutants in real time which
makes it easier to locate the specific pollutant like
metal(loid) and degrade or transform them accordingly
(Rodriguez-Mozaz et al. 2006; Nigam and Shukla 2015).
They are also used to detect pathogens and as bioindicators
e.g. coliform for sewage contamination (Ercole et al. 2003).
Nowadays, ‘omics’ technologies are being explored in
order to preserve sustainability of the environment.
Metagenomics is one such example which is being used in
many environmental applications such as in bioremediation
of pollutants by detecting those bacteria which have not yet
been cultured but have potential to combat toxic
contaminants of land and water bodies (Gupta and Sharma
2011). With recent developments, genome analysis has
made it easier to identify the threatened or endangered
species through the study of their DNA. Population
structure, genetic variations and recent demographic events
in species can be easily investigated using population
genomic approaches (Khan et al. 2016). The next
generation sequencing (NGS), a high throughput genomics
has come up with new kind of genome editing which does
not require insertion of foreign DNA, rather the gene of
interest is directly modified (Schiml and Puchta 2016).
This kind of genome editing is simple, low in cost and
versatile. CRISPR-Cas9 (Clustered regularly interspaced
short palindromic repeats and Cas operon) (Lowder et al.
2015) genome editing is an excellent example in this
context which performs with precision and is being
explored by several conservationists for agricultural
attributes like development of new plant varieties which are
capable of producing high quality and sustainable products
(Weeks et al. 2016; Arora and Narula 2017). The
advantage of genome editing is in providing resistance to
endangered plant and animal species to withstand
phytopathogens and other stresses. Gene editing to combat
abiotic factors, can enable keystone species to survive in
the stresses caused by climatic change (Corlett 2017).
Metabolites of microbial origin can be very useful for
industries and can be better and green alternatives for
dangerous chemicals and products. Another application of
metagenomics is in the industrial biotechnology where
metagenomic DNA libraries offer possibility of
identification of huge range of metabolites, biomolecules
and industrially important enzymes from uncultivated
bacterial communities through gene expressions (Simon
and Daniel 2009). Many bioactive compounds, enzymes,
small biosynthetic gene clusters and anti-microbial proteins
have been recently identified with metagenomic
approaches (Banik and Brady 2010). Genetic engineering
along with several tools like metabolic engineering, cell
free technology and alterations in nutrient and growth are
being used to produce specific enzymes which help in
obtaining required products in ecofriendly manner (Ullah et
al. 2016). Globally, industrial market of enzymes was
estimated to be 3.3 million dollars in 2010 and reached
around 4 billion dollars in 2015 (Gurung et al. 2013).
Metagenomic analysis has recently identified novel
lignocellulosic microbial enzymes from bovine rumen
microbiome for the production of biofuel which are capable
of degrading forage (Brulc et al. 2009). Other than dairy,
pharmaceuticals, textiles, detergent and baking industries,
biotechnology has helped in exploiting these biocatalysts in
solving different environmental problems. Lipases
produced by soil microbes have degradation properties
which are being used in oil contaminated sites. These
enzymes also act as indicators of oil contamination in
freshly contaminated soils (Margesin et al. 1999; Amro and
Soheir 2009). Fungal lipases are used in coastal areas for
oil spill degradation and the restoration of the contaminated
sites (Prasad and Manjunath 2011; Gurung et al. 2013).
Fungal and bacterial cellulases are capable of removing ink
which helps in its degradation (Bahera et al. 2017). They
are produced during paper and pulp production processes
and are better alternatives to conventional harmful
chemicals used while deinking (Rosenfield and Feng
2011). Laccases, peroxidases, dioxygenases are another
class of microbial enzymes produced by certain bacteria
and fungi that catalyze the oxidation of various phenolic
and aromatic compounds (Karigar and Rao 2011).
Cholesterol oxidase, a microbial enzyme produced from
submerged fermentation process is in high demands in
various eco-friendly uses (Srivastava et al. 2018a, b), such
as in agricultural sector due to its insecticidal property
against cotton boll weevil (Purcell et al. 1993) and
pharmaceutical sector as an electrochemical biosensor and
as an antifungal agent (Devi and Kanwar 2017). In this
way, microbial enzymes are playing a crucial role in
maintaining the sustainability and productivity of
ecosystems. Currently, there is a growing trend to use
novel microbial enzymes to help in reducing the waste
problem. In this direction, Mallinson et al. (2018)
discovered a new class of cytochrome P450, able to work
on a wide range of molecules. They propose that these
enzymes can convert plant waste into sustainable and high-
value products such as nylon, plastics, chemicals, and fuels.
Pre- and post-genomic studies confirmed the unusual
potential of several fungal P450 s enzymes in degradation
of toxic environmental chemicals including persistent
organic pollutants (POPs) (Bhattacharya and Yadav 2018).
Recently integrated approaches of genomic, homology
modeling and docking studies of microbial nitrilase were
found very useful in the construction of engineered nitrilase
13

used in cyanide bioremediation (Park et al. 2017). A lot
more is needed to be explored in relation to microbial
enzymes from cultural and non-culturable microbes.
Apart from enzymes, other microbial metabolites can
also be explored in a number of ways and industries for
ecofriendly approaches. Metabolomics can be applied for
detection and production of useful microbial metabolites
which have not been explored as yet. Genomic sequences
of most of the known and studied microorganisms confirm
that still we have not been able to identify many gene
clusters responsible for secondary metabolites. Upcoming
databases such as Integrated Microbial Genomes Atlas of
Biosynthetic Gene Clusters (IMG_ABC) are designed for
identification of gene clusters for microbial secondary
metabolites in bacterial metagenomes. Such databases can
be very useful for identification of novel metabolites with
industrial uses (Mishra and Arora, 2017).
Microbiome, traditionally, is the genomic study of the
microbial community living in a well defined habitat and
also the environmental traits associated with it (Betts
2011). A project called ‘Earth Microbiome Project’ was
started in 2010 to study the characteristics of the structure,
diversity and distribution of the microbial ecosystems
around the globe and has a collection of 30,000 samples.
The samples include diverse ecosystems such as animals,
humans, plants, terrestrial, marine, freshwater, air,
sediments, constructed environment and even the
intersections of such environments (Gilbert et al. 2014).
The emerging microbiome concept has a lot of potential to
combat against biodiversity losses and other negative
attributes which affect the homeostasis of the host
environment (Aguiar-Pulido et al. 2016). If exploited
appropriately, this study could improve the productivity of
crops and many other plant species in coming future by
providing resistance against biotic and abiotic stresses
(Mendes et al. 2013).
Biofuels are an important success story gaining a lot of
attention in recent times. The production of biofuels has
increased by 8% since the year 2000 and has equated to 4%
of global transport fuels in 2015 (BP Statistical Review of
World Energy 2015). Although biofuel production is still in
nascent stage but its production and use is expected to grow
in coming time. Biofuels like biomethanol, bioethanol,
biobutanol, biodiesel and biogas have already been
commercialized (OECD 2011; Immerzeel et al. 2014).
Nowadays, biofuels from cellulosic feed stocks and
agricultural and forest residues have further settled the
debate on controversy related to edible feed stocks and are
reported to reduce GHG emissions (USEPA 2011).
Advances in production of microbial enzymes like
celluloses have further improved their efficiency (Knauf
and Moniruzzaman 2004; Ezeonu et al. 2012). Amended
fuels like biodiesel-diesel blends and ethanol-gasoline
blends are being commercialized since past few years to
13
Environmental Sustainability
further minimize GHG emissions and other toxic pollutants
(Manzetti and Andersen 2015). Likewise, production of
biogas through microbes from solid waste management,
wastewater treatment and composting are now being
utilized successfully in order to make use of biodegradable
wastes to generate useful source of bioenergy. Dye
sensitized solar cells (DSSC) are yet another interesting
alternatives which are used successfully as a substitute to
photovoltaic cells with significant conversion efficiency
(Yum et al. 2012). Bacterial dyes are utilized in such cells
which makes them environment friendly. Polar Regions are
a huge source for pigment producing bacteria and algae and
have now been explored to make use of such bacterial
DSSC which could minimize use of fossil fuels (Montagni
et al. 2018). Uses of cyanobacteria which are oxygenic
phototrophs and are known to dissipate hydrogen gas are
also an effective alternative energy source (Tiwari and
Pandey 2012). These microbes through their multienzyme
systems (hydrogense and nitrogenase) are considered as
potential candidates for production of biohydrogen as
energy source (Oncel 2013). With recent developments in
biotechnology such as bioprocess engineering, optimization
in bioreactor design and integration of metabolic
engineering the production of this clean fuel is expected to
increase in future (Gangl et al. 2015). In fact hydrogen
based biofuels are believed to be the greenest alternatives
with zero CO 2 emission. Hydrogen based biofuels are
hence considered fuels of future. A growing demand in
transportation and aviation sector has made it necessary to
develop a wide range of biofuels. Therefore omics
approaches are also being applied to develop fourth
generation biofuels which would be derived from
engineered organisms and would prove to be cost effective,
sustainable and a cleaner approach for future.
Bioplastics are another example in this context which
are produced from biomass (plant products like sugarcane,
potato starch or cellulose from trees) and could be a better
alternative to reduce pollution of landfills. Like plants,
microbes (bacteria and yeasts) are also known to produce
bioplastics in form of poly (3-hydroxyalkoanates) (PHA),
such as poly-β-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) (Luengo et al.
2003). The first commercialized bioplastic was produced as
Biopol by ICI Ltd in 1982 (Angelova and Hunkeler 1999).
Nowadays, with help of metabolic genetic engineering,
industrial wastes are being utilized as readily available
carbon sources for high value production of bioplastics
through microbes (Jiang et al. 2016). These bio-based
polymers due to their wide range of biotechnological
aspects and unique characters such as biodegradability, low
carbon footprint, less manufacturing costs and above all
being eco-friendly have made them extremely important
compounds for future (Chen 2014).
The vigorous developments of biotechnological tools
and bioengineering methods have paved way towards
Environmental Sustainability
sustainable and green future. Further exploitation of such or healing capacity of the ecosystems which needs to be
techniques such as integration of metagenomics, reversed very quickly. Anthropogenic activities are causing
metatranscriptomics, metaproteomics and metabolomics great damage to the planet and hence we need to shift to the
can be very useful in near future to study and predict the green alternatives so as to heal the ecosystems and bring
microbial diversity and functions of an ecosystem (Aguiar- them back to normalcy. Biological tools and entities such
Pulido et al. 2016). The need is to use these high as microorganisms and plants can play a major role in
throughput technologies in habitats for determining the reclamation of polluted ecosystems and reverse the impact
microbial abundance, dominant types, functions, and shifts of global warming and climate change. But these need to
in relation to natural and anthropogenic interferences. be implemented at global level. The SDG Report 2018 of
Emerging applications of Environmental-DNA (e-DNA) the UN, projects the agenda for 2030. It is clear from the
metabarcoding in integration with high throughput report that major cities are facing the problem of severe air,
sequencing are rising as significant molecular tools which soil and water pollution and these need to be tackled very
help in analyzing species diversity from different urgently. Accelerated and swift actions are required from
ecosystems and in their bio-monitoring. This method could countries, international organizations and even at
completely transform surveying of plant and animal individual levels so as to implement the green solutions and
communities in any ecosystem because of its non- policies. Out of the 17 goals of the UN report and 2030
invasiveness and eco-friendly approach (Deiner et al. targets, 13 directly target the sustainable environment and
2017). these need to be achieved by biological/natural alternatives
Research priorities including incorporation of new for food production and security, green fuel, sustainable
technologies for harnessing plant microbiomes is necessary management of water resources
in modern agricultural practices especially in light of global
climate change (Busby et al. 2017). The integrated
knowledge of plant–microbe associations will offer desired
traits in plants such as enhanced disease resistance towards
phytopathogens, greater drought and salt tolerance and
better uptake of nutrients. Agricultural bioinformatics tools
could also be used in improving our knowledge in
nutritional value of cereals or in analyzing plant genome
for susceptibility towards biotic and abiotic stresses
(Kumar et al. 2018b). Recently, use of satellite imagery and
other spatial datasets in agriculture systems have been
initiated which provide comprehensive details about farm
planning, assessment of crop yield loss by observing
nutritional disorders, missed fertilizer striping, damage
from pest or phytopathogens etc. (https ://www.geoim
age.com.au/indus tries /agric ultur e). Figure 10 depicts
some of the useful and applicable biotechnological
solutions for maintaining environmental sustainability.
Biotechnological approaches are thus the approaches of
future with both low input and high input methods but
having great potential to revolutionalize the scenario of
environment sustainability through the use of latest tools
and techniques and mainly microorganisms and their genes,
enzymes or metabolites for green uses. A lot more needs to
be explored in this front in the near future.

Conclusion
Survival of mankind rests on the sustainability of the
environment. Anyhow, we have to save our environment
and ecosystems for sustaining the life and particularly the
mankind on the blue planet. In the present scenario the rate
of damage and destruction is far more than the reclamation

13

Fig. 10 Biotechnological solutions for environmental problems
and treatment of polluted water, clean and green energy,
sustainable economic growth and sustainable employment
opportunities, sustainable industrial growth and pollution
management, sustainable and green cities, sustainable
production of consumer goods, combating climate change,
conservation and sustainability of marine biodiversity and
terrestrial ecosystems, combat desertification, salinization
and land degradation, control biodiversity loss, inclusive
growth by involving all the stake holders and strengthen
global partnership to achieve all these goals. Sustainability
is thus the keyword at present and if we do not work and
wake-up right now things can go beyond our control.
Green and low input biotechnological solutions can provide
answers to many of these problems which were discussed
and exemplified in this review. Still, we have only touched
the tip of the ice berg and a lot needs to be done and
explored. Planet earth has huge diversity and luckily
despite great destruction most of it is still intact which can
be used with latest biotechnological tools and techniques to
resolve the problems. Need is the holistic participation of
all the stakeholders and will power to overcome hurdles
and implement the green technologies for betterment of the
present and hand over a healthy planet to the future.
13
Environmental Sustainability
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